FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION earth surface or at what stage of early history man learned how to
start a fire and how to make use of it. Yet, today, man has had fire as:
Introduction:
The development of methods and tools for using and
controlling fire was critical in human evolution and is believed to have
allowed early humans to spread northward from the warm climate of
either origin into the more severe environment of Europe and Asia.
The evidence of early fire use is often ambiguous because of the
difficulty in determining whether the archeological evidence is the
result of accidental fire or its deliberate use. Such evidence include
finds of occupation sites with fired or baked soils, bones or stones
that have been changed through the application of heat, and areas
containing thick layers of ash and charcoal that might have hearth
structures.
The earliest finds, in Kenya and Ethiopia, date from about
1.5 million years ago. Less equivocal evidence exists for deliberate
fire use in the Paleolithic period, beginning about 500,000 years ago.
Neolithic sites have yielded objects that may have been used in fire,
making drill for producing friction, heat in wood and flints for striking
sparks from iron pyrites.
In legend and religion, fire is common thing. For example, in
Persian literature fire was discovered during a fight of a hero with a
dragon. A stone that the hero used as a weapon missed the monster
and struck a rock. Light shone forth and human beings saw fire for
the first time. In Greek mythology, Prometheus was bestowed with
god like powers when he stole the god’s fire to give it to humanity.
Fire has also played a central role in religion. It has been used as a
god and recognized as a symbol of home and family in many
cultures. Fire has also been a symbol of purification and of
immortality and renewal, hence the lighting of flames of
remembrance. The Temple of Vesta in Rome was an outstanding
example of the importance of fire to the Romans. Vesta was
originally the goddess of the fire and her shrine was in every home.
We can only guess that pre-historic people may have gained
knowledge of fire from observing things in nature. So the origin of fire
before the dawn of civilization may be traced to an erupting volcano,
or a forest fire, started by lighting. No one really knows where on the
 source of warmth and light
 protection against enemies
 cause chemical changes to foodstuffs to suit man’s body
structure
 provides processes for modifying chemicals into
medicines
 provides heat to convert wood, metals, and bones into
domestic tools or instruments for aggression
While the application of fire has served man’s needs its careless and
wanton use exact an enormous and dreadful toll from society in life
and property. Hence, man’s understanding of fire would enable him
to develop the technology of prevention and control to a considerable
advance state (Abis).
WHAT IS FIRE?
Fire is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring
between fuel and an oxidizer- typically the oxygen in the air. Such
rapid chemical reaction releases energy in the form of heat and light.
Fire is heat and light resulting from the rapid combination of
oxygen, or in some cases gaseous chlorine, with other materials.
The light is in the form of a flame, which is composed of glowing
particles of the burning material and certain gaseous products that
are luminous at the temperature of the burning material.
THE START OF FIRE
All matters exist of one of the three states – solid, liquid and
gas (vapor). The atoms or molecules of a solid are packed closely
together, and that of a liquid is packed loosely, the molecules of a
vapor are not packed together at all, they are free to move about. In
order for a substance to oxidize, its molecules must be pretty well
surrounded by oxygen molecules. The molecules of solids or liquids
are too tightly packed to be surrounded. Thus, only vapors can burn.
However, when a solid or a liquid is heated, its molecules
move about rapidly. If enough heat is applied, some molecules break
away from the surface to form a vapor just above the substance.
This vapor can now mixed with oxygen. If there is enough heat to
raise the vapor to its ignition temperature (temperature needed to
burn), and if there is enough oxygen present, the vapor will oxidize
rapidly – it will start to burn.
The start of burning is the start of a Chain Reaction (the
burning process). Vapor from heated fuel rises, mixes with air and
burns. It produces enough heat to release more vapor and to draw in
air to burn that vapor. As more vapor burns, flame production
increases. More heat is produced, more vapor released, more air
drawn into the flames and more vapor burns, the chain reaction
keeps increasing – the size of the fire increases until fuel is
consumed.
CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
Obviously, three things are required for combustion or fire:
FUEL (Combustible materials to vaporize and burn), OXYGEN
(Oxygen in air is the common oxidizing agent, to combine with fuel
vapor, air contains 28% O, 78 N, 1% inert gas), and HEAT (to raise
the temperature of the fuel vapor to its ignition temperature). The
combinations of these three elements form the so-called Fire
Triangle.
The Fire Triangle
Oxygen Heat
Fuel
Figure
Figure 1 will show that if any side of the fire triangle is
missing, a fire can not start or if any side of the fire triangle is
removed, the fire will go off. With the presence of the elements of
fire, combustion may take place. Before a fuel will burn, it must be
changed to its vapor state. In a fire situation, this change usually
results from the initial application of heat. The process is known as
PYROLYSIS.
Pyrolysis (also known as thermal decomposition) is defined
as the “chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat”.
In this case, the decomposition causes a change from a solid state to
vapor state. If the vapor mixes sufficiently with air and heated to high
temperature, combustion results.
The combustion process is better represented by the fire
tetrahedron.
The Fire Tetrahedron
Oxygen Heat
Fuel Chain Reaction
Figure 2
The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and remembering
the combustion process because it has room for the chain reaction
and because each face touches the other three faces.
The basic difference between the fire triangle and the fire
tetrahedron is that: The tetrahedron illustrates how flaming
combustion is supported and sustained through the chain reaction. In
this sense, the chain reaction face keeps the other three faces from
falling apart.
 The fire tetrahedron also explains the flaming mode of
combustion. The modes of combustion are either Flaming mode or
Surface mode (Glowing– represented by the fire triangle).
A condensed phased combustion is called glowing combustion
A gas-phased combustion is known as flame
If the process is confined with pressure it is called explosion
If combustion propagates at supersonic speed, it produced a
detonation
PROPERTIES OF FIRE
A. The Physical properties
1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or
liquid substance to the weight of an equal volume of
water.
2. Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas
composed to the volume of dry air at the same
temperature and pressure.
3. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules
on the surface of a liquid.
4. Temperature – the measure of the degree of thermal
agitation of molecules.
5. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the
vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
6. Ignition/Kindling temperature – the minimum
temperature at which the substance must be heated
in order to initiate combustion.
7. Fire point – the lowest temperature of a liquid in an
open container at which vapors are evolved fast
enough to support combustion.
8. Flash point – the temperature at which a flammable
liquid forms a vapor-air mixture that ignites (mixture
with in the explosive range).
To burn a fuel (combustible material), its temperature must
be raised until ignition point is reached. Thus, before a fuel start to
burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain
degree of temperature. When the temperature of a certain substance
is very high, it releases highly combustible vapors known as FREE
RADICALS (combustible vapors such as hydrogen gas, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen).
During the process of pyrolysis, the following are involved:
 the fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire
point,
 decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is
converted to vapor,
 decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to
the surface of the fuel (free radicals)
 free radicals undergo combustion.
B. The Chemical Properties
1. Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby energy
(heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction
takes place.
2. Exothermic Reactions – those that release or give
off energy (heat) thus they produce substances with
less energy than the reactants.
3. Oxidation – a chemical change that is exothermic, a
change in which combustible material (fuel) and an
oxidizing agent (air), react. Example of oxidation is
combustion which is the same as actual burning
(rapid oxidation)
4. Flames – flames are incandescent (very
bright/glowing with intense heat) gases. It is a
combustion product and a manifestation of fire when
it is in its gas-phased combustion.
Types of Flames:
a. Based on Color and Completeness of
Combustibility of Fuel
 1. Luminous Flame – is orange-red, deposit
soot at the bottom of a vessel being heated
due to incomplete combustion and has a low
temperature.
2. Non-Luminous Flame – is blue, there is
complete combustion of fuel and has
relatively high temperature.
b. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture
1. Premixed Flame – is exemplified by a
Bunsen-type laboratory burner where
hydrocarbon (any substance containing
primarily carbon and hydrogen) is thoroughly
mixed with air before reaching the flame
zone.
2. Diffusion Flame – is observed when gas
(fuel) alone is forced through a nozzle into
the atmosphere which diffuse in the
surrounding atmosphere in order to form a
flammable mixture. The candle flame is an
example of diffusion flame governed purely
by molecular diffusion, and the flame of the
oxyacetylene torch. (diffused – dispersed,
widely spread)
c. Based on Smoothness
1. Laminar Flame – when a particle follows a
smooth path through a gaseous flame.
2. Turbulent Flame – are those having
unsteady, irregular flows. As physical size,
gas density or velocity is increased, all
laminar gas flows tend to become turbulent.
FIRE ELEMENTS
As mentioned in part one, fire has been described as having
three components: fuel, heat, and oxygen. This triad was illustrated
by the fire triangle, which symbolized, in the most basic terms, a
chemical relationship. The additional component needed to explain
flaming combustion is a chemical chain reaction shown in the fire
tetrahedron.
THE FUELS
FUELS (Combustible Materials)– fuel is matter and matter
exist in three physical states: solid, liquid and gas. Solids melt to
become liquids, and these may vaporize and become gases. The
basic rule is that at high enough temperature all fuels can be
converted to gases. And each of the physical states exhibits different
physical and chemical properties that directly affect a fuel’s
combustibility. For example, gasoline as a liquid does not burn, it is
the vapors rising from the liquid that burn. Likewise, wood, the most
common solid fuel, is not flammable, but gives of flammable vapors
(free radicals).
FUEL is also a material that provides useful energy. Fuels
are used to heat and cook food, power engines, and produce
electricity. Some fuels occur naturally and others are artificially
created. Such natural fuels are coals, petroleum, and natural gases
obtained from underground deposits that were formed million years
ago from the remains of plants and animals. They are called fossil
fuels, which account for about 90% of the energy people use today.
Synthetic fuels can be made from fossil fuels, certain types
of rock and sand, and biomass.
Most fuels release energy by burning with oxygen in the air.
But some – especially chemical fuels used in rockets – need special
oxidizers in order to burn. Nuclear fuels do not burn but release
energy through the fission (splitting) of fusion (joining together) of
atoms.
Classification of Combustible Materials
1. Class Fuels – they are ordinary combustible materials
that are usually made of organic substances such as
wood and wood-based products. It includes some
synthetic or inorganic materials like rubber, leather, and
plastic products.
2. Class B Fuels – materials that are in the form of
flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic solutions, oil,
liquid petroleum products, etc.
 3. Class C Fuels – they are normally fire resistant
materials such as materials used on electrical wiring and
other electrical appliances.
4. Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic
substances such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
sodium and potassium.
General Categories of Fuel
1. Solid Combustible Materials – includes organic and
inorganic, natural or synthetic, and metallic solid
materials.
2. Liquid Combustible Materials – includes all flammable
liquid fuels and chemicals.
3. Gaseous Substances – includes those toxic/hazardous
gases that are capable of ignition.
The Solid Fuels
The most obvious solid fuels are wood, paper and cloth. Its
burning rate depends on its configuration. For example, solid fuels in
the form of dust will burn faster than bulky materials.
Types of Flammable solids
a. Pyrolyzable solid fuels – include many of the ordinary accepted
combustibles: wood, paper and so on. The vapors released by their
chemical decomposition support flaming combustion. This
exemplifies a gas-to-gas reaction: the vapors released mixed with
oxygen in the air to produce a flame.
b. Non-pyrolyzable solid fuels – solid fuels that are difficult to ignite. A
common example is charcoal. Chemical decomposition does not
occur because there are no pyrolyzable elements present. No vapors
are released. The glowing combustion that results is an example of a
gas-to-solid reaction.
The following are group of solid fuels:
1. Biomass – it is the name given to such replaceable organic
matters like wood, garbage and animal manure that can be use to
produce energy. For example, heat produced by burning nutshells,
rice and oat hulls, and other by-products of food processing. They
are often used to operate plant equipment.
Factors affecting the combustibility of wood and wood-based
products
a. Physical form – the smaller the piece of wood, the easier
it is to burn.
b. Moisture content (water content) – the freshly cut wood
is more difficult to ignite and burn than dry wood.
c. Heat conductivity - a poor conductor of heat takes a
longer time to ignite than those materials that are good
conductors of heat.
d. Rate and period of heating – less flammable materials
don’t easily ignite and needs direct contact with flame
than highly combustible materials.
e. Rate of combustion – with an unlimited supply of
oxygen, the rate of burns increases, more heat is
produced and fuel is consumed more completely.
f. Ignition temperature – the higher the temperature, the
faster it reaches ignition point and it varies depending on
the other factors above.
2. Fabrics and Textiles – almost all fibers and textiles are
combustible. A fiber is a very fine thin strand or thread like object.
Fabrics are twisted or woven fibers. And textiles are machine woven
or knitted fabric.
Classification of Fibers
a. Natural Fibers – they come from plants (Coir – coconut
fiber, Cotton – seed fiber, pulp – wood fiber) , from
animals (wool, silk, protein fibers – leather), from
minerals (asbestos)
b. Synthetic/Artificial Fibers – organic fibers, cellulose
fibers, cellulose acetate, non-cellulose, and inorganic
fibers like fiber glass, steel
Factors affecting the combustibility of fibers
a. Chemical composition – natural and synthetic organic
fibers are generally highly combustible materials
especially if they are dry. Mineral fibers and synthetic
inorganic fibers are normally fire resistant materials.
b. Fiber finish or coating – fiber coating combined with
organic fibers are supportive to continued burning of
fabric.
c. Fabric weight – the heavier the fabric, the greater its
resistance to ignition, thus delaying its ignition.
d. Tightness of weave – the closer the fiber are woven, the
smaller the space it contains, thus it takes a longer
period to ignite it.
e. Flame retardant treatment – fabric treated with flame
retardant have higher resistance to ignition.
Fabric Ignition
Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) is a numerical basis of
measuring the tendency of a fabric to continuously burn once source
of ignition is removed. If the LOI of a fabric is high, the probability
that it will cease to burn once the flame is removed is also high.
Fabrics with high LOI and high ignition temperature are safer for
clothing and furnishing because they do not ignite easily. Also, they
do not continue burning after the source of heat or flame is removed.
3. Plastics – plastics are included as ordinary fuels under class A
except those materials of or containing cellulose nitrate. Cellulose
Nitrate is a chemical powder used in bombs, they are also called
pyroxylin. Plastics comprise a group of materials consisting mainly
of organic substances or high molecular substances. They are solid
in the finished state although at some stage of manufacture plastics
can be made to flow into a desired shape, usually through the
application of heat or pressure or both.
4. Coal – a black, combustible, mineral solid resulting from the
partial decomposition of matter under varying degrees of
temperature. They are used as fuels in the production of coal gas,
water gas, and many coal compounds. They are also used to heat
buildings and to provide energy for industrial machinery. The forms
of coal are lignite or brown coal, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous
coal, anthracite. Bituminous coal is the most plentiful and important
coal used by industry. It contains more carbon and produces more
heat than either lignite or sub-bituminous coal. It is also the coal best
suited for making coke. Antracite is the least plentiful and hardest
coal. It contains more carbon and produces more heat than other
coals. However, antracite is difficult to ignite and burns slowly.
5. Peat – It is partially decayed plant matter found in swamps called
bags and used as a fuel chiefly in areas where coal and oil are
scarce. In Ireland and Scotland, for example, peat is cut formed in
blocks, and dried; the dried bloks are then burned to heat homes.
The Liquid Fuels
Liquid fuels are mainly made from Petroleum, but some
synthetic liquids are also produced. Petroleum is also called crude
oil. They may be refined to produce gasoline, diesel oil, and
kerosene. Other fuel oils obtained by refining petroleum to distillate
oil and residual oils. Distillate oils are light oils, which are used
chiefly to heat homes and small buildings. Residual oils are heavy,
and used to provide energy to power utilities, factories and large
ships. Oil-based paint products are also highly flammable liquids. In
the process of vaporization, flammable liquids release vapor in much
the same way as solid fuels. The rate of vapor is greater for liquids
than solids, since liquids have less closely packed molecules. In
addition, liquids can release vapor over a wide range, example,
gasoline starts to give vapor at –40C (-45 F).
This makes gasoline a continuous fire hazard; it produces flammable
vapor at normal temperature.
General Characteristics of Liquids
1. They are matters with definite volume but no definite
shape.
2. They assume the shape of their vessel because there is
free movement of molecules.
3. They are slightly compressible. They are not capable of
indefinite expansion, unlike gas.

2 General Groups of Liquid Fuels
1. Flammable liquids – they are liquids having a flash point
of 37.8 C (100F) and a vapor pressure not exceeding
40 psia (2068.6 um) at 37.8 C.
2. Combustible Liquids – these liquids have flash point at
or above 37.8 C (100F).
Burning Characteristics of Liquids
Since it is the vapors from the flammable liquid which burn,
the case of ignition as well as the rate of burning can be related to
the physical properties such as vapor pressure, flash point, boiling
point, and evaporation rate.
1. Liquids having vapors in the flammable range above the
liquid surface at the stored temperature have rapid rate
of flame propagation.
2. Liquids having flash points above stored temperature
have slower rate of flame propagation. The chemical
explanation is, it is necessary for the fire to heat
sufficiently the liquid surface to form flammable vapor-air
moisture before the flame will spread through the vapor.
