Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The success of this project can be attributed to the help of a number of people.
Firstly, we would like to thank our project supervisors, Mr. __________- and Mr.
___________, for their support and technical advice during the course of the project.
We are also thankful to Dr. _______________________ for his valuable suggestions.
Chapter One-
Introduction………………………………………………………………6
1.1 Introduction………………………….…………………………………..…….7
1.2 Benefits……………………………………………………………….……….9
1.3 The Challenge…………………………………………………………..…….10
1.4 Project Aims………………………………………………………………….10
4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………..……30
4.2 Modeling………………………………………………………………..……30
4.3 Simulation………………………………….………………….……..………33
6.1Introduction………………………………………………………………..…40
6.2 System Description…………………………………………………….……40
6.3 Problem in Indian Scenario……………………………… …………………42
6.4 Solution to Problem………………………… ………………………………43
References……………………………………………….
………………………………45 Glossary of
terms…………………………………………………………….…………47
….50
A-1 FSK Modulation Circuit-XR2206…………………………………………51
A-2 FSK Demodulation Circuit-XR2211………………………………………52
53
4
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction
5
1.1 Introduction: Powerline Communication is the technology that enables
the transmission of data over power line that carries and supplies electric power. PLC
has long history while the concept of broadband data transmission has been recently
developed. Replacing the slow data transmission rate with only one-way
communication, the emerging PLC technology has brought wider bandwidth with
two-way communications.
For a long time, PLC technologies have achieved very limited success in a
certain vertical market. The major applications of PLC Technology have remained
within the boundaries of monitoring & control of load control, low capacity data
communication, various automation system and remote metering system, and low
speed data communication up to 9600bps as well as analog signal transfer.
There are several current technologies that could implement such home
networks:
Radio
frequency communication links:
This is certainly a very flexible technique, which allows untethered
device control. However the communication links required are currently too
expensive to be affordable for the average home users.
Phone
line networking:
Another viable and high performance system for implementing home
network is the phone line networking. In this case the phone lines in a house are used
as communication channels. But the major limitation in phone line networking is the
number of phone instruments and their particular positions.
Traditional
wiring schemes:
Co-axial, unshielded twisted pair wires are of low-cost and high performance.
They are a very practical way of implementing home networking in a new home
under construction. However major building work is required to install traditional
network wiring in an existing building. The alternative being unsightly cables strung
around. Techniques available remain costly, overly limited and difficult to install in a
pre-existing building. PLCC seems to be a correct alternative method, which can
overcome all the drawbacks of the existing techniques and also give a high efficiency.
6
Power line communications (PLC) has been around since the
1950’s but was never seriously thought of as a communication medium due to its low
speed, low functionality and high development cost. However in recent times, new
modulation techniques supported by technological advances have finally enabled
power line communications to become a realistic and practical means of
communication.
1.2 Benefits
7
PLCC integrates the transmission of communication signal and 50/60 Hz
power signal through the same electric power cable. The major benefit is the union of
two important applications on a single system. The data link appears 'transparent' to
the user. Although the devices are connected through the power line, consumers
perceive that there is a “separated” link available for data communications.
Since the existing power lines are used for signal transmission, the initial
heavy cost and investment for setting up a data communications system is avoided.
Setting up such a communications system then involves installation of transmitter
and/or receivers at appropriate points.
Though there are no set standards in PLC all implementations act in the same
manner. PLC is based on the idea that any copper medium will transport any electrical
signal for a certain distance. Basically a radio signal is modulated with the data we
wish to send. This radio signal is then sent down the copper medium (our power lines)
in a band of frequencies not used by for the purposes of supplying electricity and
managing electricity.
The frequencies and encoding schemes used greatly influence both the
efficiency and the speed of the PLC service. Most PLC radio traffic generally occurs
in the same bandwidth roughly 1.6 MHz to 80 MHz. These frequencies are in the MF
Medium Frequency (300KHz-3 MHz), HF High Frequency (3MHz – 30 MHz) and
some of the VHF Very High Frequency (30MHz – 300 MHz) spectrum. Various
encoding schemes have been used for sending the data along the Power Lines these
include:
GMSK
Used with the Single Carrier Version of PLC providing low bandwidths <1
MHz
CDMA
Used with the Single Carrier Version of PLC providing low bandwidths <1
MHz
OFDM
Used with the Multi Carrier version of PLC providing a bandwidth of 45 MHz
8
1.3 The Challenge
Since the power line was devised for transmission of power at 50/60 Hz and at
most 400 Hz, the use of this medium for data transmission (especially at high
frequencies) presents some technically challenging problems. It is one of the most
electrically contaminated environments, which makes it very hostile for transmission
of data signals. The channel is characterized by high noise levels and uncertain (or
varying) levels of impedance and attenuation. In addition, the line offers limited
bandwidth in comparison to cable or fiber- optics. Power line networks are usually
made of a variety of conductor types and cross sections joined almost at random.
Therefore a wide variety of characteristic impedances are encountered in the network.
This imposes interesting difficulties in designing the filters for these communication
networks.
1.4 Project aims: The project aims to thoroughly explore the theoretical and
practical aspects of power line carrier communications (PLCC) techniques. To this
end a number of specific goals were proposed at the start of the project.
9
CHAPTER 2: FOCUS ON
POWER LINE
CARRIER
COMMUNICATIONS
Challenges, Current
Systems and Modern
Techniques
10
2.1 Existing PLCC standards:
Various protocols have been developed for use for communication on power
line. They differ in their modulation techniques, channel access mechanisms and the
frequency bands they use. A brief overview of the most popular protocols is presented
here.
2.1.1 X-10
X-10 is one of the oldest power line communication protocols. It uses a form
of amplitude shift keying (ASK) technique for transmission of information. Although
it was originally unidirectional (from controller to controlled modules) some bi-
directional products have also been implemented. X-10 controllers send their signals
over the power line to simple receivers that are used mainly to control lighting and
other appliances. A 120 KHz amplitude modulated carrier, 0.5-watt signal, is
superimposed into AC power line at zero crossings to minimize the noise interference.
Information is coded by way of bursts of high frequency signals.
2.1.2 CEBus
The CEBus protocol uses peer-to-peer communication model. To avoid
collisions a carrier sensed multiple access (CSMA) with collision resolution and
collision detection is used. The power line physical layer of the CEBus
communication protocol is based on spread spectrum technology patented by Intellon
Corporation.
11
2.1.3 LONWorks:
Echelon Corporation is the developer of LONWorks networks. The protocol
provides a set of communication services that allow the applications in a device to
send and receive messages over the network without needing to know the topology of
the network or the names, addresses, or functions of other devices. All
communications consists of one or more packets exchanged between devices. Each
packet is a variable number of bytes in length and contains a compact representation
of the data required for each of the 7 layers of the OSI model.
The addressing algorithm of this protocol defines how packets are routed from
a source device to one or more destination devices. Packets can be addressed to a
single device, to any group of devices or to all devices. LONWorks address types
include physical, device, group, and broadcast addresses. Every packet transmitted
over the network contains the device address of the transmitting device (the source
address) and the address of the receiving device (destination address) that can either
be a physical, a device, a group or a broadcast address. It is possible for two or more
independent LONWorks systems to coexist on the same physical channel, as long as
each system has a unique domain ID. Devices in each system respond only to those
packets corresponding to their domain ID and do not know about packets addressed
with other domain IDs. Each domain in a system using this protocol can have up to
32,835 devices. There can be up to 256 groups in a domain and each group can have
any number of devices assigned to it, except that end to end acknowledgement is
required. There can be up to 255 subnets in a domain and each subnet may have up to
127 devices.
2.1.4 PLC-1:
Metricom is the maker of its own power line communications devices. Unlike
the CEBus standard, its nodes do not have to transmit as well as receive. Metricom’s
current main product is the PLC-1, which is a transmitter receiver that includes a set
of high-level functions that enable designers to implement high-performance power
line communication (PLC) networks. Metricom claims that their chip is easily
modifiable to transmit over different medium, although it does not appear that they
market any variations. It seems that Metricom has set their product in opposition to
the CEBus standard, X10, and LonWorks. (See: www.metricom-
corp.com/compare.html, in which Metricom compares PLC-1 to the three preceding
products/standards.) In general it appears that Metricom has tried to find what they
believe are weak spots in the designs of CEBus, X10, and LonWorks and make a
product that fills those spots. PLC-1 is designed to be low-cost with the ability to be
used with different protocols and to form systems of a variety of purposes.
12
2.2 Power Line Carrier Challenges:
Power lines and their associated networks are not designed for communications use. They
are a hostile environment that makes the accurate propagation of communication signals
difficult. Noise levels are often excessive, and cable attenuation at the frequencies of interest is
often very large. Important channel parameters such as impedance and attenuation are time varying
in unpredictable ways. The biggest challenges faced in PLC methods are:
Waveshape disturbances are usually of little effect on PLC systems. Transceivers are
usually robust enough to cope with minor over-voltage and under-voltage disturbances. Naturally,
in the case of (i)(c), total line outages will make information transmission impossible. Yet the
outage of a piece of distant equipment will not effect the performance of a domestic PLC system.
Harmonic disturbances can be a major source of disturbance, yet these occur at frequencies below
those designated for PLC communications by statutory authorities.
Frequency variations can cause major problems in PLC systems, as many simple systems
rely on the mains carrier (50Hz sine wave) for synchronization between transmitter and
receiver. Frequency variation in this wave will cause transmission error. Modern systems
overcome this obstacle by avoiding reliance on the mains carrier for synchronization.
On the medium voltage network, class (ii) noise is attributed to large factories with
extensive plant or machinery, and industrial users with poorly filtered appliances. On the low
voltage network, a number of household appliances are most often responsible for superimposed
disturbances. Vines et al further categorise type (ii) noise as:
A. Noise having line components synchronous with the power system frequency;
B. Noise with a smooth spectrum;
C. Single event impulse noise, and;
D. Non synchronous noise.
14
Table 2.1. Measured amplitude and duration characteristics of noise from common household
appliances.
where L and C are the line impedance and capacitance per length. Malack and
Engstrom[22] list the characteristic impedance of the cables used for power transmission as
ranging from 70-100 Ohms.
Unfortunately, a uniform distributed line is not a suitable model for PLC communications,
since the power line has a number of loads (appliances) of differing impedances connected to it for
variable amounts of time. Thus, it can be seen that the channel impedance is a strongly fluctuating
variable that is difficult to predict. Measured impedance models of common electric apparatus are
presented in Table 2.2. As can be seen, impedance values vary greatly. As mentioned, the overall
impedance of the low voltage network results from a parallel connection of all the network’s loads,
so the small impedances will play a dominant role in determining overall impedance. Overall
network impedances are obviously very difficult to predict. Schaap [5] quotes figures of 0.1-
2Ω for low voltage networks. Dostert [21] claims a power line impedance of 2-150Ω , whilst
Malack and Engstrom [22] list results of 0-80Ω . Clearly, channel impedance is very low. This
presents significant challenges when designing a coupling network for PLC communications.