Factors affecting the Rate of Flame Propagation and Burning of
Liquids
Wind velocity - temperature - heat of combustion - latent heat of
evaporation - atmospheric pressure
Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed by a substance from a
solid to a liquid and from a liquid to gas. Conversely, heat is released
during conversion of a gas to liquid or liquid to a solid.
The Gas Fuels
Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are in rapid
movement and random motion. They have no definite shape or
volume, and assume the shape and volume of their container.
There are both natural and manufactured flammable gases.
Gas fuels flow easily through pipes and are used to provide energy
for homes, businesses, and industries. Examples of gas fuels are
acetylene, propane, and butanes.
Some properties of gas fuels are:
 compressibility – expandability - permeability (open
to passage or penetration) - diffusion (intermingling
of molecules)
Compressibility and expandability refer to the potential in
changes in volume. Diffusion is the uniform distribution of molecules
of one substance through those of another. Permeability means that
other substances may pass through or permeate a gas.
Characteristics of Gas Fuels
1. They are matters that have no definite shape.
2. They are composed of very tiny particles (molecules) at
constant random motion in a straight line
3. Gas molecules collide against one another and against
the wall of the container and are relatively far from one
another.
Classification of Gases:
1. Based on Source
a. Natural Gas – the gas used to heat buildings, cook
food, and provides energy for industries. It consists
chiefly of methane, a colorless and odorless gas.
Natural gas is usually mixed with compounds of foul-
smelling elements like sulfur so gas leaks can be
detected. Butane and propane, which make up a
small proportion of natural gas, become liquids when
placed under large amount of pressure. When
pressure is released, they change back to gas. Such
fuels, often called Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) or
 liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), are easily stored and
shipped as liquid.
b. Manufactured Gas – this gas like synthetic liquid
fuels is used chiefly where certain fuels are
abundant and others are scarce. Coal, petroleum,
and biomass can all be converted to gas through
heating and various chemical procedures.
2. According to Physical Properties
a. Compressed Gas – gas in which at all normal
temperature inside its container; exist solely in the
gaseous state under pressure. The pressure
depends on the pressure to which the container is
originally charged and how much gas remains in the
container. However, temperature affects the volume
and pressure of the gas.
b. Liquefied Gas – gas, which, at normal temperature
inside its container, exist partly in the liquid state and
partly in gaseous state and under pressure as long
as any liquid remains in the container. The pressure
basically depends on the temperature of the liquid
although the amount of liquid also affects the
pressure under some condition. A liquefied gas
exhibits a more complicated behavior as the result of
heating.
c. Cryogenic Gas – a liquefied gas which exist in its
container at temperature far below normal
atmospheric temperature, usually slightly above its
boiling point and correspondingly low to moderate
pressure. Examples of this gas are air, carbon
monoxide, ethylene, fluorine, helium, hydrogen,
methane, nitrogen, and oxygen.
3. According to Usage
a. Fuel Gases – flammable gases usually used for
burning with air to produce heat, utilize as power,
light, comfort, and process. Most commonly used
gases are natural gas and the LPG (butane and
propane).
b. Industrial Gases - This group includes a large
number of gases used for industrial processes as
those in welding and cutting (oxygen, acetylene);
refrigeration (freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide);
chemical processing (hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia,
chlorine); water treatment (chlorine, fluorine).
c. Medical Gases – those used for treatment such as
anesthesia (chloroform, nitrous oxide); respiratory
therapy (oxygen).
Burning of Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous fuels are already in the required Vapor State. Only the
proper intermixed with oxygen and sufficient heat is needed for
ignition. Gases like flammable liquids, always produce a visible
flame, they do not smolder.
Chemical Fuels
Chemical fuels, which are produced in solid and liquid form, create
great amounts of heat and power. They are used chiefly in rocket
engines. Chemical rocket propellants consist of both a fuel and an
oxidizer. A common rocket fuel is the chemical hydrazine. The
oxidizer is a substance, such as nitrogen tetroxide, that contains
oxygen. When the propellant is ignited, the oxidizer provides the
oxygen the fuel needs to burn. Chemical fuels are also used in some
racing cars.
Nuclear Fuels
Nuclear fuels provide energy through the fission or fusion of their
atoms. Uranium is the most commonly used nuclear fuel, though
plutonium also provides nuclear energy. When the atoms of these
elements undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts of heat.
Nuclear fuels are used mainly to generate electricity. They also
power some submarines and ships. Nuclear energy can also be
produced through the fusion of hydrogen atoms.
 Nuclear Fission – split of the nucleus of atoms
 Nuclear Fusion – combination of two light nuclei of atom
 THE HEAT ELEMENT
HEAT – It is the energy possessed by a material or substance due to
molecular activity. In physics, heat is the transfer of energy from one
part of a substance to another or from one body to another by virtue
of a difference in temperature. Heat is energy in transit; it always
flows from substance at a higher temperature to the substance at a
lower temperature, raising the temperature of the latter and lowering
that of the former substance, provided the volume of the bodies
remains constant. Heat does not flow from lower to a higher
temperature unless another form of energy transfer work is always
present. The study of energy is rooted in the subject of
thermodynamics, a very logical science that carefully defines energy,
heat, temperature and other properties.
Heat is thermal energy in motion that travels from a hot to a cold
region. Thermal energy is a property of matter directly associated
with the concept of temperature.
Heat and Temperature
Heat should not be confused with temperature, which is the
measurement of the relative amount of heat energy contained with in
a given substance. Temperature is an intensity measurement, with
units in degrees on the Celsius (centigrade), Fahrenheit, or Kelvin
scales. Heat is the measurement of quantity and is given in British
thermal units (Btu). One Btu is the amount of heat required to raise
one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit:
1 Btu heats 1 lb of water 1 F
1 gallon of water weighs 8.33 lb
8.33 Btu heat 1 gallon of water 1 F
Temperature is the measurement of the degree of thermal agitation
of molecules; the hotness or coldness of something. Thermometer is
the instrument used to measure temperature and commonly
expressed in C, F, and K.
Although it is very easy to compare the relative temperatures of two
substances by the sense of touch, it is impossible to evaluate the
absolute magnitude of the temperature by subjective reactions.
Adding heat to a substance, however, not only raises its
temperature, causing it to impart a more acute sensation of warmth,
but also produces alterations in several physical properties, which
may be measured with precision.
Specific Heat
The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat
required raising the temperature of a unit mass of a substance one-
degree. If the heating process occurs while the substance is
maintained at a constant volume or is subjected to a constant
pressure the measure is referred to as a specific heat at constant
volume.
Latent Heat
A number of physical changes are associated with the
change of temperature of a substance. Almost all substances expand
in volume when heated and contract when cooled. The behavior of
water between 0 and 4C (32 and 39 F) constitutes an important
exemption to this rule. The phase of a substance refers to its
occurrence as a solid, liquid, or gas, and phase changes in pure
substances occur at definite temperatures and pressures. The
process of changing from solid to gas is referred to as
SUBLIMATION, from solid to liquid as melting and from liquid to
vapor as VAPORIZATION. If the pressure is constant, the process
occurs at constant temperature. The amount of heat to produce a
change of phase is called LATENT HEAT, and hence, latent heats of
sublimation, melting and vaporization exist. If water is boiled in an
open vessel at a pressure of 1 atm, the temperature does not rise
above 100C (212F), no matter how much heat is added. For
example, the heat that is absorbed without changing the temperature
of the water is the latent heat, it is not lost but expended in changing
the water to steam and is then stored as energy in the steam, it is
again released when the steam is condensed to form water
(Condensation). Similarly, if the mixture of water and ice in a glass is
heated, its temperature will not change until all the ice is melted. The
latent heat absorbed is used up in overcoming the forces holding the
particles of ice together and is stored as energy in the water.
Temperature Scales
Five different temperature scales are in use today, they are:
1. Celsius – it has a freezing point of 0C and a boiling
point of 100C. It is widely used through out the world,
particularly for scientific works.
2. Fahrenheit – it is used mostly in English-speaking
countries for purposes other than scientific works and
based on the mercury thermometer. In this scale, the
freezing point of water is 32F and the boiling point is
212 F.
3. Kelvin or Absolute – it is the most commonly used
thermodynamic temperature scale. Zero is defined as
absolute zero of temperature, that is, - 273.15 c, or –
459.67 F.
4. Rankine – is another temperature scale employing
absolute zero as its lowest point in which each degree of
temperature is equivalent to one degree on the
Fahrenheit scale. The freezing point of water under this
scale is 492 R and the boiling point is 672 R.
5. International Temperature Scale – In 1933, scientist of
31 nations adopted a new international temperature
scale with additional fixed temperature points, based on
the Kelvin scale and thermodynamic principles. The
international scale is based on the property of electrical
resistively, with platinum wire as the standard for
temperature between –190  and 660C.
Heat Production
There are five ways to produce heat:
1. Chemical – chemically produced heat is the result of
rapid oxidation.
2. Mechanical – mechanical heat is the product of friction.
The rubbing of two sticks together to generate enough
heat is an example.
3. Electrical – electrical heat is the product of arcing,
shorting or other electrical malfunction. Poor wire
connections, too much resistance, a loose ground, and
too much current flowing through an improperly sized
wire are other sources of electrical heat.
4. Compressed gas – when a gas is compressed, its
molecular activity is greatly increased producing heat.
5. Nuclear – Nuclear energy is the product of the splitting
or fusing of atomic particles (Fission or fusion
respectively). The tremendous heat energy in a nuclear
power plant produces steam to turn steam turbines.
Heat Transfer
The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat
can be transferred between bodies are conduction and radiation. A
third method, which also involves the motion of matter, is called
convection.
Hence, there are three ways to transfer heat: Conduction,
Convection, and Radiation.
Conduction – it is the transfer of heats by molecular activity with in a
material or medium, usually a solid. Direct contact is the underlying
factor in conduction. Example, if you touch a hot stove, the pain you
feel is a first result of conducted heat passing from the stove directly
to your hand. In a structural fire, superheated pipes, steel girders,
and other structural members such as walls and floors may conduct
enough heat to initiate fires in other areas of the structure.
Convection – it is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium,
usually air or liquid. Heat transfer by convection is chiefly
responsible for the spread of fire in structures. The supper-heated
gases evolved from a fire are lighter than air, and consequently rise,
they can and do initiate additional damage. In large fires, the high
fireball that accompanies the incident is referred to as a firestorm
and is an example of convected heat.
Radiation – radiated heat moves in wave and rays much like
sunlight. Radiated heat travels the speed, as does visible light:
186,000 miles per second. It is primarily responsible for the exposure
hazards that develop and exist during a fire. Heat waves travel in a
direct or straight line from their source until they strike an object. The
heat that collects on the surface of the object or building in the path
of the heat waves is subsequently absorbed into its mass through
conduction.
Conduction requires physical contact between bodies or portions of
bodies exchanging heat, but radiation does not require contact or the
presence of any matter between the bodies. Convection occurs
when a liquid or gas is in contact with a solid body at a different
temperature and is always accompanied by the motion of the liquid
or gas. The science dealing with the transfer of heat between bodies
is called heat transfer.
Oxidizing Agent (Oxygen): The 3rd Element
Oxygen as defined earlier is a colorless, odorless, tasteless,
gaseous chemical element, the most abundant of all elements: it
occurs free in the atmosphere, forming one fifth of its volume, and in
combination in water, sandstone, limestone, etc.; it is very active,
being able to combine with nearly all other elements, and is essential
to life processes and to combustion. The common oxidizing agent is
oxygen present in air. Air composes 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and
1 % inert gas (principally Argon). 21% normal oxygen is needed to
produce fire in the presence of fuel and heat. 12% oxygen is
insufficient to produce fire, 14-15% oxygen can support flash point,
and 16-21% oxygen can support fire point.
FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION
The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering the
principle of thermal balance and thermal imbalance.
Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the
pattern of fire, the normal behavior when the pattern is undisturbed.
Thermal imbalance, on the other hand is the abnormal movement
of fire due to the interference of foreign matter. Thermal imbalance
often confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact point
where the fire originated.
Dangerous Behavior of Fire
Fire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred:
1. Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated
gases in a confined area that occurs in the form of explosion. This
may occur because of improper ventilation. If a room is not properly
ventilated, highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that
when a door or window is suddenly opened, the room violently sucks
the oxygen from the outside and simultaneously, a sudden
combustion occur, which may happen as an explosion (combustion
explosion).
2. Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases
produced when there is incomplete combustion of fuels. It is the
sudden burning of free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or flash
produced when temperature rises until flash point is reached. When
accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a
very intense fire that is capable of causing flames to jump at a
certain distance in the form of fireball. Fireballs can travel to a
hundred yards with in a few seconds.
3. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists
extinguishment operations and become stronger and bigger instead.
4. Flash Fire – better known as dust explosion. This may happen
when the metal post that is completely covered with dust is going to
be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn
simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical reaction that
produces a very bright flash followed by an explosion.
The Three Stages of Fire
1. Incipient Phase (Initial Stage) – under this stage, the
following characteristics are observed: normal room
temperature, the temperature at the base of the fire is
400-800 F, ceiling temperature is about 200 F, the
pyrolysis products are mostly water vapor and carbon
dioxide, small quantities of carbon monoxide and
sulfides maybe present.
2. Free Burning Phase – it has the following characteristics:
accelerated pyrolysis process take place, development
of convection current: formation of thermal columns as
heat rises, temperature is 800-1000 F at the base of
fire, 1200-1600 F at ceiling, pyrolytic decomposition
moves upward on the walls(crawling of the flame)
 leaving burnt patterns (fire fingerprints), occurrence of
flashover.
3. Smoldering Phase – this stage has the following
characteristics: oxygen content drops to 13% or below
causing the flame to vanish and heat to develop in
layers, products of incomplete combustion increase in
volume, particularly carbon monoxide with an ignition
temperature of about 1125 F, ceiling temperature is
1000-1300 F, heat and pressure in the room builds up,
building/room contains large quantities of superheated
fuel under pressure but little oxygen, when sufficient
supply of oxygen is introduced, backdraft occurs.
Classification of Fires
Based on Cause
1. Natural causes – such as
 Spontaneous heating – the automatic chemical
reaction that results to spontaneous combustion
due to auto-ignition of organic materials, the
gradual rising of heat in a confined space until
ignition temperature is reached.
 Lightning – a form of static electricity; a natural
current with a great magnitude, producing
tremendous amperage and voltage. Lightning
usually strikes objects that are better electrical
conductors than air. It can cause fire directly or
indirectly. Indirectly when it strikes telephone
and other transmission lines, causing an
induced line surge. It can also cause flash fire or
dust explosion. When lightning strikes steel or
metal rod covered with dust, the dust will
suddenly burn thus resulting to an explosion.
A lightning may be in the form of:
 Hot Bolt – longer in duration; capable only of igniting
combustible materials
 Cold Bolt – shorter in duration, capable of splintering
a property or literally blowing apart an entire
structure, produces electrical current with
tremendous amperage and very high temperature.
 Radiation of Sunlight – when sunlight hits a concave
mirror, concentrating the light on a combustible
material thereby igniting it.
2. Accidental Causes – such as
 Electrical accidents in the form of:
1. Short Circuit – unusual or accidental connections
between two points at different potentials (charge) in an
electrical circuit of relatively low resistance.
2. – the production of sustained luminous electrical
discharge between separated electrodes; an electric hazard
that results when electrical current crosses the gap between
2 electrical conductors.
3. Sparking – production of incandescent particles when two
different potentials (charged conductors) come in contact;
occurs during short circuits or welding operations.
4, Induced Current – induced line surge – increased electrical
energy flow or power voltage; induced current; sudden increase of
electrical current resulting to the burning of insulating materials,
explosion of the fuse box, or burning of electrical appliances.
5. Over heating of electrical appliances – the increase or rising of
amperage while electric current is flowing in a transmission line
resulting to the damage or destruction of insulating materials, maybe
gradual or rapid, internal or external.
 Purely accidental causes
 Negligence and other forms of human error
3. Intentional causes (Incendiary)
If in the burned property, there are preparations or traces of
accelerant, plants and trailers, then the cause of fire is intentional.
Accelerant – highly flammable chemicals that are used to
facilitate flame propagation.
 Plant – the preparation and or gathering of combustible
materials needed to start a fire.
Trailer – the preparation of flammable substances in order to
spread the fire.
Based on Burning Fuel (the classes of fire)
1. Class A Fire – Ordinary fires; they are the types of fire
resulting from the burning wood, paper, textiles, rubber
and other carbonaceous materials. In short, this is the
type of fire caused by ordinary combustible materials.
2. Class B Fire – Liquid fires; they are caused by
flammable and or combustible liquids such as kerosene,
gasoline, benzene, oil products, alcohol and other
hydrocarbon deviations.
3. Class C Fire – Electrical fires; they are fires that starts in
live electrical wires, equipment, motors, electrical
appliances and telephone switchboards.
4. Class D Fire – Metallic fires; fires that result from the
combustion of certain metals in finely divided forms.
These combustible metals include magnesium,
potassium, powdered calcium, zinc, sodium, and
titanium.
FIRE FIGTHING OPERATIONS AND EXTINGUISHMENT
Fire fighting is an activity intended to save lives and
property. It is one of the most important emergency services in a
community. Fire fighters battle fires that break out in homes,
factories, office buildings, shops, and other places. Fire fighters risk
their lives to save people and protect property from fires.
The people who work as fire fighters also help others who
are involved in many kinds of emergencies besides fires. For
example, fire fighters rescue people who may be trapped in cars or
vehicles after an accident. They aid victims of such disasters as
typhoons, floods, landslides, and earthquakes.
Before the advent of modern fire fighting techniques, fires
often destroyed whole settlements. When a fire broke out, all the
people in the community rushed to the scene to help. Today, fire
fighting organizations in most industrialized nations have well-trained
men and women and a variety of modern fire fighting equipment.
History of Fire Fighting
Most fire services around the world were formed after a
major fire made people realize that lives and property would have
been saved if they had had a proper body of people trained to fight
fires. One of the first organized fire fighting forces was established in
Rome, about 500 B.C. The first fire fighters were Roman slaves who,
under the command of the city's magistrates, were stationed on the
walls and the gates of Rome. These units were called Familia
Publica. However, this system was not very effective, probably
because the slaves had no choice in whether they fought fires or not.
In A.D. 6, after an enormous fire devastated Rome, the Emperor
Augustus created the vigiles, a fire fighting force of 7,000 men that
was divided into seven regiments. Like many of today's fire services,
the vigiles had the power to inspect buildings to check for fire risks,
and could punish property owners whose negligence led to fires.
The vigiles' fire fighting equipment included pumps, squirts, siphons,
buckets, and ladders. Wicker mats and wet blankets were used for
rescue and salvage work. The Romans developed advanced fire
fighting equipment. But when the empire fell, much of this
technology was lost for centuries.
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, European cities and
towns became disorganized and nobody coordinated fire fighting.
Some people even thought that prayer was the best way to control
fires. Slowly, however, some fire laws evolved. In many cities
people were required to put out their cooking and home fires at night.
In some towns, thatched roofs were forbidden and night watchmen
were employed to raise the alarm if they discovered a fire.
Organized fire services in Europe were usually only formed
after hugely destructive fires. The Great Fire of London in 1666 led
to the development of fire insurance industries in England. These
companies marked their insured properties with metal badges called
fire marks and formed private fire brigades to protect those
properties. Each company's brigade attended only those premises
bearing the company's own fire mark. There was much competition,
and occasionally rival fire brigades even obstructed each other in
their fire fighting efforts. It was not until the 1800's that London
insurance companies began to cooperate and a single London Fire
Engine Establishment was formed. The new service fought fires in
any premises within the London area.
Serious blazes also caused death and destruction elsewhere
in Europe, and rulers began to realize that it was necessary to have
organized forces to deal with fires. In France, groups of citizens kept
watch for outbreaks of fire, and regulations controlled rescue
operations. In the 1600's, a number of serious fires spread terror
throughout Paris. The king of France bought 12 pumps, and a
private fire service was established. In 1750, the company of
firemen was mostly taken over by the army, but fires continued to
ravage the city and fire fighting efforts were not always effective. In
1810, the Emperor Napoleon attended a ball at the Austrian
Embassy. A candle set the curtains ablaze, and the fire spread
quickly, causing a dreadful panic. After this fire, Napoleon ordered
the creation of the Battalion de Sapeurs Pompiers and the French
Fire Brigade was born.
Better equipment for getting water to fires and for fighting
fires was developed in the 1500's. Tools included syringes, which
squirted water, but most people relied on bucket brigades, relays of
men passing buckets of water. The problems with bucket brigades
were that many men were needed, it was very tiring work, and it was
not very efficient--buildings often burned to the ground. In 1672, an
uncle and nephew in Amsterdam, both called Jan van der Heide,
invented a flexible hose, which could be joined together to form a
long pipe. Later, the same men invented a pump to deliver water
through the hose, and fire fighting became much more efficient. In
many places around the world, fire pumps were first drawn to fires by
horses or even by people. Warning bells enabled people to get out
of the way when the pumps were rushing to a fire. The German
company Daimler invented the first petrol-driven pump in 1885, but
the pump still had to be taken to fires by horses. Petrol-powered fire
engines were introduced in the early 1900's, but many countries
were slow to change from horse-drawn pumps. Although today's fire
services have a range of modern equipment, fire can be just as
dangerous now as it was thousands of years ago.
The Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP)
Republic Act # 6975, the DILG Act of 1990 (Chapter 4,
Section 53-59) created the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) to be
responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires
and to enforce the laws on fire.
Fire Protection is the descriptive term referring to the
various methods used by the bureau to stop, extinguish and control
destructive fire for eventual prevention of loss of life and property. It
has the following objectives: To prevent destructive fire from starting,
To extinguish (stop or put out) on going destructive fire, To confine a
destructive fire at the place where it began, To prevent loss of life
and property when fire starts
Fire Prevention and Suppression refers to the various
safety measures utilized to stop harmful or destructive fires from
starting.
The laws related with the fire prevention and fire protection
in the Philippine setting includes PD # 1185, Fire Code of the
Philippine (26 August 1977), PD # 1096, Building Code of the
Philippine (19 February 1977)
The Bureau of Fire Protection is composed of well-trained
fire fighters. In fighting fires, they bring with them ladders and pumps.
Additional specialist vehicles can provide turntable ladders, hydraulic
platforms, extra water, foam, and specialist appliances for hazardous
incidents.
In some countries, such as the United States, fire-fighting
units are divided into engine companies and ladder companies.
Engine companies operate trucks called engines, which carry a
pump and hoses for spraying water on a fire. Ladder companies use
ladder trucks, which carry ladders of various lengths. Ladder trucks
also have a hydraulically extended ladder or elevating platform to
rescue people through windows or to spray water from a raised
position.
Fire fighters in the Philippines handle many types of fires.
Each type requires a different plan of action to put it out. For
example, the methods used to fight a building fire differ greatly from
those used to fight a forest or grassland fire.
Factor Affecting Fire Protection and Control
Fire protection and control is affected by the accumulation of
fire hazards in a building or area.
Fire Hazard is any condition or act that increases or may
cause increase in the probability that fire will occur or which may
obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting operations and
the safeguarding of life and property
Conditions of Fire Hazards
1. Existence of dangerous or unlawful amount of combustible
or explosives in the building not designed to store such
materials.
2. Defective or improperly installed facilities/ equipment.
3. Lack of adequate exit facilities.
4. Obstruction at fire escapes or other designated opening for
fire fighters.
5. Dangerous occumulation of rubbish waste and other highly
combustible materials.
6. Accumulation of dust in ventilation system or of grease in the
kitchen.
7. Building under repair
8. Very old building or building is primarily made of combustible
materials
Fire Fighting Operations
Fire fighting operations refers to fire suppression activities. In
general the following procedures should be observed:
1. PRE-FIRE PLANNING - this activity involves developing and
defining systematic course of actions that maybe performed
in order to realize the objectives of fire protection: involves
the process of establishing the SOP in case fire breaks out.
2. EVALUATION – SIZE – UP (on-the-spot planning or sizing-
up the situation) - this is the process knowing the emergency
situation. It involves mental evaluation by the operation
officer-in-charge to determine the appropriate course of
action that provides the highest probability of success.
3. EVACUATION – This the activity of transferring people,
livestock, and property away from the burning area to
minimize damage or destruction that the fire might incur in
case it propagates to other adjacent buildings.
4. ENTRY – This is the process of accessing the burning
structure. Entry maybe done in a forcible manner.
5. RESCUE – This is the operation of removing (extricating),
thus saving, people and other livestock from the burning
building and other involved properties, conveying them to a
secure place
6. EXPOSURE – also called cover exposure, this is the activity
of securing other buildings near the burning structure in
order to prevent the fire from the extending to another
building.
7. CONFINEMENT – This is the activity of restricting the fire at
the place (room) where it started : the process of preventing
fire from extending from another section or form one section
to another section of the involved building.
8. VENTILATION – This the operation purposely conducted to
displace toxic gases. It includes the process of displacing the
heated atmosphere within the involved building with normal
air from outside atmosphere.
9. SALVAGE – The activity of protecting the properties from
preventable damage other than the fire. The steps are a)
remove the material outside the burning area, and b)
protecting or cover the materials by using tarpaulins (cotton
canvass treated with water proofing).
10. EXTINGUISHMENT – This is the process of putting out the
main body of fire by using the 4 general methods of fire
extinguishments.
11. OVERHAUL – This is the complete and detailed check of the
structure and all materials therein to eliminate conditions that
may cause re-flash; involves complete extinguishments of
sparks or smouldering (glowing) substances (embers) to
prevent possibilities of re-ignition or rekindling.
 12. FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION - This is the final stage of fire
suppression activities. It is an inquiry conducted to know or
determine the origin and cause of fire.
What is a Sprinkle System?
A sprinkler system consists of a network of pipes installed
throughout a building. The pipes carry water to nozzles in the
ceiling. The heat from a fire causes the nozzles directly above the
fire to open and spray water.
The Fire Bureau personnel inspect public buildings to
enforce the local code. The officials check the operating condition of
the fire protection systems. They note the number and location of
exits and fire extinguishers. The inspection also covers
housekeeping practices and many other matters that affect fire
safety. Fire inspectors may also review plans for a new building to
make sure it meets the safety code.
What is a Smoke Detector?
Smoke detector is a device that sounds an alarm if a small
amount of smoke enters their sensors. Smoke detectors are
attached to the ceiling or wall in several areas of the home. Fire
protection experts recommend at least one detector for each floor of
a residence.
Fire fighters also recommend that people have portable fire
extinguishers in their homes. A person must be sure, however, to
call the fire fighting service before trying to extinguish a fire. It is also
important to use the right kind of extinguisher for the type of fire
involved.
The Fire Extinguishment Theory
The Fire Extinguishments Theory maintains that “to
extinguish a fire, interrupt or eliminate the supply of any or all of the
elements of fire.” Fire can be extinguished by reducing/ lowering the
temperature, eliminating the fuel supply, or by stopping the chemical
chain reaction.
4 General Methods of Fire Extinguishment
1. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction
- Cooling the temperature of the fire environment: usually
done by using water.
- Lower down the temperature to cool the fuel to a point
where it does not produce sufficient vapors that burn.
2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal
- Elimination of the fuel supply/ source which maybe done
by stopping the flow of liquid fuel, preventing the
production of flammable gas, removing the solid fuel at
the fire path, allowing the fire to burn until the fuel is
consumed
3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution - reduction of oxygen
concentration at the burning area, by introducing inert gases, by
separating oxygen from the fuel
4. Extinguishment by Chemical Inhibition
- Some extinguishments agents, like dry chemical and
halon, interrupt the production of flame resulting to rapid
extinguishment of the fire. This method is effective only
on burning gas and liquid fuels as they cannot burn in
smoldering mode of combustion.
What are the methods of extinguishing the 4 Classes of Fire?
1. CLASS A FIRES – by quenching and cooling: water is the
best agent in cooling the burning solid materials; water has a
quenching effect that can reduce the temperature of a
burning material below its ignition temperature; (Fire
extinguishers which have water, sand, acid, foam and
special solution containing alkali methyl dust, as found in the
loaded stream extinguisher, should be used for this type of
fire.)
2. CLASS B FIRES – by smothering or blanketing (oxygen
exclusion). This type of fire is put or controlled by foam,
loaded stream, carbon dioxide, dry chemical and vaporizing
liquid.
3. CLASS C FIRES – controlled by a non-conducting
extinguishing agent: the safest procedure is to always de-
 energize the electrical circuit. Extinguishers that should be
used to put out these type of fires are Carbon Dioxide
Extinguishers, Dry Chemical, Vaporizing liquids.
4. CLASS D FIRES – by using special extinguishing agents
marked specifically for metals. GE type, meth LX, Lith X,
Meth L, Kyl, dry sand and dry talc can put out class D fires
5. CLASS E FIRES – only combination of the above methods.
Fire Extinguishers
A Fire Extinguisher is a mechanical device, usually made of
metal, containing chemicals, fluids, or gasses for stopping fires, the
means for application of its contents for the purpose of putting out
fire (particularly small fire ) before it propagates, and is capable of
being readily moved from place to place. It is also a portable device
used to put out fires of limited size.
What are the types of Fire Extinguishers?
1. Water Fire Extinguisher – extinguisher filled with water
use of fight Class A and Class B fires except class C
fires.
2. Liquefied Fire Extinguisher – those extinguishers that
contain Carbon Monoxide Gas use to fight class A, B,
and C fires
3. Dry Chemical Extinguisher – those that contain chemical
powder intended to fight all classes of fires.
4. Foam Extinguisher– contains sodium bicarbonate and a
foam-stabilizing agent in a larger compartment and a
solution of aluminum sulfate in an inner cylinder; reaction
between the two solutions forms a stabilized foam of
carbon dioxide bubbles.
5. Soda-acid Fire Extinguisher – filled with sodium
bicarbonate mixed with water; a small bottle of sulfuric
acid is suspended inside (near the top) in such a way
that when the extinguisher is turned up-side-down, the
acid mixes with sodium bicarbonate; carbon dioxide is
formed by the reaction which results to the building of
pressure inside the extinguisher; this pressure forces the
water solution out from the container through a hose.
6. Vaporizing Liquid Fire Extinguisher – contains non-
conducting liquid, generalization carbon tetrachloride or
chlorobromethane; operation is by manual pumping or
using a stored pressure; the stream of liquid that is
expelled is vaporized by the heat of the fire and forms a
smothering blanket. This type is usually used in fires
involving flammable liquids or electrical equipment.
7. Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguisher – effective against
burning liquids and fires in live electrical equipment;
used mainly to put out Class C fires.
What are examples of extinguishing agents?
1. MULTI-PURPOSE DRY CHEMICALS like the Mono-
Ammonium Phosphate ( NH H PO )
2. BCF-HALON 1211 or Bromochlorodifluoromethane
3. AFFF – (Aqueous Film Forming Foam), is a synthetic
foam-forming liquid designed for use with fresh water.
4. CARBON DIOXIDE – a chemical that can deliver a quick
smothering action to the flames, reducing the oxygen
and suffocating the fire. Carbon dioxide dissipates
without leaving any contamination or corrosive residue.
What are the markings required on Fire Extinguishers?
Under (Rule 37, Sec. 106 of PD 1185), all fire extinguishers
manufactured or sold in the Philippines must be labelled or marked
to show at least the following:
1. Date of original filling
2. Chemical Contents
3. Type of extinguisher
4. Operating Instruction and Safe Procedure in usage
5. Name and address of the manufacturer
6. Name and address of the dealer.
What are the prohibited types of fire extinguishers?
 Rule 37, Sec. 104 of IRR of PD 1185 provides that the
following types of fires extinguishers are prohibited for manufacture
or sale:
1. All inverting types which make it necessary to invert the
container before the extinguisher’s operation
2. Soda-acid extinguishers
3. Stored pressure or cartridge operated foam solution, unless
and air-aspiring nozzle is provided
4. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers using carbon tetrachloride or
chlorobromomethane in any concentration of formulation
5. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers of less than one kilogram
extinguishing agent
6. Glass bulb, “ grenade” type, or “bomb” type of vaporizing
liquid extinguishers which have to be thrown to the fire or are
mounted on specific location and which operate upon the
melting of a fusible link.
7. Thermatic special hazards single station extinguishers with
extinguishing capability of less than four and a half (4.5)
cubic meters
8. Other types which maybe hereinafter prohibited.
What are the prohibited acts involving the operation of fire
extinguishers?
From the same legal basis above, the following are declared
prohibited acts concerning the use of fire extinguishers:
1. Removal of inspection tags attached to fire extinguishers
2. Refilling a discharge extinguisher with a extinguishing agent
other than what the unit was designed to contain
3. Selling fire extinguishers not appropriate to the hazard
4. Selling fire extinguishers prohibited by Rule 37, Section 104
5. Selling defective or substandard extinguishers
6. Using/installing two or more thermatic special hazard
vaporizing liquid units in rooms with volume greater than the
nominal capability of one unit.
7. Installing pressure gauges in fire extinguishers which do not
indicate the actual pressure of the interior of vessel such as,
but not limited to use of uncalibrated gauges, not providing
or blocking the connection between the gauge and the
interior, or fixing the indicator/needle to indicate a certain
pressure.
What are the General Operating Procedures in Fire
Extinguishment?
The general operating procedures in using a fire extinguisher
may be modified by the acronym PASS.
P - Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle
from being pressed. Press the plastic or thin wire inspection band.
A– Aim the nozzle or outlet towards the fire. Some hose assemblies
are dipped to the extinguisher body. Released it and then point at the
base of the fire.
S – Squeeze the handle above carrying handle to discharge the
extinguishing agent inside. The handle can be released to stop the
discharge at any time.
S – Sweep the nozzle sideways at the base of the flame to disperse
the extinguishing agent.
After the fire is out, probe for remaining smouldering hot spots or
possible re-flash of flammable liquids. Make sure the fire is out
before leaving the burned area.
Fire Fighting Equipment
The most important equipment for fire fighters includes:
1. Communication Systems
They are necessary to alert fire fighters to the outbreak of a
fire. Most fire alarms are telephoned to the fire department. Many
countries have introduced a simple, 3-digit number as the telephone
number to call in emergencies. This number can be dialed from
almost any telephone and from most pay phones without a coin.