Maximum power transfer theory states that the transmitter and channel impedance must be
matched for maximum power transfer. With strongly varying channel impedance, this is very
difficult. The PLCC system designer must suffice with designing a transmitter and receiver with
sufficiently low output/input impedance (respectively) to approximately match channel impedance
15
in the majority of expected situations. See the model section of this report for more information on
this area.
Various standards exist that provide regulations on the operating specifications of PLC
systems. The standards were designed with consideration for such things as providing for
maximum multiple-user efficiency, and avoiding interference with ripple control systems such as
street lighting, off-peak water system control and other PLC devices. CENELEC, the E.E.C’s
electrical standardization body, provide the most rigorous standard of all those on PLC
communications, and gives the specification to which most devices are designed to meet.
CENELEC’s standard EN50065 “Low voltage mains signaling” gives regulations on key
parameters such as frequency range, signal power and so on. The standard allows for PLC
communication systems to operate in the frequency band 3- 148.5kHz, avoiding interference with
ripple control systems at the lower boundary, and interference with long wave (LW) and medium
wave (MW) radio broadcasts by posting the upper boundary. CENELEC then divide this band into
further categories:
• The band from 3-95kHz, or A-Band, is allocated for electrical utility use, for such things
as automated meter reading and customer load control.
• The range from 95-148.5kHz, comprising the B, C, and D bands is reserved for end-user
applications. These three bands are primarily differentiated by regulations in protocols for each
band. B band, from 95-125kHz requires no use of access protocol for establishing
communications. Thus, it is possible for two systems to transmit simultaneously on the B band,
16
and therefore messages to collide. This band is designed for use in applications such as baby-
monitors and intercoms.
17
2.4 Chapter Two Conclusions
Many challenges are faced by power line carrier communications. The power line was
never intended for communications purposes, and challenges such as strong interference, varying
attenuation and impedance have limited current PLC devices to simple home-automation use.
However, with careful thought many modern communications techniques, such as spread-spectrum
methods, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing(OFDM), CDMA etc. can be applied to
overcome these challenges. Lastly, the PLCC system designer is limited in the bandwidth available
for communications not by physical properties of the power line, but by regulatory standards
imposed by governing bodies. Aside from these challenges, a number of unique issues exist when
trying to communicate across a power line, a medium never intended for communications use.
These issues are covered in Chapter Three.
18
CHAPTER THREE :
The PLCC Device - Practical
Issues
19
3.1 Modulation Methods:
Various choices of modulation methods are available for digital transmission, including
Digital Amplitude Modulation, Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, Phase Shift Keying and
Frequency Shift Keying. Due to the often severe attenuation characteristics of the PLC channel,
the best modulation options for PLC communications are Frequency Shift Keying and Phase Shift
Keying, both schemes being robust yet simple. More complex proprietary PLCC modulation
schemes are being developed, but these remain beyond the scope of this project.
Where, A = amplitude
wo = carrier frequency
b(t)= unipolar digital data
This implies that the carrier frequency is present when data is at high logic level and there
is no carrier at all when the data is at logic low level.
20
The general expression for a binary FSK signal is:
21
Mathematically, phase shift keying is represented as:
where ω a is the fundamental frequency of the binary modulating signal, and ω c is the
frequency of the unmodulated carrier. Higher bandwidth PSK schemes exist, where the binary
stream is represented by up to 16 different phase variations, but these systems were deemed
unsuitable due to complexities in their implementation.
There are a number of ways to couple a communications onto the electrical power
network.Two main categories exist:
In the case of differential mode coupling, the line, or active wire, is used as one
terminal, and the neutral wire as the second terminal. In cases where a neutral line is not present
(high voltage networks), the ground line acts as the second terminal.
In common mode coupling, the line (active) wire and neutral wires are used together,
forming one terminal, and the ground wire serves as the second terminal. The reader may think this
coupling mode impossible, due to the connection of neutral and ground wires at the transformer. In
practice, the inductance between points of coupling and the short-circuit point is large enough to
allow signal transmission. However, problems exist in using common mode coupling in the
presence of earth leakage protection devices, and certain countries do not allow common mode
coupling because of the perceived dangers to customers.
Considering the physical implementation of the coupling, two methods are possible:
The first method is capacitive coupling. A capacitor is responsible for the actual
coupling.
22
Alternatively, inductive coupling may be used. An inductor is used to couple the
communications signal onto the power network. Inductive coupling provides a physical separation
between power network and communications network, making it safer to install.
Another challenge in designing a power line coupling network is obtaining a suitable
frequency response of the coupler. In the receive direction, it is desired that the coupling device
possess a band-pass characteristic, blocking 50Hz mains voltages, and passing signals at the carrier
frequency. In the transmit direction we wish for the coupler to possess high-pass properties,
passing the communications signal unattenuated. Such a network should also be impedance
matched to the power line for maximum power transfer. Meeting all these requirements
concurrently becomes very difficult. The ultimate coupler network design becomes a compromise
between the different characteristics for receive and transmit direction, plus impedance.
Focusing on using an inductive coupling method (for safety reasons), the most common
coupler topology is shown in figure 3.5.
23
Here, a large coupling capacitance (Ceq=0.5uF) is used to couple the signal onto the transmission
line. Giving a low transceiver input impedance, the major drawback of this approach is that it
results in significant carrier frequency loss (quoted as up to 20dB). Given the significant losses
faced using the second coupler topology.
For the prototypic implementation of the system we are trying to establish simplex
communication between two data communication equipments. Thus we need two couplers of
different frequency responses, one in the transmit direction and the other in the receive direction.
At the receiver side the coupling device should posses a band pass characteristic, blocking the 50
Hz mains voltage and passing signal at the carrier frequency. At the transmitter side, the coupler
should posses high pass properties, passing the communication signal un-attenuated. The coupler
should also be impedance matched to the power line for maximum power transfer.