Dialing this number is free. In the Philippines, the emergency line is
166.
2. Fire Vehicles
Fire fighters have several types of fire vehicles. The main types are
(1) engines, (2) ladder appliances, and (3) rescue vehicles.
Engines, also called water tenders, have a large pump that takes
water from a fire hydrant or other source. The pump boosts the
pressure of the water and forces it through hoses. Engines carry
several sizes of hoses and nozzles. Many also have a small-
diameter hose called a booster line, which is wound on a reel. The
booster line is used chiefly to put out small outdoor fires.
Ladder appliances - There are two kinds of ladder appliances--
turntable ladders and hydraulic platforms.
A turntable ladder appliance has a metal extension ladder mounted
on a turntable. The ladder can be raised as high as 30 meters, or
about eight storeys.
A hydraulic platform truck has a cage-like platform that can hold
several people. The platform is attached to a lifting device that is
mounted on a turntable. The lifting device consists of either a hinged
boom (long metal arm) or an extendable boom made of several
sections that fit inside each other. The boom on the largest vehicles
can extend 46 meters. A built-in hose runs the length of the boom
and is used to direct water on a fire. In most cases, a pump in a
nearby engine generates the pressure needed to spray the water.
Fire Fighting Vehicles - are equipped with portable ladders of
various types and sizes. They also carry forcible entry tools, which
fire fighters use to gain entry into a building and to ventilate it to let
out smoke. Common forcible entry tools include axes, power saws,
and sledge hammers.
Rescue Vehicles are enclosed vehicles equipped with many of the
same kinds of forcible entry tools that ladder appliances carry. But
rescue vehicles also carry additional equipment for unusual rescues.
They have such tools as oxyacetylene torches, for cutting through
metal, and hydraulic jacks, for lifting heavy objects. They may also
carry other hydraulic tools. With a hydraulic rescue tool, fire fighters
can apply a large amount of pressure to two objects to squeeze them
together or prise them apart. The tool is often used to free people
trapped in cars and other vehicles after an accident. Many rescue
vehicles also carry small hand tools, such as crowbars and saws,
and ropes and harnesses for rescuing people from water or high
places. In addition, they carry medical supplies and equipment.
Special Fire Vehicles include airport crash tenders and hazardous
materials units. Airport crash tenders are engines that spray foam or
dry chemicals on burning aircraft. Water is ineffective against many
aircraft fires, such as those that involve jet fuel or certain metals.
In addition to the above fire fighting equipment, fire fighters
are also required to use protective clothing.
Protective Clothing - clothing for protection against flames, falling
objects, and other hazards. They wear coats and trousers made of
fire-resistant material. Other clothing includes special boots, gloves,
and helmets. Fire fighters also use a breathing apparatus to avoid
inhaling smoke and toxic gases.
Fire Prevention and Public Safety
As mentioned earlier, Fire Prevention is a term for the many
safety measures used to keep harmful fires from starting. Fires not
only cause extensive damage to valuable property, but also
responsible for large numbers of deaths.
BASIC FIRE INVESTIGATION
In the Philippines, the Bureau of fire Protection is the main
government agency responsible for the prevention and suppression
of all destructive fires on buildings, houses and other structures,
forest, land transportation vehicles and equipments, ships or vessels
docked at piers or major seaports, petroleum industry installation,
plane crashes and other similar incidents, as well as the enforcement
of the Fire Code and other related laws. It has the major power to
investigate all causes of fires and necessary, file the proper
complaints with the proper authority that has jurisdiction over the
case (R.A. no. 6975, sec. 54).
Why Fires should be investigated?
The very reason why fires should be investigated is to
determine the cause of the fire in order to prevent similar
occurrences. The determination of the origin and cause of fire is
arrived at only after a thorough investigation. Since basic
investigation is prelude to the discovery of the true cause of the fire,
an understanding of the chemistry of fire and its attendant behavior
should be a concern for successful investigation.
Who are qualified to investigate fires?
A fire investigator should have the following traits:
1. Possession of knowledge of investigational techniques.
2. He should have an insight of human behavior.
3. He should have a first hand knowledge of the chemistry
of fire and its behavior
4. He should be resourceful.
Is Fire Investigation Complex and Unique?
Fire investigation is complex and unique because of the
following reasons:
1. Fire destroys evidence
2. If it is Arson, it is planned, motivated and committed is
discreet.
3. Rarely can there be an eyewitness in Arson.
What are the roles of the Firemen in Fire Investigation?
Firemen are usually at the crime scene ahead of the fire
investigators. Hence, they are valuable sources of information. They
are the so-called “Eyes and Ears” of the police before, during and
after the fire has been placed under control. The information taken
from them may be categorize as:
1. Information attainable or developed prior to the arrival at
the scene
2. Information available to the firemen at the scene
3. Information available during overhaul and thereafter.
Legal Aspect of Fire Investigation
ARSON defined
Arson
 is the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.
 It is the concern of fire investigation to prove malicious intent
of the offender. Intent must be proved, otherwise, no crime
exist. The law presumes that a fire is accidental, hence
criminal designs must be shown. Fire cause by accident or
criminal design must be shown. Fire cause by accident or
negligence does not constitute arson.
What is Destructive Arson?
Under Article 320 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended,
the penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall be imposed upon
any person who shall burn:
1. One (1) or more buildings or edifices,
consequent to one single act of burning, or as a result of
simultaneous burnings, or committed on several or
different occasions.
2. Any building of public or private ownership,
devoted to the public in general or where people usually
gather or congregate for a definite purpose such as, but
not limited to official governmental function or business,
private transaction, commerce, trade workshop,
meetings and conferences, or merely incidental to a
definite purpose such as but not limited to hotels, motels,
transient dwellings, public conveyance or stops or
terminals, regardless of whether the offender had
knowledge that there are persons in said building or
edifice at the time it is set on fire and regardless also of
whether the building is actually inhabited or not.
3. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel, airship or
airplane devoted to transportation or conveyance, or for
public use, entertainment or leisure.
4. Any building, factory, warehouse installation and
any appurtenances thereto, which are devoted to the
service to public utilities.
5. Any building the burning of which is for the
purpose of concealing or destroying evidence of another
violation of law, or for the purpose of concealing
 bankruptcy or defrauding creditors or to collect from
insurance.
Irrespective of the application of the above enumerated
qualifying circumstances, the penalty of reclusion to death shall
likewise be imposed when the arson is perpetrated or committed by
two or more persons or by group of persons, regardless of whether
their purpose is merely to burn or destroy the building or the building
merely constitutes an overt act in the commission or another
violation of law.
The penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall also be
imposed upon any person who shall burn:
1. any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or
military power or firework factory, ordinance, storehouse,
archives or general museum of the government.
2. in an inhabited place, any storehouse or
factory of inflammable or explosives materials.
If the consequence of the commission of any of the acts penalized
under this Article, death results, the mandatory penalty of death shall
be imposed (sec. 10, RA 7659).
What is the basis of criminal liability in arson?
1. Kind and character of the building burned
2. Location of the building
3. Extent or value of the damage
4. Whether inhabited or not.
What are other forms of arson?
Other forms of arson refers to those enumerated under
Article 321 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended like the
following:
1. Setting fires to any building, farmhouse,
warehouse, hut, shelter, or vessel in port, knowing it to
be occupied at the time by one or more person.
2. Building burned is a public building and
value of damage exceeds six thousands pesos
(P6000.00).
3. Building burned is a public building and
purpose is to destroy evidence kept therein to be used in
instituting prosecution for punishment of violators of law,
irrespective of the amount of damage.
4. Building burned is a public building and
purpose is to destroy evidence kept therein to be used in
legislative, judicial or administrative proceeding,
irrespective of the damage, if the evidence is to be used
against defendant of any crime punishable under
existing law.
Arson of Property of Small Value (Art. 323, RPC)
Burning of any uninhabited hut, storehouse, barn, shed, or
any other property, under circumstances clearly excluding all danger
of the fire spreading, value of the property not exceed 25.00 pesos.
Crimes Involving Destruction (Art 324, RPC)
The offender causes destruction by any of the following means:
1. explosion
2. discharge of electric current
3. inundation, sinking or stranding of a vessel
4. taking up the rails from a railway track
5. malicious changing of railway signals for the safety
of moving trains
6. destroying telegraph wires and telegraph post or
those any other communication system
7. by using any other agency or means of destruction
as effective as the above
Burning one’s own property as a means to commit arson
(Read Case of U.S vs. Budiao, 4 Phil. 502) (Article 325, RPC)
Article 326, RPC – Setting Fire to Property Exclusively
Owned By the Offender

This act is punished if the purpose of the offender is to:
1. Defraud or cause damage to another or
2. damaged is actually caused upon another’s property
even if such purpose is absent
3. thing burned is a building in an inhabited place.
Presidential Decree No. 1613 – Amending the Law on Arson
Special Aggravating Circumstance in Arson
1. If committed with intent to gain:
2. If committed with the benefit of another:
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards
the owner or occupant of the property burned:
4. If committed by a syndicate (3 or more persons).
Prima Facie Evidence of Arson
1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of
the building or establishment
2. If substantial amounts of flammable substance or
materials are stored within the building not necessary in
the business of the offender nor for house hold use.
3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or
combustible substances or materials soaked therewith or
containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical,
chemical, or electronic contrivance designed to start a
fire, a fire, or ashes or traces of any of the foregoing are
found in the ruins or premises of the burned building or
property.
4. If the building or property is insured for substantially
more than its actual value at the time of the issuance of
the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance
policy more than two fires have occurred in the same or
other premises owned or under the control of the
offender and / or insured.
6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the
effects insured and stored in a building or property had
been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary
course of business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration
was made before the fire in exchange for the desistance
of the offender or the safety of the person or property of
the victim.
Arson Investigation
What Constitutes Arson?
1. Burning – to constitute burning, pyrolysis must takes
place. In other words, there must be burning or
changing, i.e. the fibber of the wood must be destroyed,
its identity changed.
2. Wilfulness – means intentional, and implies that the act
was done purposely and intentionally.
3. Malice – it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.
4. Motive – is the moving cause that induces the
commission of the crime.
5. Intent – is the purpose or design with which the act is
done and involves the will.
Methods of Proof in Arson
Physical evidences in arson are often destroyed. To prove
arson was committed, Corpus Delicti must be shown and identify of
the arsonist must be established. Corpus Delicti (body of the crime)
is the fact of that crime was committed. The following must show it:
1. Burning – that there was fire that may be shown by
direct testimony of complaint, firemen responding to the
crime, other eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building
may also indicate location.
2. Criminal Design – must show that it was wilfully and
intentionally done. The presence of incendiary devices,
 flammables such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate 3. electrical system
that the fire is not accidental. 4. mechanical means
3. Evidence of Intent – When valuables were removed from 5. chemical methods
the building before the fire, ill-feeling between the
accused and the occupants of the building burned, 2. Motive of Arsonist
absence of effort to put off fire and such other To understand the motives of arsonist, the arson investigator
indications. have to note the following that fires are set by:

What are basic lines of inquiry in Arson Investigation? Persons with Motives
The arson investigator must have to inquire on the following a. Those with desire to defraud the Insurer
a) point of origin of fire b) motives of arsonist c) prime suspects d) b. Employees or such other person who have a
the telltale signs of arson. grievance (Fire revenge)
c. Those with desire to conceal evidence of a
1. Point of origin of fire crime
Initially, the important point to be established is the point of origin d. Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation
of fire. In other words, at what particular place in the building the fire
started? This may be established by an examination of the witness, People without motives
by an inspection of the debris at the fire scene and by studying the a. Those who are mentally ill
fingerprint of fire. The fingerprint of fire occurs during the free burning b. Pathological fire-setters
stage of the fire when pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the c. Pyros and the Psychos
walls leaving a bunt pattern.
Motives of Arsonist
Witnesses must be questioned as to: 1. Economic Gain
1. His identity a. Insurance fraud – benefiting
2. What attracted his attention b. Desire to dispose merchandise – lost of
3. Time of observation market value being out of season, lack of raw
4. His position in relation to the fire at the time of materials, over supply of merchandise can be a big
observation reason for arson.
5. Exact location of the blaze c. Existing business transaction that the
6. Size and intensity arsonist would like to avoid such as impending
7. Rapidity of spread liquidation, settlement of estate, need for cash,
8. Color of flame and odor if he is in a position this prospective business failure, and increase
9. Any other person in the vicinity beside the witness rentals
d. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the
Note fire setting mechanism Assured like insurance agents wishing business with
1. matches the assured, business competitors planning to drive
2. candles others, person seeking job as personnel protection,
 salvagers and contractors wishing to contact another
building
2. Concealment of Crime - When the purpose of hiding a
crime or committing a crime, arson was used as means.
3. Punitive Measure - Committing arson to inflict injury to
another due to hatred, jealousy and revenge.
4. Intimidation or Economic Disabling - Arsonist as
saboteurs, strikers and racketeers to intimidate
management or employer.
5. Pyromania
A pyromaniac having the uncontrollable impulse to
burn anything without any motivation. They do not run away
from the fire scene since they love watching fire burning.
2. Background study of policyholders, occupants of
premises, owner of building or other person having
major interest in the fire.
3. Interviews and interrogations of persons who discovered
the fire, and the one who turned the first alarm, firemen,
and eyewitnesses.
4. Surveillance
4. The Tell Tale Signs of Arson
These signs maybe obvious that the first fireman at the
scene will suspects arson or they maybe so well concealed that
moths of patient investigation to show that it is set off will be
required.

Types of Pyromania 1. Burned Building – the type of the building may indicate a
a. Abnormal Youth – epileptics, imbeciles and set fire under certain circumstance. A fire of considerable
morons size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the scene is
b. Hero Type – a person set a building on fire and suspicious if it is a modern concrete or semi-concrete
pretends to discover it, turn on the alarm or make building.
some rescue works to appear as “hero” 2. Separate fires – when two or more separate fire breaks
c. Drug addicts and alcoholics out within a building. The fire is certainly suspicious.
d. Sexual deviates and perverts. 3. Color of Smoke – some fire burn with little or no smoke
but they are exception. The observation of the smoke
3. Prime Suspects (and the Prima Facie Evidences) must be made at the start of the fire since once the fire
The development of prime suspects - this involves has assumed a major proportion, the value of the smoke
identification results from the full development of leads, clues and is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the material
traces, the testimony particularly eyewitnesses and the development used by the arsonist
of expert testimony, The following technique may serve the a.) When white smoke appears before the water
investigation: from the fire hose comes in contact with the fire,
it indicates humid material burning. Example –
1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence: burning hay, vegetable materials, phosphorus
a. Protection of the scene (with garlic odor).
b. Mechanics of search b.) Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and
c. Collection and preservation of causing lacrymation and coughing indicates
evidences presence of chlorine.
d. Laboratory aids
 c.) Black smoke indicates lack of air if accompanied
by large flames it indicates petroleum products
and rubber.
d.) Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose,
S1, H2, S04, HN03, or HCI.
e.) Meaning of color of Smoke and Fire:
 Black smoke with deep red flame –
petroleum products, tar, rubber, plastics, etc.
 Heavy brown with bright red flame –
nitrogen products
 White smoke with bright flame – magnesium
products
 Black smoke with red and blue green flame
– asphalt
 Purple-violet flame – potassium products
 Greenish-yellow flame – Chloride or
Manganese products
 Bright reddish yellow flame – Calcium
products
8. Color of flame – The color of the flame is a good
indication of the intensity of the fire, an important factor
in determining incendiarism.
9. Amount of Heat – A reddish glow indicates heat of 5000
degrees centigrade, a real bright read about 100
degrees centigrade. Red flames indicate of petroleum.
Blue flame indicates use of alcohol as accelerant.
10. Smoke Marks – An experience investigation will
determine the volume of smoke involved at a fire and the
character as residue deposited on walls or elsewhere.
Smoke in marks have often been of assistance in
determining the possibility of a fire having more than one
place of origin.
11. Size of Fire – This is important when correlated with the
type of alarm, the time received and the time of arrival of
the first fire apparatus. Fires make what might be termed
a normal progress. Such progress can be estimated
after an examination of the material burned the building
and the normal ventilation offered of the fire. The time
element and the degree of headway by the flames
become important factors to determine factors to
determine possible incendiarism.
12. Direction of Travel – While it is admitted that no two fires
burn in identical fashion, yet it can be shown that fire
makes normal progress through various types of building
materials, combustibility of contents, channel of
ventilation and circumstances surrounding the sending
of alarm, an experienced investigator can determine
whether a fire spread abnormally fast.
13. Intensity – The degree of heat given off by a fire and the
color of its flame oftentimes indicate that some
accelerant has been added to the material normally
present in a building and the investigator must look for
further evidence pointing to use of such accelerant.
Difficulty in extinguishing the fire is often a lead to
suspect presence of such fluid as gasoline and
kerosene.
14. Odor – The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and
other inflammable liquids which are often used as
accelerant is characteristics and oftentimes arsonist are
trapped because of this telltale sign. Most of fire –
setters are inclined to use substance which will make the
blaze certain and at the same time burn up any evidence
of their crime.
15. Condition of Content – Persons tending to set their
house on fire frequently remove objects of value either
materially or sentimentally. Store and other business
establishments oftentimes remove a major portion of
their content or replace valuable merchandise without of
style articles.
FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
BASIC CONCEPTS 4. To assist the state in prosecuting the party charged with the
offense.
Criminal Investigation- is an art that deals with the identity and Job of the Criminal Investigator
location of the offender and prove his guilt in a criminal proceeding.
1. Discover whether or not an offense has been committed under
Criminal Investigation- it is the systematic method of inquiry that is the law.
more a science than an art. The logic of scientific method must 2. After determining what specific offense has been committed, he
however, be supplemented by the investigator's initiative and must discover how, when, where, why, what offense was
resourcefulness. The sequences of the investigation should be committed.
regarded by scientific, operating framework that requires improvising Methods of Identifications of Criminals
on the part of the investigator.
Criminal Investigation is an Art – based on intuition, felicity of Criminal are identified thru the following:
inspiration or by chance; and a Science – based on adequate
professional preparation and abundance of certain qualities 1. Confession and Admission
2. Statement of witnesses
Investigator- is the person who is charged with the duty of carrying 3. Circumstantial Evidence
out the objectives of criminal investigation. He is an individual who 4. Associative Evidence
gathers documents and evaluates facts about crime
A. Confession- this is an expressed acknowledgement by the
Special Crime Investigation- deals with the study of major crimes accused in criminal cases of the truth of his guilt as to the crime
based on the application of special investigative techniques. It is also charged or of some of the essential part there of. There is no implied
the study concentrates more on physical evidence; it’s collection, confession for it is positive and direct acknowledgement of guilt. It is
handling, identification and preservation in coordination with the the best means of identifying criminal.
various criminalists in the crime laboratory. Special crime investigation
involves close relationship between the investigator in the field and Rules in Confession
the investigator in the laboratory- the Criminalist. a. Confession need not to be in writing
b. Confession may be written in a language which the accused does
Duty of Criminal Investigator not speak
1. Establish that, in fact, a crime was committed under the law. c. Confession must be freely and voluntarily made
2. Identify and apprehend the suspect.
3. To recover stolen property.
Voluntarily – means that the accused speak of his free will and
accord, without inducement of any kind and with the full and complete
knowledge of the nature and consequences of the confession.
Freely- when the speaking is so free from the influence affecting the
will of the accused at the same time the confession was made.
Requirement for confession as proof of guilt
1. Other corroborative evidence must support it.
2. Corpus delicti- must be established separately (the actual
commission of the crime charged. It refers to a particular crime
and signifies that specific offense had been actually committed by
someone being composed of two elements: that certain results
were produced, that someone is criminally responsible
3. Confession must be made voluntarily.
B. By EYE-WITNESS TESTIMONY- description made by
eyewitness
Value of identification by eyewitness testimony depends on the
following: (credibility-bringing honor)
1. the ability of the eyewitness testimony to observe and remember
the relative “distinctiveness” of the accused appearance
2. The prevailing conditions, visibility and observation
3. The lapse of time between the criminal event and identification
Methods of Identification made by eyewitness
1. Verbal Description- portrait parley vividly describing in words the
appearance of a person by comparing and thru personal
appearance.
2. Photographic files (rogues gallery)
3. General photograph- files of photograph in any given
establishment.
4. Artist Assistance or composite sketches- drawing or sketching the
description of a person’s face by the cartographer
5. Police line-up- selecting the suspect from a group of innocent
persons to eliminate the power of suggestions as factor of
identification
Cartography- the art of sketching the image of a person or the art of
making map
Bases of the eyewitness in the identification of criminal
1. Face-forehead, eyebrow, mustache, eyes, ears, cheeks, mouth,
lips, teeth, chin, jaw, etc.
2. Neck- shape, length, Adam’s apple
3. Shoulder- width and shape
4. Waist- size, shape of the abdomen
5. Hands- length, size, hair, condition of the palms
6. Fingers- length, thickness, stains, shape of nails and condition
7. Any deformities (cross eyed, limping and etc.)
8. Teeth-
9. Gait
Bases of Physical Description of Physical Appearance
1. Mug Shot
2. Artist Drawing
3. Composite Sketches
4. Verbal description or Portrait Parley
HISTORICAL FEATURES IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
 The art and science of Criminal Investigation that exist today
is the result of countless development since policing was conceived
and then institutionalized. The following is just a brief account of some
of the major milestone in the history of Criminal Investigation.
WORLDWIDE DEVELOPMENT
1720s, ENGLAND: - JONATHAN WILD He was a buckle maker
then a brothel operator; a master criminal who became London’s most
effective criminal investigator. He was the most famous THIEF-
CATCHER in 1720s. His methods or techniques made popular the
logic of EMPLOYING A THIEF TO CATCH A THIEF. He conceived the
idea of charging a fee for locating and returning stolen property to its
rightful owners.
1750s, ENGLAND: - HENRY FIELDING An Englishman who
wrote a novel entitled “Tom Jones” and was appointed as magistrate
(sheriff) for the areas of Westminster and Middle Age, London. He
was the creator of the BOW STREET RUNNERS while he was the
magistrate; he formed a group of police officers attached to the Bow
Street Court, and not in uniform, performing criminal investigative
functions.
1753, ENGLAND: - SIR JOHN FIELDING The younger brother of
Henry Fielding who took over the control of Bow Street Court in 1753.
His investigators were then called Bow Street Runners and became
quite effective because of his personal guidance despite the fact that
he was blind. He introduced the practice of developing paid
informants, printing wanted notices, employing criminal raids, and
bearing firearms and handcuffs.
1759, USA: The US CONGRESS created the office of the GENERAL
AND REVENUE CUTTER SERVICE. This is the first organized
federal law enforcement and investigative effort made by the US
government.
1800, LONDON: - PATRICK COLQUHOUN A prominent London
president who proposed the unique idea of creating sizeable
uniformed force to police the city of London in order to remedy the
public outcry concerning the alarming increase of criminality during
the early 1800s. His proposal was considered too radical and was
dismissed by the Royal Court.
1811, FRANCE: - EUGENE ‘Francois” VIDOCQ He was a
criminal who turned Paris Investigator. He is a former convict who
became a notorious thief-catcher in France. He is credited as the
founder of LA SURETE, France’s national detective organization. He
made popular the concept of “SET A THIEF TO CATCH A THIEF”. He
introduced the concept of ‘TRADE PROTECTION SOCIETY’, which is
a forerunner of our present-day credit card system. For a fee, any
owner of a shop or business establishment could obtain particulars
concerning the financial solvency of new customers. He created a
squad of ex-convicts to aid the Paris police in crime investigation.
1829, LONDON: - SIR ROBERT PEELS The founder and chief
organizer of the London Metropolitan Police – the SCOTLAND YARD.
He reiterated the idea of creating sizeable police force in his
recommendations, which lead to the passage of the Metropolitan
Police Act. This act had a tremendous impact on the history of
criminal justice in general, and on the development of criminal
investigation specifically. He introduced the techniques of detecting
crimes such as: detectives concealing themselves, and secretly
photographing and recording conversations.
1833, ENGLAND: The Scotland Yard employed the first undercover
officer while in
USA: First daytime paid police department was established in
Philadelphia, USA.
1835, USA: TEXAS RANGERS was organized as the first law
enforcement agency with statewide investigative authority, the
forerunner of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
1839: - The birth year of Photography. WILLIAM HENRY FOX
TALBOT explained a photographic process he had invented to the
Royal Society of London.
JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE gave a public demonstration in
Paris of his discovery - a photographic process he developed in
collaboration with NICEPHORE NIEPCE.
1842: Scotland Yard created the first FULL-TIME INVESTIGATIVE,
which is a forerunner to the Criminal Investigation Division of Scotland
Yard.
1851, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, USA: Multi-suspect ID
LINE-UP is employed in the first time.
1852, USA: - CHARLES DICKENS - Through his story entitled
BLEAK HOUSE, he introduced the term DETECTIVE to the English
language.
1852, USA: - ALLAN PINKERTON - America’s most famous
private investigator and founder of Criminal Investigation in USA. He
established the practice of handwriting examination in American
courts and promoted a plan to centralize criminal identification
records.
1856, USA: - KATE WAYNE: The first woman detective in the
history of criminal investigation, hired by the Pinkerton Agency.
1859, USA: Appellate courts recognized/accepted photographs as
admissible evidences when they are relevant and properly verified.
1865, USA: US SECRET SERVICE was founded to investigate
counterfeiting activity in post-civil war America.
1866, USA: - INSPECTOR THOMAS BYRNES: A New York Chief
of Detectives introduced the MODUS OPERANDI FILE.
1866, Liberty, Missouri, USA: The JESSE JAMES GANG made
the first bank hold-up which mark the beginning of the gang’s 15-year
hold-up and robbery spree (12 bank hold-ups and 12 train stage
coach robberies in 11 states). Clay County Savings Association was
their first victim and their take was $ 60,000.00.
1877, ENGLAND: - HOWARD VINCENT: Headed the newly
organized CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION DEPARTMENT in Scotland
Yard.
1882, FRANCE: - ALPHONSE BERTILLON: A French Police
Clerk who introduced and established the first systematic identification
system based on ANTHROPOMETRICAL SIGNALMENT (or
Anthropometry) he is considered as the FOUNDER OF CRIMINAL
IDENTIFICATION.
1884, CHICAGO, USA: The Chicago Police Department
established the first American Criminal Identification Bureau.
1887, DR. ARTHUR CONAN LYLE: He popularized the Scientific
Criminal Investigation by creating the fictional detective SHERLOCK
HOLMES and his friend Dr. WATSON. Holmes was featured in 6 short
stories and 4 novels.
1892, ENGLAND: - FRANCIS GALTON: An Englishman who
published his study on classifying fingerprints. While other scientists
were studying fingerprints in their biological nature, Galton recognized
their uniqueness and potentiality/significance in criminal identification.
1893, GERMANY: - HANS GROSS: An Englishman who published
a handbook for Examining Magistrates in Munich, Germany and
advocated the use of scientific methods in criminal investigation
process.
1948, ABERDEEN, SCOTLAND: A new concept was introduced in
the field of criminal investigation. This is known as TEAM POLICING.
In team policing, there is no patrol division or criminal investigation per
se. In this system, a team of police officers is assigned to patrol and
investigate all criminal matters within their area of jurisdiction or
district. Team policing required that police officers who respond to a
call regarding a criminal case should investigate the case to its
conclusion.
1954,USA: - Dr. PAUL KIRK: Best known American criminalist who
headed the Department of Criminalistics as the University of
California, USA.
1961,USA: - Mapp vs. Ohio (376 vs. 584): The Supreme Court
ruled the illegally obtained evidence is inadmissible in state criminal
prosecutions.
1965, USA: Office of Law Enforcement Assistance (forerunner of the
Law Enforcement Assistance Administration – LEAA) was established
to fund and coordinate administration, research and training in
criminal justice.
1966, USA: - MIRANDA vs. ARIZONA (384 vs. 436): The US
Supreme Court established procedural guidelines for taking criminal
confessions.
DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHILIPPINE SETTING
1712. CARABINEROS DE SEGURIDAD PUBLICO: Organized
for the purpose of carrying out the policies or regulations of the
Spanish government. The members were armed and considered as
the mounted police. Later, they discharge the duties of a part, harbor,
and a river police.
1836. GUARDRILLEROS: A body of rural police organized in each
town, which was established by the Royal Decree of January 8, 1836.
This police force was composed of 5% of the able-bodied inhabitants
in each town or province, and each member will serve for at least 3
years.
1852. GUARDIA CIVIL: An organization created by the Royal
Decree issued by the Spanish Crown Government on February 12,
1852. It relieved the Spanish Peninsular Troops of their works in
policing towns. It consisted of a body of Filipino policemen organized
originally in each of the provincial capitals of the Central provinces of
Luzon under the command of Alcalde (Governor).
NOV. 30, 1980. INSULAR POLICE FORCE: Established during
the Filipino-American War (1898-1901) upon the recommendation of
the American Commission to the Secretary of War.
JULY 18, 1901. ACT # 175: The act establishing the Insular Police
Force which was titled as “AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE
ORGANIZATION AND GOVERNMENT OF AN INSULAR
CONSTABULARY”. The organic act creating the Philippine
Constabulary.
OCT. 3, 1901. ACT # 255: The law which established the Philippine
Constabulary
REVISED ADMINISTRATIVE CODE OF 1917, Section 825: The
law stated that the Philippine Constabulary is a national Police
Institution for preserving the peace, keeping the order and enforcing
the law.
SEPT. 8, 1966. RA # 4864. (Law co-authored by Rep.
Teudolo Natividad): The law otherwise known as the POLICE
ACT OF 1966, It created the Office of the Police Commission
which was later called National Police Commission
(NAPOLCOM). In its inception, the Police Commission was
under the Office of the President. It was created as the
supervisory agency to oversee the training and
professionalization of the local police forces. Through this law,
reformation and professionalization of the police service gained official
recognition.
AUG. 8, 1975. PD#765: The law which stipulated that the office
of the NAPOLCOM was under the office of the Ministry of the
National Defense. It defined also the relationship between the
Integrated National Police and the Philippine Constabulary.
This is in compliance with the provisions of Section 12, Article
15 of the 1973 Philippine Constitution.
1935 PHILIPPINE CONTITUTION, Article III, Section 17 (1) -
The law provides that:” In all criminal prosecutors, the accused
shall…. Enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel……”.
Criminal prosecution was however interpreted by the court in US vs.
Beechman (25 Phil 25,1972) to mean the proceeding at the trial court
from arraignment to rendition of judgment.
1973 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION, Article III, Section 20
1712
“No person shall be compelled to be a witness against
himself. Any person under investigation for the commission of an
offense shall have the right to remain silent and to counsel, and to be
informed of such right. No force, violence, threat, intimidation nor any
means, which vitiate the free will, shall be used against him. Any
confession obtained in the violation of this section shall be
inadmissible as evidence.
The warning of the right to remain silent must be
accompanied by the explanation that anything said can and will be
used against the individual in court. This warning is needed in order to
make him aware not only of the privilege, but also of the
consequences of forgetting it. (People vs. Duero, 104 SCRA 379,
1981)
1983 – MORALES vs. JUAN PONCE ENRILE (GR#61016-17;
April 26,1983; SCRA 538)
The ruling in this case makes it clear that the MIRANDA
WARNING as it is generally called have to be made so that a
confession can be admitted. Therefore, while upon police custody for
investigation, the accused must be appraised of his:
1. Right to remain silent with explanation that anything
that he might say maybe used against him in the
court of the law;
2. Right to talk to a lawyer, a relative, or a friend, and
have a lawyer ready and a friend present while he is
being questioned; and
3. Right to the appointment of a lawyer if he cannot
afford one.
1985 – PEOPLE vs. GALIT (GR#51770;March 20,1985) - The
right to a counsel maybe waived but the waiver, to be valid, must be
made with assistance of a counsel.
1987 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION, Article III, Section 12 (1) -
“Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense
shall have the right to be informed of his right to remain silent and to
have a competent and independent counsel preferably of his own
choice. If the person cannot afford the services of a counsel, he must
be provided with one. These rights cannot be waived except in writing
and in the presence of a counsel.
Article XVI, Section 5(4) - “No member of the armed forces in the
active services shall, at any time, be appointed for designated in any
capacity to a civilian position in the Government including government
owned or controlled corporation, or any of their subsidiaries.”
Article XVI, Section 6 - “The State establish and maintain one
police force, which shall be national in scope and civilian in character,
to be administered and controlled by a National Police Commission.
The authority of local executives over the police units in their
jurisdiction shall be provided by law.”
1990, RA 6975 - DILG ACT, Philippine National Police (PNP)
together with BFP and BJMP organization
1998, RA 8551 – PNP Reform and Reorganization Act
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
In the performance of his duties, the investigator must seek to
establish the six (6) cardinal points of investigation, namely: what
specific offense has been committed; how the offense was
committed; who committed it; where the offense was committed;
when it was committed; and why it was committed.
The Phases of Criminal Investigation
 a) Preliminary Investigation - identify the criminal through
confession; eyewitness testimony; circumstantial evidence;
and associate evidence
b) Follow Up Investigation - trace and locate the criminal; and
c) Final Investigation - proved by evidence the guilt of the
suspect/s.
In proving the guilt of the accused in court, the fact of the
existence of the crime must be established; the defendant must
be identified and associated with the crime scene; competent and
credible witnesses must be available; and the physical evidence
must be appropriately identified. The proof of guilt will depend on
the establishment of the essential elements of the crime. The
investigator must know by heart the elements of a specific crime.
Tools of an Investigator in Gathering Facts
a) Information – Data gathered by an investigator from other
persons including the victim himself and from Public records;
Private records; and Modus Operandi file.
b) Interrogation and Interview – Questioning of witnesses,
suspects, and offended parties.
c) Instrumentation – Scientific examination of real evidence,
application of instrument and methods of the physical
sciences in detecting crime.
INFORMATION
All evaluated materials of every description including those
derived fro observation, reports, rumors, imagery, and other sources
from which intelligence in produced.
Information is a communicated knowledge by others obtaining
by personal study, investigation, research, analysis, observation. The
use of modern gadgets in intelligence and other things and material
that possess or contain a desire information or knowledge.