24
The aim was to design new drivers and devices which were compatible with each other and
also backwards compatible with the Standard Parallel Port (SPP). Compatibility, Nibble & Byte
modes use just the standard hardware available on the original Parallel Port cards while EPP &
ECP modes require additional hardware which can run at faster speeds, while still being
downwards compatible with the Standard Parallel Port.
Compatibility mode or "Centronics Mode" as it is commonly known, can only send data in
the forward direction at a typical speed of 50 kbytes per second but can be as high as 150+ kbytes
a second. In order to receive data, you must change the mode to either Nibble or Byte mode.
Nibble mode can input a nibble (4 bits) in the reverse direction. E.g. from device to
computer.
Byte mode uses the Parallel's bi-directional feature (found only on some cards) to input a
byte (8 bits) of data in the reverse direction.
Extended and Enhanced Parallel Ports use additional hardware to generate and manage
handshaking. To output a byte to a printer (or anything in that matter) using compatibility mode,
the software must.
1. Write the byte to the Data Port.
2. Check to see is the printer is busy. If the printer is busy, it will not accept any data, thus
any data which is written will be lost.
3. Take the Strobe (Pin 1) low. This tells the printer that there is the correct data on the
data lines. (Pins 2-9)
4. Put the strobe high again after waiting approximately 5 microseconds after putting the
strobe low. (Step 3)
This limits the speed at which the port can run at. The EPP & ECP ports get around this by
letting the hardware check to see if the printer is busy and generate a strobe and /or appropriate
handshaking. This means only one I/O instruction need to be performed, thus increasing the speed.
These ports can output at around 1-2 megabytes per second. The ECP port also has the advantage
of using DMA channels and FIFO buffers, thus data can be shifted around without using I/O
instructions.
We are using the Compatibility or Centronics mode in our project as we have to send
information only from computer to the home appliance or device. Here in our project we use only
one device to make ‘on’ or ‘off’ using the computer panel.
Hardware Properties
On the next page is a table of the "Pin Outs" of the D-Type 25 Pin connector. The D-Type
25 pin connector is the most common connector found on the Parallel Port of the computer, while
the Centronics Connector is commonly found on printers. The IEEE 1284 standard however
specifies 3 different connectors for use with the Parallel Port. The first one, 1284 Type A is the D-
Type 25 connector found on the back of most computers.
25
3.4 Chapter Three Conclusions
In designing any communications system a number of decisions exist as to modulation
methods, channel and so on. Power line carrier communications has a number of its own unique
issues to be considered. After comprehensive computer simulation, it was found that Frequency
Shift Keying is the most suitable modulation scheme in an environment of unpredictable phase
shift. The coupling network used to couple a signal onto the power line is the result of an unhappy
compromise between desired impedances and frequency responses, and the main problem was
aroused in the implementation of this system. We had opted for the design on the basis of a paper
[12] comprising of bidirectional impedance adapting 1:7 ratio transformers. Lastly, the interfacing
network is based on the parallel port of computer. Chapeter Four details the modeling and
simulation of a typical PLCC system. Chapter Five details how all these theory suggestions
specially related to the coupling network were implemented in a working power line carrier
communications system.
26
CHAPTER FOUR:
PLC System Modeling and
Simulation
27
4.1 Introduction:
As stated before that the PLCC channel has a time varying
impedance and so the total losses associated with the channel are also time
varying. This study is an analysis and presentation of the data obtained from
power network analysis based on ABCD parameters. MATLAB simulation is also
done later on to obtain the impedance dependence of the losses. The overall
transfer function of a typical PLC system is shown in the fig 4.1. In the PLC
system given in Fig. 4.1, the host unit will send instructions through the power
line to the appropriate target unit at the designed time. The target units
receive instructions from the host unit through the power line and, if
appropriate, the target units then perform the designed command. In one PLC
system, each host unit will be able to store profiles for up to many target
units.
The main elements in PLC system are distribution transformer, power line, and
the electrical loads at homes or offices. These elements cause the degradation
on the system performance due to their characteristics combined with PLC
modems. Therefore, to obtain the PLC system performance, overall power
network elements described above and other PLC communications equipment
must be considered together. PLC modems are connected at the secondary
port of the distribution transformer; therefore, for circuit analysis, transformer
equivalent circuit is referred to secondary. In the approximate equivalent
circuit referred to secondary, n represents the turns ratio of the transformer,
Req and Xeq are equivalent resistance and inductive reactance, respectively,
and can be written as
28
where Rs and Rp are the dc resistances of secondary and primary coils, respectively, and Xls and
Xlp define the inductive reactance’s of both coils of transformers [40]. Generally for transmission
lines less than 50 miles long, the equivalent circuit can be represented as lumped series impedance
parameters, such as serial resistance R and inductive reactance XL [15].Fig. 4.2 shows the overall
equivalent circuit of long distance applications of PLC system using distribution transformer, line,
load, and the coupling capacitors. In Fig. 4.2, C1 and C2 are modem coupling capacitances, R1 and
L1 are the equivalent circuit elements of the distribution transformer, R2 and L2 and are the
elements of the line equivalent. T or ABCD parameters can be calculated for equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 4.2.
Fig. 4.2 : Overall equivalent circuit of the PLC system for long distance applications
The ABCD parameters as calculated using the above shown PLC system model are given below,
System overall Transfer Function in term of ABCD parameters can be given as,
29
……………………………..…………..(i)
The overall transfer function in terms of standard polynomial form is as follows,
...............................................................................(ii)
With an expression for the voltage transfer function Av(s) it is possible to calculate the total loss
introduced on inserting the circuit under consideration between the generator(or source) and load.
The Power loss of overall network between input and output ports can be calculated as follows:
................................................................................(iii)
So the modeling of a typical long distance PLCC system is done and the next passage describes the
simulation part.
Using the transfer function of the overall system from equation (i), the amplitude response can be
calculated. Transfer function Av(s) has no poles in the right semi region of the s- domain, so system
is absolute stable in all frequencies which is shown in the fig. 4.3 by the bode plot drawn using
MATLAB.
30
Fig 4.3: Bode Plot of Transfer function Av(s)
Using the ABCD parameters and the equation (ii) and (iii) the simulation of complete model is
done with the help of MATLAB and the resulting graphs shows the variations in the loss L(dB)
with respect to the carrier frequency and the load impedances at a 1000 m line. For given
equivalent network in fig 4.2, the approximate values are in the following [15].
Rs = 2-4 Ω
C1 = C2 = 1 µF
L1 = 0.5 mH
R1 = 0.02 Ω
R2 = 0.001 Ω/m (here taken as 1 Ω for 1000 m length)
L2 = 0.001 mH/m (here taken as 1 mH for 1000 m length)
Fig 4.4 depicts the result of the above mentioned simulation in this fig the system power
losses are plotted against communication frequencies for various load impedances. The MATLAB
codes for the simulation and bode plot are given in the appendix.
31
Fig. 4.4 : Power Loss versus Frequency for various load impedances
32
CHAPTER FIVE:
Building and Testing a Working
Power Line Carrier Communication
System
33
The theory section of this report suggests a number of modern communications methods and
techniques that lend themselves to reliable performance of a power line carrier communications
device in a hostile channel. Modulation and coupling methods were all suggested that are practical
to implement and give suitable performance.
Practical aspects of each consideration are detailed below.
FSK Modulator
In our final working circuit FSK modulation is performed by the application of a Voltage
Controlled Oscillator (VCO). A voltage-controlled oscillator produces an AC waveform, output
frequency directly proportional to the DC input voltage. By using the binary waveform as an input
to the VCO, we can vary the frequency of the output sinusoid, giving FSK modulation.
The integrated circuit employed for this purpose is the EXAR device XR-2206. The XR-2206 is a
monolithic function generator IC capable of producing high quality sinusoid of high-stability and
accuracy. Frequency of operation can be selected externally over a range of 0.01Hz to more than
1MHz. The circuit is ideally suited for communications, and function generator applications
requiring sinusoidal tone, AM, FM, or FSK generation. The system is designed to operate at a
mark ’1’ frequency of 30 KHz and a space ‘0’ frequency of 15 KHz. Testing of this circuit was
done using a square wave input stream (representing a constantly varying 0-1-0 binary waveform).
The mark and space frequencies were confirmed along with general speed and stability. The circuit
diagram of the XR-2206 IC is shown in circuit Figure. The component selection equations are
shown later.
FSK Demodulator
The integrated circuit employed for this purpose is the EXAR device XR-2211. The XR-2211 is a
monolithic phase-locked loop (PLL) system especially designed for data communications
applications. It is particularly suited for FSK modem applications. It operates over a wide
frequency range of 0.01Hz to 300 kHz.
The circuit for this revised design is shown in circuit Figures and the calculations of the biasing
components are included later in this report in Appendix A
Testing the FSK demodulation section involved passing an FSK input into the demodulator, and
tuning the phase locked loop parameters until a stable binary output was obtained. Specifically, a
square wave was passed into the FSK modulator section, producing an FSK output. This output
was passed directly to the demodulator section, and the demodulator output compared to the
overall input. Initially, demodulated output did not represent system input particularly well. We
found that for reliable performance of the demodulation section, considerable time was required
tuning various phase locked loop parameters, such as center frequency and damping coefficients.
Eventually, reliable performance was obtained, and we were able to input a square wave into the
communications system, with the output observed as a stable square wave of identical frequency.
34
The coupler employs an inductive coupling of the signal to the power line using differential mode
coupling. Since we were not able to obtain a readymade transformer, which could serve our needs
we had to hand wound our own transformer.
1. Frequency Specifications: the bidirectional coupler will be designed for the CENELEC
B, C and D Bands roughly from 90-150 kHz. Thus 90 kHz would be the worst case
frequency for core consideration and 150 kHz would be the frequency where copper losses
would be a maximum.
2. Impedance Levels/Winding Ratio: Although the power line access impedance fluctuates
between 0.2 to 2 ohms and more, it has been decided that a one ohm power line impedance
value satisfies various trade offs. It is also assumed that a 50 ohm modem impedance
needs to be adapted to the 1 ohm impedance of the power line. This can be done using a
1:7 transformer. The 50 ohm modem impedance appears as (1/7)^2 * 50 approximately
equal to 1 on the power line side, whereas the one ohm power line impedance appears as
(7/1)^2*1 approximately equal to 49 ohm on the modem side.
3. Core: An E20 core was chosen manufactured Mn Zn Ferrite material. This core set hass
the following properties core cross sectional area Ae=31.2 mm^2 , flux path length
le=42.8mm.
4. Skin Effect: the optimum strand diameter is typically chosen between δ and 2 δ depending
on the proximity effect and other design factors. For copper at a temperature of 50* C, the
penetration depth δ at a certain frequency f is
δ = 0.0699 / f^(1/2)
if the relative permeability of copper is assumed as 1 and symbol σ represent the
conductivity. Equation yields a δ of 0.18 mm for the 150 kHz. The optimum strand
diameter is taken as 0.36 mm for this design. The closest (lower) gauge available at the
time of construction was a 0.25 mm diameter copper wire with a cross sectional area of
0.049 mm^2.