Two General classifications of sources of information:
1. Open Sources – 99% of the info collected are coming
from open sources.
2. Close Sources – 1% of info from close sources.
Overt Intelligence – is the gathering of information or documents
procured openly without regard as to whether the subject or target
become knowledgeable of the purpose
Open Sources: Includes information taken from
 Enemy activity – POW – Civilians - Captured documents
 Map - Weather, forecast, studies, report - Agencies
Covert Intelligence – is the secret procurement of information, which
is obtained without the knowledge of the person or persons
safeguarding vital intelligence interest.
Close Sources: are information usually taken through:
 Surveillance
 Casing
 Elicitation
 Surreptitious entry
 Employment of technical means (Bugging and Tapping
device)
 Tactical Interrogation
 Observation and Description
Other sources of Information: Overt and Covert
 Routine patrol and Criminal investigation
 Use of informants and Interrogations
 Search and seizures and Cordon and scratch
 Checkpoints and Police public relations activities
  Coordination with law enforcement agencies
 Inmates of various city jails, national penitentiary, military
stockade.
 Statistics
Persons as sources of Information
Informant Net – It is a controlled group of people who
worked through the direction of the agent handler. The informants,
principal or cutouts supply the agent handler directly or indirectly with
Intel information
Informants (Asset) – people selected as sources of
information, which could be voluntary, or in consideration of a price.
 Informant – refers to a person who gives information to
the police voluntarily or involuntarily with out any
consideration
 Informer – those who give information to the police for
price or reward
Types of Informants
1. Criminal Informant – an informant who give information
to the police pertaining to the underworld about organized
criminals with the understanding that his identity will be
protected
2. Confidential Informant – is similar to the former but he
gives information violate of the law to includes crimes and
criminals
3. Voluntary Informant – a type of informant who give
information freely and willfully as a witness to a certain
act
4. Special Informant – those who gives information
concerning specialized cases only and it is regarded a
special treatment by the operatives (ex. teachers,
businessmen)
5. Anonymous Informant – those who gives information
through telephone with the hope that the informant can
not be identified
Sub-type of Informant
1. Incidental Informant – a person who casually imparts
information to an officer with no intention of providing
subsequent information
2. Recruited Informant – A person who is selected
cultivated and developed into a continuous source of info
Categories of Recruited Informants:
1. Spontaneous or Automatic Informant – Informants
who by the nature of their work or position in society have
a certain legal, moral or ethical responsibilities to report
info to the police
2. Ordinary run of he Mill Informants – Informants that
are under the compulsion to report info to the police
3. Special Employee – informants who are of a specific
operational nature
Other classification of Informant
Automatic – Penetration - Full time - Rival – Elimination - False
Informant - Frightened Informant - Self- aggrandizing Informant -
Mercenary Informant - Double Crosser Informant - Woman
Informant - Legitimate Informant
Common Motives of Informants
 Reward – Revenge - Fear and avoidance of punishment –
Friendship - Patriotism – Vanity - Civic-Mindedness – Repentance
–Competition -Other motives
INFROMANT RECRUITMENT
Phases
1. Selection – it is particularly desirable to be able to
identity and recruit an informant who has access to many
criminal in-group or subversive organization. Wide access is
probably the single most important feature in the
consideration of recruiting the potential informant
2. Investigation – the investigation of the potential
informants that has tentatively identified as a “probable” must
be as thorough as possible. It must establish possible existing
motives as to this person might assist the police Intel
community. Failure to do so will deny this office who must
perform the approach and persuasion phase with little more
that a guess. If necessary, conduct complete background
investigation (CBI)
3. Approach – approach must be done in a setting from
which might include pleasant surroundings, perhaps a
confidential apartment, completely free form any probability of
compromise, preferably in an adjacent city or a remote area
foreign to the informants living pattern.
4. Testing – the testing program should begin, of course,
with the limited assignment, with a gradual integration into the
more important areas. The occasional testing of an informant
should continue through the entire affiliation
INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION
1. Interview Defined. - An interview is the questioning of a person
believed to possess knowledge that is in official interest to the
investigator.
2. Importance of Interview. - Interview in crime investigation is
very important considering that the person interviewed usually
gives his account of an incident under investigation or offers
information concerning a person being investigated in his own
manner and words.
Basic Assumptions: Nobody has to talk to law enforcers. No
law compels a person to talk to the police if he does not want to.
Therefore, people will have to be persuaded, always within legal
and ethical limits, to talk to law enforcers. This makes interviewing
an art:
3. The Person Interviewed
Consider:
a) His ability to observe.
b) His ability to remember
c) His ability to narrate.
d) His mental weakness because of stupidity or infancy
e) His moral weakness because of drunkeness, drug addiction,
his being a pathological liar or similar factors.
f) Emotional weakness resulted by family problems, hatred,
revenue, and love.
4. The Interviewer’s Personal Traits.
a) He must be a practical psychologist who understands the
human psyche and behavior.
b) He has a sincere interest in people. People who are reclusive
generally are not good interviewers.
c) He is clam, has self-discipline, and keeps his temper.
d) He is courteous, decent and sensitive.
 e) He is self-assumed and professional. He is tactful, i.e. he
knows what to say when and how to say it.
f) He is cordial and agreeable, and never officious. But he
should avoid over-familiarity it.
g) He is forceful, persistent and patient. Some people just
cannot be rushed.
h) He is analytical.
i) He is flexible and cautious.
j) He is a good actor and can conceal his own emotion.
k) He avoids third degree tactics and never deviates from the
fundamental principle that a person must be treated
according to humanitarian and legal precepts.
l) he keeps the rules of evidence in mind.
5. Planning the Interview.
In planning the interview, the interviewer should consider:
a) The facts of the case which have been established so far.
b) The information needed to complete the picture
c) The sources of information that may be consulted such as
files and records.
d) The possibility of confronting the suspect with physical
evidence .
e) The time available for the interview.
f) The time allowed by law.
6. Preparation of the Interview – Before interviewing a witness,
the law enforcer should mentally review the case and consider
what information the witness can contribute. If the case requires
it, he should acquaint himself with the background of the witness.
8. Opening the Interview.
7. Time, Place and Surrounding Circumstance.
a) It is not always possible to fix the time and place of an
interview, but since memory is short, it is basic that an
interview with the witness and suspect(s) should take place
as soon as possible after the commission of the crime.
b) Interview of arrested person should be made as soon as
possible after the arrest.
c) Conduct interviews whenever possible in your own turf, i.e.
your office.
d) Have an interview room where there will be privacy. It should
be a plain room but not bleak. There should be few furniture,
and no distracting pictures, calendars or similar items.
e) Arrange it so that there will be no interruption during the
interview.
f) Suspects should be interviewed separately and out of sight
and earshot of each other.
g) If are two interviewers, let one man be the prime interviewer.
h) Arrange chairs so that window light falls on the interviewee
and not on the interviewer.
i) The interviewer should adapt his speech to the style best
understood by the subject. In dealing with tan uneducated
subject, the interviewer should use simple words and
sentences.
j) Straight-back chairs should be used for both subject and
interviewer. Other types of chairs induce slouching or leaning
back, and such position are not conductive to proper
interviews.
k) The interviewer should remain seated and refrain from pacing
about the room.
 a) The interviewer should identify himself and the agency to
which he belongs.
b) He should try to size up the interviewee and reach to tentative
conclusion about his type, then use the best interview
approach.
c) He should keep in mind the provisions of law regarding rights
of people under custodial investigation.
9. The Body of the Interview.
a) The interviewee should be allowed to tell his own story in his
own words without interruption.
(i) This allows for continuity and clearness.
(ii) Range of interview is broadened.
(iii) It helps the interviewee recall and relate evens in their
proper order.
b) Interviewer should keep to the point at issue and should not
wander too far from it.
c) Interviewer should be alert for hearsay information so he can
question the interviewee on the matter later.
d) Do not interrupt a trend of ideas by abruptly asking a
question. Use the uninterrupted account of the witness
interview
e) However, you may guide the interviewee innocuous questions
such as, “And then what did you do?”
10. Questioning.
a) Dominate the interview. Be careful, do not allow the
interviewee to be the one asking the questions.
b) Do not ramble. Have a reason for every question asked.
c) Follow the order of time and bring out the facts in that order.
This technique is called “chronological questioning” and is
considered the easiest as people tend to think in terms of
what happened first, the, second, then third. The interviewer
should go step by step in learning all the details concerning
the planning and commission of the crime and what
happened after it was committed.
d) Exhaust each topic before moving on to the next.
e) Determine the basis for each material statement. It might be a
hearsay.
f) Keep your questions simple and understandable. Avoid
double-edged or forked questions.
g) The dangers of leading and misleading questions should be
borne in mind. A question which suggests to the witness the
answer which the interviewer desires is a leading question.
Questions which assume material facts that have not been
proven are misleading questions.
h) Wait for the answer to one question before asking a second
one.
i) Ask important questions in the same tone of voice as the
unimportant ones.
j) As a rule, avoid trick or bluffing questions.
k) Where it is necessary to inquire into the past history of the
interviewee involving something unpleasant, it is wise to use
introductory remarks deploring the need for the question and
saying that it is one of the unpleasant but necessary of an
officer.
11. Closing
a) Before closing the interview, the law enforcer should make a
mental check of the purpose of the interview and should
analyze what he has learned, then decide whether he has
 attained his objective. He should be guided in this respect by
the 5 W’s and I H- what, where, when who, why and how.
b) The interviewer should always the door open for a re-
interview. Don’t forget to say “THANK YOU” after the
interview.
Note: Although the words “interview” and
“interrogation” have similar meanings, there are those
who prefer to use “interview” when questioning
witness and informants, and “interrogation” when
questioning suspects.
A Philosophy of Interview and Interrogation:
The RIGHT officer, asking the RIGHT questions, In the
RIGHT manner, At the RIGHT time and in the RIGHT place,
Will get the RIGHT answers.
INTERROGATION IN GENERAL
1. Interrogation Defined. An interrogation is the questioning of a
person suspected of having committed an offense or of a person
who is reluctant to make a full disclosure of information in his
possession which is pertinent to the investigation.
2. Purpose of Interrogation
a) To obtain information concerning the innocence or guilt of
suspect.
b) To obtain a confession to the crime from a guilty suspect.
c) To induce the suspect to make admissions.
d) To know the surrounding circumstances of a crime.
e) To learn of the existence and location of physical evidence
such as documents or weapons.
f) To learn the identity of accomplices
g) To develop information which will lead to the fruits of the
crime.
h) To develop additional leads for the investigation
i) To discover the details of any other crime in which the
suspect participated.
3. Preliminary Conduct. – The interrogator should identify himself
a t the outset and state in general the purpose of the
interrogation. He must advise the suspect of his rights against
self-incrimination and inform him that he does not have to answer
questions and that, if he does answer, these answers can be used
as evidence against him. he must inform the suspect of his right
to counsel and that a state appointed counsel will be made
available without cost to him if he so desires. No questioning of
the suspect unless the latter has definitely waived his right to be
silent. Ordinarily the investigator should be alone with the suspect
and, of course, the latter’s lawyer, if he has requested counsel.
4. The Interrogation Room – The room should provide freedom
from distractions. If should be designed simply to enhance the
concentration of both the interrogation and the subject on the
matter under questioning.
5. Interrogation Techniques – The following are some of the
techniques practiced by experienced investigators:
a) Emotional Appeals – Place the subject in the proper frame of
mind. The investigator should provide emotional stimuli that
will prompt the subject to unburden himself by confiding.
 Analyze the subject’s personality and decide what motivation
would prompt him to tell the truth, then provide those motives
through appropriate emotional appeals.
b) Sympathetic Approach – The suspect may fell the need for
sympathy or friendship. He is apparently in trouble. Gestures
of friendship may win his cooperation.
c) Kindness – The simplest technique is to assume that the
suspect will confess if he is treated in a kind and friendly
manner.
d) Extenuation – The investigator indicates he does not consider
his subject’s indiscretion a grave offense.
e) Shifting the Blame – The interrogator makes clear his belief
that the subject is obviously not the sort of person who
usually gets mixed up in a crime like this. The interrogator
could tell from the start that he was not dealing with a fellow
who is a criminal by nature and choice. The trouble with the
suspect lies in his little weakness – he like liquor, perhaps, or
he is excessively fond or girls or he has had a bad run of luck
in gambling.
f) Mutt & leff – Two (2) agents are employed. Mutt, the
relentless investigator, who is not going to waste any time
because he knows the subject, is guilty. Jeff, of the other
hand, is obviously a king-hearted man.
CRIMINAL INTERROGATION SYSTEMS
1. Types of Offenders and Approaches to be used in Dealing
With Them:
a) Emotional Offenders have a greater sense of morality. They
easily feel remorse over what they have done. The best
approach in interrogating this type of offender is the
sympathetic approach.
b) Non-Emotional Offenders normally do not feel any guilt, so
the best way to interrogate them is through the factual
analysis approach, that is, by reasoning with the subject and
letting him know that his guilt has already been, or will soon
be, established.
2. Interrogation of Suspect Whose Guilt is Definite or
Reasonably Certain
a) Maintain an attitude that shows that you are sure of yourself
when you conclude that the subject is indeed guilty.
(i) Don’t be very friendly with the subject and do not offer a
handshake.
(ii) At the outset, accuse the subject of lying. If he reacts with
anger, this usually indicates innocence. But if he
remains calm, you can generally conclude that your
suspicion of guilt confirmed.
(iii) Interruption of questioning by the subject may indicate
innocence. Silence is equated is equated with guilt.
(iv) Do not allow the subject to repeatedly deny his guilt.
(v) Assume that the subject is guilty and proceed to ask why
he committed the act,.
(vi) When interrogating a “big shot,” it may be useful to lower
his status by addressing him by his first name, instead of
using a title of respect.
(vii) Remember that one who is trained in criminal
interrogation is easier to question than an ordinary
criminal since he ahs less confidence in himself as a liar.
b) The subject should be made aware of the fact that the
interrogator knows information indicating his guilt and that the
interrogator is not merely “fishing” for evidence.
c) Let the subject know that he is showing signs of deception,
some of which are:
(i) Pulsation of the carotid (neck) artery
(ii) Excessive activity of the Adam’s apple
(iii) Avoiding the eyes of the interrogator, swinging one leg
over the other foot wiggling, wringing of the hands,
tapping of fingers, picking fingernails, etc.
(iv) Dryness of the mouth
(v) Swearing to the truthfulness of assertions. Guilty subjects
to strengthen their assertions of innocence frequently use
this.
(vi) “Spotless Past Record” – “Religious Man.” These are
asserted to support statements, which the subject knows,
and realizes the interrogator knows, to be false.
(vii) A “Not That I Remember” or “As Far As I Know”
expression should be treated as a veiled admission or
half-truth.
d) Sympathize with the subject by telling him that anyone else
under similar conditions or circumstances might have done
the same thing.
e) Reduce the subject’s guilt feeling by minimizing the moral
seriousness of his offense.
f) In order to secure the initial admission of guilt, the interrogator
should suggest possible reasons, motives or excuses to the
subject.
g) Sympathize with the subject by:
(i) Condemning his victim. During the questioning, the
interrogator should develop the notion that the initial
blame, or at least some the blame, for the crime rests
upon the victim.
(ii) Condemning the subject’s accomplice. But the
interrogator must be cautious so that the subject as
leniency or exculpation from liability does not misinterpret
his comments.
(iii) Condemning anyone else upon whom some degree of
moral responsibility might be placed for the commission
of the crime.
h) In encouraging the subject tot ell the truth display some
understanding and sympathy.
(i) Show sympathy through a pat on the shoulder (usually
reserved for men who are either younger that or of the
same age as the interrogator, or emotional offenders), or
gripping the subject’s hand. Care must be taken with
female offenders, who might consider any physical
contact with the interrogator as a sexual advance.
(ii) Tell the subject that even if he was your own brother (or
any other close relative), you would still advise him to
speak the truth.
(iii) Convince the subject tot ell the truth for his own moral or
mental well being
(iv) The “friendly-unfriendly” act. This is much like the Mutt
and Jeff system discussed earlier. The only difference is
that this act seems more effective if done by a single
interrogator playing both roles.
i) Point out the possibility of exaggeration on the part of the
accuser or victim or exaggerate the nature and seriousness of
the offense itself.
 j) Early in the interrogation, have the subject situate himself at
the scene of the crime or in some sort of contact with the
victim or the occurrence.
k) Seek an admission of lying about some incidental aspect of
the occurrence by achieving this, the subject loses a great
deal of ground, bringing him nearer to the confession stage,
because he can always be reminded by the interrogator that
he has not been telling the truth.
l) Appeal to the subject’s pride well-selected flattery or by a
challenge to his honor. Flattery is especially effective on
women subjects.
m) Point out the uselessness of lying.
n) Point out to the subject the grave consequences and futility of
a continuation of his criminal behavior.
o) Rather than seek a general admission of guilt, first ask the
subject a question regarding some detail of the offense, or
inquire as to the reason for its commission.
p) When co-offenders are being interrogated and the previously
described techniques have been ineffective, play one against
the other. This is effective because when two or more persons
have collaborated in the commission of a criminal offense and
are later apprehended for questioning, there is usually a
constant fear on the part of each participant that one of them
will “talk,” in exchange for some leniency or clemency.