5. Number of Strands: the number of insulated strands necessary to obtain a litz wire
bundle with sufficient cross sectional area can now be calculated as approximately 12
strands for the power line side and two strands for the modem side.
6. Number of Turns: A typical window fill factor is 0.5, and it is thus expected that only 8
power line side turns and therefore 56 modem side turns would fit on to the transformers
bobbin.
35
Here we have used a small HF E core shell type transformer on which 8 number of primary and 56
number of secondary turns are wound. The wire used for the turns is made of the 0.25 mm
diameter wire wrapped to made up the strands. Primary wire is made up of the 12 wire strands and
the secondary wire is made up of the 2 wire strands.
· If we want 12V peak-to-peak signal on the power line, we need to get (slightly above) 12V
signal on the "secondary" of the transformer (it is called the secondary, because it's not the one
connected to mains).
· The ferrite core and large capacitor take care of preventing the mains voltage from melting the
primary wire.
36
6.1 Introduction :
In this chapter the details of study carried by us in the field of a new scheme for the
detection of the illegal use of the electricity in the Indian scene. The idea of this study was came
into our mind after reading a paper [16] written by Cavdar. This paper contains a proposal for the
remote detection of the illegal electricity usage. The following chapter contains the description of
the system suggested by the Cavdar and the correction made by us for the Indian conditions.
The system is based on the Automated Meter Reading (AMR) which is a system used for
the remote reading of the electric consumer meters. Automatic kilowatt-hour (kWh) meter reading
has become a necessity for most energy suppliers as deregulation, freer customer choice and open
market competition occur in the energy supply sector. Visual inspection of meters is time
consuming and labor-intensive. Automatic meter reading (AMR) was first tested 30 years ago
when trials were conducted by AT&T in cooperation with a group of utilities and Westinghouse.
The modern era of AMR began in 1985, when several major full-scale projects were implemented.
In India the AMR technique is yet to be introduced and may take some time due to the weak
financial condition of the State Electricity Boards, which are responsible for the distribution of the
electrical energy. Power line communication can provide the channel for AMR data transmission
without use of any extra cabling. AMR also have a potential for providing a system to detect the
illegal electricity usage
This study presents the methods used for the theft of electricity. Following methods are
used by subscribers and non subscribers for the theft of electricity.
(1) Direct hook up from the overhead transmission line: this is the only method which can be
used by both a subscriber and a non subscriber of the SEB. In this method a wire is used to directly
connect the overhead transmission line without using or bypassing the energy meter. This is the
most common method of the theft in India and is locally known as “Katiya” connection.
(2) Using the mechanical objects: A subscriber can use some mechanical objects to prevent
the revolution of a meter, so that disk speed is reduced and the recorded energy is also reduced.
37
(3) Using a fixed magnet: A subscriber can use a fixed magnet to change the electromagnetic
field of the current coils. As is well known, the recorded energy is proportional to electromagnetic
field.
(4) Using the external phase before meter terminals: This method gives subscribers free
energy without any record. This method is different from the first one as in this the external phase
in not taken from the pole directly.
(5) Switching the energy cables at the meter connector box: In this way, the current does not
pass through the current coil of the meter, so the meter does not record the energy consumption.
Although all of the methods explained above may be valid for electromechanical meters,
only the (1), (4) and (5) methods are valid for digital meters. Therefore, this problem should be
solved by electronics and control techniques.
38
In Fig. 5.1, the host PLC unit and other PLC modems are named PLC1A,
…,PLCNA and are used for AMR. These units provide communication with each
other and send the recorded data in kilowatt-hour meters to the PLC unit. In
order to detect illegal usage of electrical energy, a PLC modem and an energy
meter chip for every subscriber are added to an existing AMR system. As
given in Fig. 5.1, PLC1B,…, PLCNB and energy meter chips belong to the
detector. The detector PLCs and energy meters must be placed at the
connection point between distribution main lines and subscriber’s line. Since
this connection point is usually in the air or at underground, it is not suitable
for anyone to access, such that its control is easy.
The major consideration in this study was the problem related to the direct hook up or
‘Katiya’ method as given in the above passage system depicting this problem in a colony structure is
shown in the fig. 1.
In this situation the subscriber A as shown in figure can easily get a illegal access using the
hook up method from the line and both the PLC chip energy meter and elctromechanical PLC meter
as suggested by Cavdar [5] both get cheated. The fig.2. makes the situation clearer.
39
Thus the subscriber 2 gets successes in the theft of electricity without any trouble. As neither of
meter reads any unit due to the phase bypass done by the subscriber. Similarly there are a number of
non subscribers also present there who also contribute in this wrong deed. In this manner we have to
develop another approach to solve the above problem.
6.4 Solution:
A scheme having a provision of a distributed area type of system in which the subscribers
between two poles can be taken as a area comprising of approximately 20-30 homes at most. An
area energy meter will be installed at one of the pole and that particular area energy meter will be
based on the PLCC technique. This particular area energy meter will be able to receive instruction
from the remote host PLC technique and to send the data on request from the host PLC unit.
A host PLC unit will generate a specific code during reading operation; this code will work
as an identifier for the receiver distributed area energy meters. The receiving area energy meter
40
after sensing a signal in the channel compare its specific code with its own code, if this code
matches with the incoming code than receiving transmits its reading through PLC channel. So
finally the host PLC receives the reading information.
The reading from all the meters from an area is compared in the host PLC unit with the
reading from that particular areas energy meter. By this method we can get the information
regarding the default area and will than confiscate this area easily. This scheme saves the cost of
individual energy chip meter as only one area energy meter is to be places at one pole of suitably
divided area.
References
[1] Hendrik C Ferreira and Olaf Hooijen, “Power Line Communications: An Overview”,
Transactions of the S.A Institute of Electrical Engineers, September 1995
[2] K. C. Abraham and S. Roy, “A Novel High-Speed PLC Communication Modem”,
IEEE transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 7, No. 4, October 1992.
41
[3] personal.vsnl.com/lathish,a site discussing current trends and problems in DPLCC.
[4] D.M. Monticelli and M.E. Wright, “A Carrier Current Transceiver IC for Data
Transmission Over the AC Power Lines.”, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, Vol SC-
17, No.6, December 1982.
[5] L Schaap, “The ROBCOM System”, Proceedings of the Workshop on Communications
over Power Lines, AJ Han Vinck, O Hooijen, Eds, Essen, ISBN 9074249-05-1, Germany, May 25,
1994, Part V.
[6] J Newbury, “Communication Requirements and Standards for Low Voltage Mains
Signalling”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol 13, No. 1, January 1998.
[7] J Newbury, “Power Communication Developments and International Standards”, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol 12, No. 2, April 1997.
[8] M. Karl and K. Dostert, “Selection of an Optimal Modulation Scheme for Digital
Communications over Low Voltage Power Lines”, IEEE, 1996.
[9] M. Karl and K. Dostert, “Selection of an Optimal Modulation Scheme for Digital
Communications over Low Voltage Power Lines”, IEEE, 1996.
[10] D. Raphaeli and E. Bassin, “A Comparison between OFDM, Single Carrier, and
Spread Spectrum for High Data Rate PLC”.
[11] Nortel Communications Pty Ltd. web site, http://www.nortel.com
[12] Petrus A. Janse van Rensburg and Hendrik C. Ferraria, “ Design of a Bidirectional
Impedance Adapting Coupling Circuit for Low Voltage Power Line Communications” IEEE
transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 20 no. I, January 2005.
[13] J. A. Malack and J. R. Engstrom, “RF Impedance of United States and European
Power Lines”, IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. EMC-18, no. 1,
February 1976, pp. 36-38.
[14] J. Onunga and R. W. Donaldson, “Distribution line communications using CSMA
access control with priority acknowledgments”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 4, no.
2, April 1989, pp 878-881.
[15] L.M. Faulkenberry and W. Coffer, Electrical Power Distribution and Transmission.
Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996.
[16] I. Hakki Cavdar, “ Remote Detection of Illegal Electricity Usage Via Power Line
Communication” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO. 4,
OCTOBER 2004
[17] T. Waldeck and K. Dostert, “Comparison of Modulation Schemes with Frequency
Agility for Application in Power Link Communications Systems”, IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, 1996, Vol 7, No. 4, pp821-825.
[18] G Kelly, “Home Automation: Past, Present & Future”, Electronics Australia, February
1997.
[19] Principles of communication systems-Taub and Schilling McGraw hill international
editions
[20] PLCCS: A Power Line Carrier Communications System, Professor Joseph Picone,
Mississippi State University
[21] K. M. Dostert, “Frequency-hopping spread-spectrum modulation for digital
communications over electrical power lines”, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in
Communications, vol 9, no 3, May 1990, pp700-710.
[22] J. A. Malack and J. R. Engstrom, “RF Impedance of United States and European
Power Lines”, IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. EMC-18, no. 1,
February 1976, pp. 36-38.
42
Glossary of Terms
AC Alternating Current. Electrical power transmission method where the current and voltage
waveforms vary periodically about the zero-crossing mark. In the context of this project refers to
the 240V mains power voltage.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
A modulation technique where an input waveform is used to modulate the amplitude of the
carrier waveform.
ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A widely used representation of
letters, numbers, special characters and control characters in binary form.
Baud Rate
The measure of data transmission speed for communication systems. More specifically, the
number of signal pulses per second- in common usage, the number of bits per second.
Bit Error Rate (BER)
43
The fraction of received bits that are in error, usually expressed as a negative power of ten.
For example a BER of 10e-6 would mean that one bit in every million is incorrect. A common
measure of a communication system/scheme’s effectiveness.
Byte
A group of eight bits.
Carrier
A single frequency signal whose characteristics are varied in a time dependant way to
transmit information.
Channel
The medium over which a communications signal is passed. In radio communications the
channel is air (more correctly, radio waves), in power line carrier communications the channel is
the power line.
CEBus
Consumer Electronics Bus. A home-networking standard. See theory section for details.
CENELEC
European Economic Community standards body.
Coupling Network/Device
An electrical circuit which connects two other circuits, often with different characteristics,
together. In this project, coupling network refers to the circuit which connects the communications
system to the power line.
DCE
Data Communications Equipment. A class of communications equipment specified in the
standard RS-232C. A modem is typically referred to as DCE. A DCE must be connected to Data
Terminal Equipment (DTE), it cannot be connected to another DCE.
Demodulation
The reverse process of modulation. See modulation.
FSK
Frequency Shift Keying, a modulation technique where a “1” is represented by one
transmitted frequency and “0” another.
Impedance
A measure of an electrical circuit’s response to alternating currents, analogous to resistance
for direct currents.
Impulse Noise
An unwanted electrical signal of very short time duration.
IC
Integrated Circuit. A complex electronics circuit that has been constructed on one single
silicon chip. Greatly simplifies the construction of electronic devices by minimising the number of
discreet components used.
Jamming
Disrupting the operation of electrical systems by generating electromagnetic energy that
interferes with desired signals.
LED
Light Emitting Diode. Used as an indicator on electronics equipment.