3. Interrogation of Suspect Whose Guilt is Uncertain
a) Ask the subject if he knows why he is being questioned.
b) Ask the subject to relate all he knows about the crime, the
victim, and possible suspects.
c) Obtain from the subject detailed information about his
activities before, during and after the occurrence under
investigation. This is a good method of testing the validity of
the subject’s alibi.
d) Where certain facts suggestive of the subject’s guilt are
known, ask him about them rather casually and as though the
real facts were not already known, to give the subject an
opportunity to lie. His answer will furnish a very good
indication of his possible guilt or innocence, and if he is guilty,
his position becomes very vulnerable when confronted with
the facts possessed by the interrogator.
e) At various intervals, ask the subject certain pertinent
questions in a manner, which implies that the correct
answers, are already known.
f) Refer to some non-existing incriminating evidence to
determine whether the subject will attempt to explain it; if he
does, that is an indication of guilt.
g) Ask the subject whether he ever thought about committing the
offense or one similar to it. If the subject admits he had
thought about committing it, this fact is suggestive of his guilt.
h) In theft cases, if the suspect offers to make restitution, that
fact is indicative of guilt.
i) Ask the subject whether he is willing to take a lie-detector
test. the innocent person will almost always immediately
agree to take practically any test to prove his innocence,
whereas the guilty person is more prone to refuse to take the
test or to find excuses for not taking it, or for backing out of
his commitment to take it.
j) A subject who tells the interrogator, “All right, I’ll tell you what
you want, but I didn’t do it,” is, in all probability, guilty.
4. General Suggestions Regarding the Interrogation of
Criminal Suspects
 a) Interview the victim, the accuser, or the discoverer of the
crime before interrogating the suspect.
b) Be patient and persistent. Never conclude an interrogation at
a time when you feel discouraged and ready to give up;
continue for a little while longer.
c) Make no promises when asked, “What will happen to me if tell
the truth?” A promise of leniency or immunity may induce an
innocent to confess.
d) View with skepticism the so-called conscience-stricken
confession.
e) When a subject has made repeated denials of guilt to
previous investigators, first question him, whenever
circumstances permit, about some other, unrelated offense of
a similar nature of which he is also considered to be guilty.
f) An unintelligent, uneducated criminal suspect, with a low
cultural background should be interrogated on a
psychological level comparable to that usually employed in
the questioning of a child.
5. Interrogation Witnesses and Other Prospective Informants:
a) Give the witness or prospective informant an assurance that
the offender will not harm him or any member of his family,
and that there is a witness protection program specially
designed to meet that contingency when it becomes
necessary.
b) If such witness or prospective informant refuses to cooperate
with the police, try to sever any bond between him and the
offender, and proceed to interrogate the witness or informant
as if he were the suspect.
A. DEVELOPMENT AND CONTROL OF INFORMANTS
1. Confidential Informant Defined – a confidential informant is an
individual who supplies information on a confidential basis with
the understanding that his identity will not be made known.
a) Scientific approach in criminal investigation can assist law
enforcers immeasurably, but there is always that one case
wherein the crime laboratory cannot help. This is the reason
why investigators must to know the man on the street, then
man who can supply information.
b) Law enforcers must develop confidential informants
everyday.
2. Need for Informants
a) Informants increase accomplishment in all areas of
investigation.
b) Without confidential informants, the officer’s source of
information is limited to what he gets through formal interview.
c) Informants enable law enforcers to infiltrate the criminal
element and help lower criminal morale. Advance information
improves crime prevention and enables the police to find out
the identity of transient hoodlums.
d) Informants are an investigative “short cut’ to solve cases, to
recover stolen property, and to make apprehensions.
3. Where to Find Criminal Informants and Whom to Develop
a) Legitimate persons and criminals
(i) Hoodlums, criminals, fences, bookies, barbers,
bartenders, poolroom and dancehall operators,
prostitutes, madams, pawnbrokers, cab drivers, bell hops,
service station attendants, waitresses and others. A class
 in themselves is persons who had been accused or
suspected of a crime.
(ii) Persons engaged in certain occupations should be
considered.
4. How to Develop Confidential Informants
a) Constant need.
(i) No matter what our scientific development might be, there
will always come that time when we will need informants.
(ii) Development of confidential informants should therefore
be a continuous process.
b) Evaluation of the individual being considered as possible
informant:
(i) Does he have access to information?
(ii) Can he develop the trust of his associates?
(iii) Intelligence and physical courage
(iv) His criminal record and background
(v) His pattern of behavior
c) Basic considerations.
(i) Contact must be made in a neutral place. The officer
making the contact should not be in uniform or in police
vehicles. Contact should be made in such a manner that
the informant’s association with the law enforcement
agency would not be disclosed. Get the informer away
from his local habitat to a place where he is not known.
Call him by phone and let him set the time and place.
(ii) Plan the interview as to the type of “approach.”
[1] Return of favor. – Even small favors can help a lot in
developing informants. These may be extended in
various ways.
[2] Monetary consideration – There may be ties when an
officer has to pay for information. one must make
sure he gets his money’s worth. Do not overpay or
you will have a professional informant.
[3] Appeal to prospect’s ego. – Men on the beat
(patrolmen/investigators) have a good opportunity of
developing informants.
[4] Development of “friendship” helps because the
informant respects the officer. – This is accomplished
by friendly acts of the officer to the possible informant
himself or his relatives.
[5] Involvement in illegal activity – The illegal activity
serves as pressure on the possible informant. The
attitude toward him, though, should be “Put up or get
out”.
[6] Fear motive. – This is fear of the police or of his
associates
[7] Revenge motive
[8] Perverse motives – To eliminate competition, for
example.
[9] Bad publicity – Especially applicable to businessmen
(iii) Officer’ Ability.
[1] Develop an informant to the point that he really
respects you. - Do not call hour informant a “stool
pigeon” or a “stoolie” when talking to him.
[2] Secrecy in contacts cannot be over-emphasized. It
helps maintain the confidence of the informant. You
may use fictitious names over the phone. Contact
should be discreet and the meeting place frequently
changed.
 [3] The informant may expect a few favors in return. –
Make him understand that you association with him
does not give him the license to operate illegally. You
must have him understand also that he is not an
employee of the police even though he is being paid
for the information. It may be necessary to hold
something over his head.
- Be sure that your informant does not brag about
his association with you
- Make sure he is giving you good information. test
him with facts you know.
- Do not allow yourself to be interviewed by an
informant.
Give him the facts he needs to know, and nothing
more.
5. Use of Informants
a) Maximum benefit. – The confidential informant should be
used for the maximum benefit of the entire organization, not
of only one (1) officer/investigator.
b) A designated executive should be aware of the identity of the
informant. – At least two (2) individuals in the law
enforcement agency should know the identity of a confidential
informant. This gives him the feeling that he is really
cooperating with the police. It is also possible that something
might happen to you, which would mean the loss of the
informant to the entire police force. Besides the officer who
developed the informant, it is suggested that the other be a
rank-officer to give the informant a feeling of importance.
c) Consider a program within your respective commands for the
development of informants.
(i) Keep records as to the ability of your men to develop
informants.
(ii) Keep records as to the accomplishments of each of the
informants. This should tell you who among the
informants should be discarded.
(iii) Keep records as to fugitives apprehended, loot recovered
and cases given to you.
(iv) Maintain a tickler system to review your informant’s
contribution to your command.
B. UNDERCOVER INVESTIGATION
1. Preparation for undercover work should be sufficiently
thorough:
a) To preclude compromise
b) To minimize danger to the undercover operative
c) To ensure the ultimate success of the investigation
2. Undercover investigation should not be attempted until
other investigative techniques have failed or are deemed
impractical.
3. Factors to consider before undercover investigation is
initiated:
a) The exact result desired
b) Jurisdiction
c) The importance of the investigation
d) Available planning information
e) Availability of qualified personnel
f) The equipment and preparation necessary
g) Danger to the investigator involved.
4. General and Specific Qualifications – Undercover work as a
selective assignment requires that the investigator possess, in
addition to certain general qualifications, specific qualifications
required in the type of investigation being conducted.
a) General qualifications:
(i) Well-trained and experienced
(ii) A calm, collected and resourceful individual with good
judgment and wit
(iii) Complete self-confidence to feel absolutely certain that
he can successfully play the part of the character he will
assume.
(iv) Courage and ability to meet unforeseen situations with
quick, sound decisions
(v) Will power to avoid drugs and excessive use of
intoxicants.
(vi) Ability to avoid unwise entanglements with women
involved in the case or associated with the subject.
b) Specific qualifications
(i) Ability to act out an assumed role
(ii) Good memory in an investigation in which no notes can
be taken or report submitted.
(iii) Skill adaptable to the occupation assumed.
(iv) Physical appearance and capabilities consistent with his
assumed qualifications.
(v) Well-grounded in the lingo and techniques of the subject
criminal operations
(vi) In special situations, the undercover investigator should
possess certain linguistic abilities, hobbies, sports,
musical talent and personal background for the particular
and undercover assignment.
5. Authority for undercover operations must be from the top officer
of the organization, for this requires coordination with other
agencies.
6. The fewest number of persons must know the undercover
operation. Otherwise, the investigation or the operative himself
might be jeopardized.
7. The background or cover story regarding the assumed identity
of the undercover operative must be such that he can easily win
the confidence of the suspect or organization sought to be
infiltrated, and should seldom be wholly fictitious.
8. Badge and credentials must never be carried.
9. A weapon should only be carried if it is consistent with the
background story.
10. Provide safe communication systems between the
undercover agent and headquarters relaying information or
instructions.
11. Arrangements for drops and safe houses must be made and,
if necessary, the undercover operative himself may be placed
under surveillance.
12. The undercover operative must never pose as a criminal
unless no other approach appears adequate.
13. The role of the undercover operative is to gather information
or evidence against the suspect(s) or the organization, never to
instigate the commission of a crime.
14. Plans for the operation must provide actions or alternatives in
case the undercover is arrested.
15. Reminders tot he undercover operative:
a) Act as natural as possible.
b) Do not overplay the part.
c) Do not indulge in any activity, which is not in conformity with
the assumed identity.
d) Do not make notes unless they are to be mailed or passed
immediately: (Use codes and never place return address in
letters and envelopes).
e) Do not use intoxicants except to play the part.
f) Limit association with women to that necessary to play the
part
C. SURVEILLANCE
1. In General. – In the investigation of a certain case, a point is
reached when the investigator sometimes finds it difficult to
secure leads through questioning of the complainant and
witnesses. In such a situation, the investigator has to go to the
filed to locate the criminal or, if he is known, to study his habits,
movements and possible accomplices in the commission of the
crime.
2. Definition – Surveillance is the discreet observation of places,
persons and vehicles for the purpose of obtaining information
concerning the identities or activities of subjects.
3. Objectives of Surveillance:
a) To detect criminal activities
b) To discover the identity of persons who frequent the
establishment and determine their relationship.
c) To discern the habits of a person who lives in or frequents the
place.
d) To obtain evidence of a crime or to prevent the commission of
a crime.
4. Shadowing or Tailing. It is the act of following a person. Its
objectives are:
a) To detect evidenced of criminal activities.
b) To establish the association of a suspect
c) To find a wanted person
d) To protect a witness
There are three (3) types of shadowing employed, depending
upon the objective of the surveillance:
a) “Loose Tail” is employed when a general impression of
the subject’s habits and associates is required.
b) “Rough Shadowing” without special precautions may be
used where the criminal must be shadowed and he is
aware of this fact; or where the subject is a material
witness and must be protected from harm or other
undesirable influences.
c) “Close Tail” surveillance is one is which extreme
precautions are taken against losing the subject.
5. Tactics. – The subject should be kept unaware that he is being
shadowed. The investigator should be inconspicuous. He should
not be detected looking directly at the suspect. He should shift
from left to right, never remaining for long directly behind the
 subject. Both sides of the street should be used. If the tail, he
should request immediate removal from the statement.
6. Note. – The investigator must maintain a note or log containing a
chronological record of the activities of both the investigator and
the subject. The log can be used either in the interrogation of the
suspect or for purposes of cross-examination during trial.
7. “Roping” or Undercover Work. – It is a form of investigation in
which the investigator assumes a different and unofficial identity
(a cover story) in order to obtain information. The general
objective of an undercover investigation is to obtain more
information.
8. Arrest of Undercover Agent. – If the police arrest an
investigator, he must act in accordance with his orders. If he has
not received orders regarding the disclosure of his identity in case
of arrest by other law enforcement officers, he must act according
to his judgement. In such a case, if retaining his assumed
character does not serve a useful purpose, the investigator should
refuse to make a statement except to a member of his own
organization.
9. Preparation and Supervision of Discreet Surveillance
a) Familiarize participating operatives with the case.
(i) Use sketches, photos and maps in the briefing.
(ii) Make a physical description of the subject(s).
(iii) Anticipate contingencies that arise and plan what to
do
(iv) Ready coins for bus or jeepney fare and for making
phone calls
(v) Determine exits and have them covered.
(vi) Bear in mid the need to secure a Search Warrant on
short notice.
(vii) Ready materials for recording surveillance
(viii) Pre-arrange signals.
(ix) Maintain contact among the participants.
(x) Rotate participants and apportion their distances.
(xi) Consider the possibility of counter-surveillance.
b) Choosing proper equipment. Equipment include motor
vehicles, boats, binoculars, camera, radio equipment,
handcuffs, containers for evidence, strips of neolith and other
materials for disguising motor vehicles (day or nighttime),
firearms, tear gas etc.
Standard Methods of Recording Investigative Data
a) Photographs;
b) Sketching crime scenes;
c) Written notes (what you have seen or observed);
d) Developing and lifting fingerprints found at the crime scene:
e) Gathering physical evidence;
f) Plaster cast;
g) Tape recording of sounds;
h) Video tape recording of objects; and
i) Written statements of subjects(s) and witnesses
Scientific Examination of Real Evidence
a) The Crime Scene Search
Processing and Securing a Crime Scene – Processing a crime
scene includes the application of diligent and careful methods by an
investigator/policeman to recognize, identify, preserve and collect
facts and items of evidentiary value that may assist in reconstructing
that which actually occurred. The crime scene is the area surrounding
the place where the crime occurred. the processing of the area at the
scene includes all direct traces of the crime. and this is determined by
the type of crime committed and the place where the act occurred.
Protecting the Crime Scene and the Evidence – Successful
crime scene processing, depends upon the policeman’s or
investigator’s skill in recognizing and collecting facts and items of
value as evidence, and upon his ability to protect, preserve, and later,
to present these in a logical manner. This requires making careful and
detailed notes and sketches; using correct procedures in taking
photographs of the scene; taking written statements and transcribing
verbal statements of witnesses, suspects and marking and
preservation of collected physical objects of evidentiary nature.
b) Laboratory examination of objects and substances located
usually at the crime scene Objects and substances needing
examination in some cases are carried, intentionally or
unintentionally, by suspects from the crime scene.
Investigator’s Notebook.
a) Purpose: Considering the mass of details and the number of
cases which in some instances an investigator is handling, it
is very possible that he might forget some details. Many of the
details associated with the investigation, while not essential to
the report, might become points of interest to the court when
the case is brought to trial. Experienced investigators employ
a handbook to record the relevant details of the case. During
trial, the court allows investigators to consult their notes to
refresh their memory.
b) Recording Notes: The data of the investigation should be
recorded in a complete, accurate and legible fashion so that
in the event another investigator is required to assume the
responsibility for the investigation, be can make intelligent use
of the notebook.
Custodial Investigation/Interrogation.
It is the skillful questioning of a suspect or a hostile witness to
divulge information on the crime being investigated. It must be
remembered, however, that police investigators cannot learn
proper interrogation merely by reading books. The success of
interrogation depends on its legality, topic, physical insight and
experience.
PROCEDURE AT THE CRIME SCENE
Upon Arrival at the Crime Scene
a. Record time/date of arrival at the crime scene, location of the
scene, condition of the weather, condition and type of lighting
direction of wind and visibility
b. Secure the crime scene by installing the crime scene tape or
rope (police line)
c. Before touching or moving any object at the crime scene
determine first the status of the victim, whether he is still alive
or already dead. If the victim is alive the investigator should
exert effort to gather information from the victim himself
regarding the circumstances of the crime, while a member of
the team or someone must call an ambulance from the
 nearest hospital. After the victim is remove and brought to the
hospital for medical attention, measure, sketch, and
photograph. Only a coronal or a medical examiner shall
remove the dead body unless unusual circumstances justifies
its immediate removal.
d. Designate a member of the team or summon other policemen
or responsible persons to stand watch and secure the scene,
and permit only those authorized person to enter the same.
e. Identify and retain for questioning the person who firs notified
the police, and other possible witnesses.
f. Determine the assailant through inquiry or observed him if his
identity is immediately apparent. Arrest him if he still in the
vicinity.
g. Separate the witnesses in order to get independent
statements.
Recording - As a rule, do not touch, alter or remove anything at the
crime scene until the evidence has been processed through notes,
sketches and photographs, with proper measurements.