LSB
Least Significant Bit.
Mark Frequency
The frequency that represents a binary “1” in FSK modulation schemes.
Modulation
Varying some characteristics of a signal in a time dependant way to transmit information.
44
OSI (ISO-OSI)
International Standards Organisation- Open System Interconnect. A general model of data
communications systems that segregates functionality into seven layers: physical, link, network,
transport, session, presentation and application.
Outage
Refers to when the power supply to an individual dwelling fails or is disconnected.
Overvoltage
In the context of this project, the case where the mains voltage at a power point is greater
than the system standard. (In India 240-250 Volts.)
Packet
A block of information of limited length, typically consisting of a header and data section.
In packet communications, a message is broken up into different packets which are transmitted and
verified separately.
PLC
Power Line Carrier. See PLCC.
PLCC
Power Line Carrier Communications. A communications technique where electrical power
distribution lines are used to carry communications information.
PLL
Phase locked loop. See circuit theory textbook!
Protocol
The agreed-upon procedures that govern communications on a network.
PSK
Phase Shift Keying, a modulation technique where the change between a “1” and a “0” is
represented by changing the phase of a carrier signal.
RS-232C
An Electronic Institute of American (EIA) standard that governs digital serial
communications. It specifies signal functions, voltage levels, and pin-assignments.
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
The ratio of signal strength to noise level in a communications system.
Space Frequency
The frequency that represents a binary “0” in FSK modulation schemes.
Spread Spectrum
An electronic communications technique where the signal is deliberately spread over a
wide range of frequencies, rather than being confined to a narrow frequency band.
Undervoltage
In the context of this project, the case where the mains voltage at a power point is less than
the system standard. (In India 240-250 Volts.)
White Noise
Random electrical signals spread uniformly in frequency throughout the spectrum.
X-10
A home-automation standard. See theory section for details.
45
Appendix A-Component Selection
Calculations
46
A-1: XR-2206 Calculations
From the data sheet it is known that,
50 kHz = 1/(R1*C)
Hence R1*C=1/50*10^3
So R1 = 10 K
Similarly
R2 = 5 K
The resistance values are obtained by choosing a value of 2000 pF for the capacitor C.
Choosing standard values of the resistances, we have
R1 = 10 K
R2 = 5 K
C = 2000 pF
Which gives
f1 = 100 kHz
f2 = 50 kHz
fo = (f1+f2)/2
fo = (100+50)/2
fo = 75 kHz
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For optimum temperature stability o R must be in the frequency range of 10K to 100K Choosing
Ro = 60 K
Co = 221 pF
R1 = Ro* [ fo/f1-f2]
R1 = 90 K
C1 = Co/4
C1= 0.55 pF.
48
Appendix B-Circuit Diagrams
49
Figure 1 : FSK Modulator Circuit
50
Figure 3: RS 232 Driver Circuit
51
Appendix C- MATLAB Code for PLCC
Channel Simulation
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%Program for the simulation of the the PLCC system
%Inputs are the System parameters from reference [15]
%Output is a Plot for the total losses against communication carrier frequencies
% for various values of the line impedances
%Pauri 01/04/05
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
52
clf
clear
ceq= 0.000005;
z1=[0.1 1 10 50 100]
l1=0.0005;
l2=0.01; % L2 for 1000 meter length
r=3; % Rs is taken as 3
r1=0.02;
r2=0.001*1000; % R2 for 1000 meter length
for a=1:5
z=z1(a)
i=1;
for f=50*10^3:10*10^3:200*10^3; % frequency range declared
b(i)=f;
w=2*pi*f;
a2=z*ceq*l1;
a1=z*ceq*r1;
a0=0;
b3=ceq*l1*l2;
b2=z*ceq*l1+ceq*(r*l1+r*l2+r2*l1+r1*l2);
b1=l1+l2+ceq*(r1*r2+z*r1+r*r1+r*r2+r*z);
b0=z+r1+r2;
av=((a0-a2*w^2)+j*a1*w)/(b0-b2*w^2+j*(b1*w-b3*w^3)); % Av declared
bv=1/(av);
cv=abs(bv);
dv=cv^2;
l(a,i)=10*log10((dv*z)/4*r); % Loss formula
i=i+1;
end;
end;
plot(b,l(1,:),'r',b,l(2,:),'k',b,l(3,:),'y',b,l(4,:),'k',b,l(5,:),'r')
axis([ (50*10^3) (200*10^3) 45 95]);
grid on;
xlabel('f[Hz]');
ylabel('loss[db]');
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%Program for the Bode plot of the Av(s)
%to observe the stability of the system taking load impedance as 1 ohm
%Pauri 01/04/05
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
clf
clear
ceq= 0.000005; % Values as per the
z=1; % reference[15]
L1=0.0005;
L2=0.01;
53
R1=0.02;
R2=0.001*1000;
NUM=[ceq*L1 ceq*R1 1];
DEN=[ceq*L1 ceq*R1 0];
A=tf(NUM,DEN); % A Parameter
NUM1=[ceq*L1*L2 (R2*ceq*L1+ceq*R1*L2) (ceq*R1*R2+L1*L2) (R1+R2)];%B
DEN1=[ceq*L1 ceq*R1 0];
B=tf(NUM1,DEN1); % B Parameter
NUM2=[1];%C
DEN2=[L1 R1];
C=tf(NUM2,DEN2); % C Parameter
NUM3=[(L1+L2) (R1+R2)];%D
DEN3=[ceq*L1 ceq*R1 0];
D=tf(NUM3,DEN3); % D Parameter
Av=z/(A*z+B+3*C*z+3*D); % Transfer function Av
Bode(Av)
54
55