Searching for Evidence
a) A general survey of the scene is always made, however, to
the location of obvious traces of action, the probable entry
and exit points used by the offender(s) and the size and
shape of the area involved.
b) The investigator examines each item encountered on the
floor, walls, and ceiling to locate anything that may be of
evidentiary value. You should:
i. Give particular attention to fragile evidence that may
be destroyed or contaminated if it is not collected
when discovered.
ii. If any doubt exists as to the value of an item, treat it
as evidence until proven otherwise.
iii. Ensure that the item or area where latent fingerprints
may be present is closely examined and that action
taken to develop the prints.
iv. Carefully protect any impression of evidentiary value
in surfaces conducive to making casts or molds. If
possible, photograph the impression and make a cast
or mold.
v. Note stains, spots and pools of liquid within the scene
and treat them as evidence.
vi. Treat as evidence all other items, such as hairs, fiber,
and earth particles, foreign to the area in which they
are fund – for example, matter found under the
victim’s fingerprints.
vii. Proceed systematically and uninterruptedly to the
conclusion of the processing of the scene. The
search for evidence is initially completed when, after
a thorough examination of the scene, the rough
sketch, necessary photograph and investigative note
have been completed and the investigator has
returned to the point from which the search began.
Further search may be necessary after the evidence
and the statements obtained have been evaluated.
c) In large outdoor areas, it is advisable to divide the area into
strips about four (4) feet wide. The policeman may first search
the strip on his left he faces the scene then the adjoining
strips.
d) It may be advisable to make a search beyond the area
considered to be immediate scene of the incident or crime.
For example, evidence may indicate that a weapon or tool
 used in the crime was discarded or hidden by the offender
somewhere within a square-mile area near the scene.
e) After completing the search of the scene, the investigator
examined the object or person actually attacked by the
offender.
Methods of Crime Scene Search
A. Strip Search Method In this method, the area is blocked out
in the form of a rectangle. The three (3) searchers A, B, and C
proceed slowly at the same place along paths parallel to one
side of the rectangle. When a piece of evidence is found, the
finder announces his discovery and the search must stop until
the evidence has been cared for. A photographer is called, if
necessary. The evidence is collected and tagged and the
search proceeds at a given signal. At the end of the rectangle,
the searchers turn and proceed along new lanes.
B. The double strip or grid method of search is a
modification of the Strip Search Method. Here, the rectangle
is traversed first parallel to the base then parallel to a side.
C. Spiral Search Method - In this method, the three searchers
follow each other along the path of a spiral, beginning on the
outside and spiraling in toward the center.
D. Zone Search Method - In this method of search, the area is
considered to be approximately circular. The searchers gather
at the center and proceed outward along radii or spokes. The
procedure should be repeated several times depending on
the size of the circle and number of searchers. One
shortcoming of this method is the great increase in the area to
be observed as the searcher departs from the center.
Collecting Evidence. This is accomplished after the search is
completed, the rough sketch finished and photographs taken. Fragile
evidence should be collected as they are found. All firearms (FAs)
found to have tampered serial numbers (SNs) shall be automatically
subjected to macro etching at the Philippine National Police Crime
Laboratory (PNP-CL). A corresponding report to the Firearms and
Explosive Office (FEO) must be made for verification purposes. In the
collection, the investigator should touch the evidence only when
necessary.
Removal of Evidence. The investigator places his initials, the date
and the time of discovery on each item of evidence and the time
discovery on each item of evidence for proper identification. Items that
could not be marked should be placed in a suitable container and
sealed.
Tagging or Evidence. Any physical evidence obtained must be
tagged before its submission to the evidence custodian.
Evaluation of Evidence. Each item of evidence must be evaluated
in relation to all other evidence, individually and collectively.
Preservation of Evidence. It is the investigator’s responsibility to
ensure that every precaution is exercised to preserve physical
evidence in the state in which it was recovered/obtained until it is
released to the evidence custodian.
Releasing the Scene. The scene is not releases until all processing
has been completed. The release should be effected at the earliest
practicable time, particularly when an activity has been closed or its
operations curtailed.

Sketching Crime Scenes.
Pointers to Consider:
a) To establish admissibility, the investigator must have had
personal observation o the data in question. In other words,
the sketch must be sponsored or verified.
b) REMINDER: Sketches are not a substitute for notes or
photos; they are but a supplement to them.
c) Types of sketches: Floor plan or “bird’s-eye view”; Evaluation
drawing; Exploded view; and Perspective drawings.
d) Write down all measurements.
e) Fill in all the detail on your rough sketch at the scene. Final
sketch may be prepared at the office.
f) Keep the rough sketch even when you have completed the
final sketch.
g) Indicate ht North direction with an arrow.
h) Draw the final sketch to scale.
i) Indicate the PLACE in the sketch as well as the person who
drew it. Use the KEY – capital letters of the alphabet for listing
down more or less normal part sof accessories of the place,
and numbers for items of evidence
j) Indicate the position, location and relationship of objects.
k) Methods or systems of locating points (objects) on sketch
 Rectangular coordinates. (Measurements at right angels
from each of two walls)
 Coordinates constructed on transecting base line.
Choose relatively fixed points for your baseline.
 Triangulation. (Measurements made from each of two
fixed objects to the pint you want to plot or locate so as to
form an imaginary triangle. Sketch will show as many
imaginary triangles as there as object plotted).
l) Two (2) investigators should check critical measurements,
such as skid marks.
m) Measurements should be harmony; or in centimeters, inches,
yards, meters, mixed in one sketch.
n) Use standard symbols in the sketch.
o) Show which way doors swing,
p) Show with arrow the direction of stairways.
q) Recheck the sketch for clarity, accuracy, scale, and title key.
GENERAL TYPE OF SKETCH
Rough Sketch- made at the crime scene, no scale, proportion
ignored and everything is approximate
Finished Sketch- for courtroom presentation, scale and proportion
are strictly observed.
Kinds of Sketch
1. Sketch of locality gives a picture of the crime scene in
relation to its environs including neighboring buildings, roads,
etc.
2. Sketch of grounds includes the crime scene and its nearest
environment, ex a house w/ a garden
3. Sketch of details describes the immediate crime scene only.
SCENE OF CRIME OPERATION (SOCO)
Composition of SOCO Team
The SOCO team is composed of but not limited to the following
depending on the nature of the case:
1. Team Leader
 2. Assistant team leader
3. Photographer and photographic log recorder
4. Sketcher and Evidence Recorder
5. Evidence Recorder
6. Evidence Recovery Personnel
7. Driver/Security
Personnel Functions and Responsibility
1. Team Leader
a. Assume control of the crime scene. Ensure the safety of
personnel as well as the victim and offenders caught in
the scene and secure the crime scene from kibitzers.
b. Conduct initial survey of the crime scene for evaluating
potential evidence and narrative description of the place.
c. Determine search patterns to be used and designate
assignments to evidence gatherer.
d. Designate command post location in or near the crime
scene and insure exchange of information between
searcher and investigator.
e. Coordinate with other law enforcement agencies for the
security of the victims, offenders/suspects and the scene
of the crime.
f. Ensure that sufficient supplies and equipments are made
available for personnel involved in SOCO.
g. Control access to the scene and designate personnel. To
log persons entering the place and remove Kibitzers in
the area,
h. Continuously reevaluate efficiency of the search ensure
and that all places are searched properly.
i. Release the crime scene to the investigators handling the
case
2. Assistant Team Leader
a. Shall assist the team Leader in all his functions and
responsibilities.
b. Assume/takeover the responsibilities of the Team leader
in his absence
3. Photographer and photographic log recorder:
a. Photograph the entire area of the crime scene with
overall medium and close-up coverage using appropriate
scale.
b. Photograph victims, suspects/offenders arrested in the
scene.
c. Photograph all evidences before collection.
d. Photograph all latent Fingerprints, impressions before
lifting or casting is made. Likewise, photograph blueprints
map and other items
e. Prepare photograph log photographic sketch.
4. Sketcher:
a. Perform all sketches necessary during the crime scene
processing.
5. Evidence Recorder/Custodian:
a. Prepare evidence recovery log and accomplish chain of
custody of evidence.
b. Conduct packaging, preservation and transportation of
gathered evidence to the Crime Laboratory.
c. Coordinate evidence nomenclature with sketcher,
photographer and evidence gatherer.
d. Receive and record all evidence recovered.
e. Maintain custody and control of evidence
f. Observe the proper custody of evidence
g. Coordinate transmittal of evidence to case investigator or
to Crime Laboratory per agency guidelines.

6. Evidence Recovery Personnel:
a. Have significant evidence photograph before it is
collected.
b. Keep team leader always apprised of significant evidence
located.
c. Initial and date all evidence and turn it over to the
evidence recorder/custodian after noting where the item
was located.
d. Coordinate evidence nomenclature with evidence
recorder/custodian and sketch prepared.
e. Ensure that appropriate safety measures are adhered to
especially with respect to proper clothing including
gloves.
Equipment
1. Basic Equipment - Crime Scene tape or Rope (Police Line),
Measuring device e.g. ruler and measuring tape, Recording
materials e.g. chalk, sketcher and paper pad, Camera with
film, Video camera or tape recorder, Evidence collection kit,
Flashlight
2. Evidence Containers - String tags-large and small, Evidence
tape or masking tape, Roll of manila paper for wrapping,
Plastic gallon, ½ pint bottles/vials-plastic and glass, ¼ pint
bottles/vials-plastic glass, Absorbent cottons, Rolls of
fingerprint tape, Plastic bags-different sizes, Paper bags-
different sizes
3. Tools - Pair of scissors, Knife-heavy duty and folding knife,
Adjustable wrench, Pliers, Wire cutter, Complete screw driver
set, Saw, Hammer, Ax of hatchet, Shovel, Fingerprint
magnifier, Nylon brush, Magnet, Spatula, Box of plaster of
Paris for casting or lifting foot marks, Goggles, Sifting screen,
Funnels of different sizes, Ladder, Hand lens of magnifier,
Weighting scale, Vernier caliper and micrometer, Scalpels
4. Evidence Gathering Equipment - Rubber glove and cotton,
Box or filter, White cotton sheet, Cotton balls and swabs,
Fingerprint car, data card and ink cards, Photo data card,
Black and white latent print lifting cards, Rolls of lifting card,
Complete magna brush kit, Complete dusting kit, Heavy duty
rubber lifters, Camera whit no wide angel, normal and macro
lens, Arson kit, Casting and molding kit, Electric engraver
5. Miscellaneous - Rubber bands, Pencil, ball pens, pentel pen-
different color, Chalks, Permanent flat marker, Eraser, Stapler
with extra staple, Assorted paper clip and binders, Notebooks,
paper pads, sketch pads and drawing pads, Drawing
compass, Clippers, Magnetic directional compass, Carbon
papers and coupon bonds.
INTERVIEW IN GENERAL
Interview Defined. - An interview is the questioning of a person
believed to possess knowledge that is in official interest to the
investigator.
Importance of Interview. - Interview in crime investigation is very
important considering that the person interviewed usually gives his
account of an incident under investigation or offers information
concerning a person being investigated in his own manner and words.
Basic Assumptions: Nobody has to talk to law enforcers. No law
compels a person to talk to the police if he does not want to.
Therefore, people will have to be persuaded, always within legal
 and ethical limits, to talk to law enforcers. This makes interviewing
an art: SCIENTIFIC AIDS TO CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
The Person Interviewed (Consider the following) The scientific tools a criminal investigator can use are:
g) His ability to observe. a. Fingerprinting (Dactyloscopy)
h) His ability to remember b. Photography
i) His ability to narrate. c. Forensic Chemistry
j) His mental weakness because of stupidity or infancy d. Medico-legal
k) His moral weakness because of drunkeness, drug addiction, e. Forensic Ballistics
his being a pathological liar or similar factors. f. Questioned documents examination
l) Emotional weakness resulted by family problems, hatred, g. Polygraphy
revenue, and love. h. DNA Analysis
The Interviewer’s Personal Traits
m) He must be a practical psychologist who understands the
human psyche and behavior. DNA: THE LATEST SCIENTIFIC TOOL
n) He has a sincere interest in people.
o) He is clam, has self-discipline, and keeps his temper. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (de–ak–si–ri–bo–n(y)u–kle–ik) - is a
p) He is courteous, decent and sensitive. chemical substance found in all cells of living organism whose
q) He is self-assumed and professional. He is tactful, i.e. he composition have been passed on from parents to offsprings. It
knows what to say when and how to say it. is called as the genetic or hereditary material. A person’s DNA
r) He is cordial and agreeable, and never officious. But he is the SAME in every cell. It is contained in blood, semen,
should avoid over-familiarity it. skin cells, tissue, organs, muscle, brain cells, bone, teeth, hair,
s) He is forceful, persistent and patient. Some people just saliva etc.
cannot be rushed.
t) He is analytical.
u) He is flexible and cautious.
v) He is a good actor and can conceal his own emotion.
w) He avoids third degree tactics and never deviates from the
fundamental principle that a person must be treated
according to humanitarian and legal precepts.
x) he keeps the rules of evidence in mind.

BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE AMENABLE FOR DNA ANALYSIS
 blood and bloodstains
 semen and seminal stains
 hair with follicle/root
 saliva and buccal cells
 tissues and skin cells
 organs
 bone marrow and bones
 teeth
LINE UP OF CASES WHERE DNA ANALYSIS MAYBE USEFUL
 Sexual assault cases like RAPE
 Murder
 Homicide
 Robbery
 Hit and run
 Extortion
 Paternity cases
 Identification of remains in mass disaster
HOW IS DNA TYPING DONE?
DNA typing or profiling is a procedure wherein DNA extracted
from the evidentiary sample as well as from the reference biological
samples obtained from the victim and suspect are analyzed and
processed to generate a particular pattern or profile for each samples.
This profile is unique for each person except from identical twins. The
patterns are compared either with that of a known individual to
determine a match, or a set of possible relatives to determine
consanguinity.
In individual identification, the pattern obtained from the
evidentiary sample is compared with that of a suspect. If the patterns
are different, definitely it has not originated from the suspect. If it is
SIMILAR, the probability that the evidentiary sample arose from the
suspect and not from a random individual in the population is
calculated using a formula based on well-accepted concepts of
statistical probabilities and population genetics.
In cases of determining consanguinity, DNA from the subject
and his/her relatives are analyzed and compared. DNA fragments of
an individual are contributed by his/her father and mother.
Identification of mass disaster victims are done in the same way, the
DNA of unidentified victim and relatives are analyzed and compared.
In paternity cases, the DNA fragment contributed by the father should
be observed in the alleged father. Then, the probability that the
alleged father is the father of the child is calculated as a ratio between
that of the alleged father and any random male in the population.
There are several types of DNA tests that can be performed.
The NBI currently employs the PCR-based testing using the Short
Tandem Repeats (STR) systems like PE-ABI Profiler and Promega’s
PowerPlex 16 and PowerPlex Y Systems of analysis.
STAGES OF DNA ANALYSIS
 EXTRACTION – to obtain the DNA material from the
specimen. Two commonly used methods are Chelex, DNA IQ
(rapid methods) and organic extraction.
 QUANTITATION - to determine the amount of DNA material
extracted from the sample. NBI make use of the
QUANTIBLOT kit which is human specific and highly
sensitive up to picogram level.
 DNA AMPLIFICATION by PCR (Polymerase Chain
Reaction)– to make many copies of specific DNA fragment.
PCR is a synthesis reaction that is repeated for a number of
cycles and results in exponential accumulation of the specific
DNA fragment. The thermal cycler is the machine that does
this PCR and is compared to a Xerox machine.
Admissibility of DNA evidence
Under the rules of evidence, expert opinion on specialized
knowledge must be relevant to the question at issue; that is, it must
assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a
fact in issue. For instance, in the Daubert case earlier referred to, two
minor children and their parents sought to recover damages for birth
defects which were allegedly caused by the mother’s prenatal
ingestion of Bendectin, an anti-nausea drug sold by the defendant
pharmaceutical company. After discovery, the defendant moved for
summary judgment, asserting that Bendectin does not cause birth
defects in humans.
Defendants submitted an opinion from a well-credential expert
stating that his review of all of the literature on Bendectin revealed
nothing to indicate that the drug was capable of causing birth defects
in humans. So the issue before the court was what standard would be
used for admitting expert scientific testimony in a trial before a federal
court. The US Supreme Court held that the standard should be “If
scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier
of fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill,
experience, training, or education may testify thereto in the form of an
opinion or otherwise.” This is the standard laid down in Rule 702 of
the Federal Rules of Evidence in the US. Our own Rules of Court in
the Philippines follows this standard with respect to the admission of
opinion evidence.
In short, expert opinion based on the scientific method must be
(1) relevant to the fact in issue, and (2) must be scientifically valid, as
tested by the four indicia noted above. Relevance requires a valid
scientific connection to the pertinent area of inquiry so that it will be
admitted as evidence.
In the Philippines, the admissibility of DNA evidence was
squarely raised in the celebrated case of People v. Hubert Webb, et.
al. (Criminal Case No. 95-404, Regional Trial Court, Branch 274,
Parañaque City). This case involved a sinister plan to gang rape the
teen-aged victim. The accused, 7 of them, went to the house of the
victims after midnight on June 29, 1991 and by a pre-arranged plan
with the principal witness, three of them entered the house. According
to this witness, after three of the accused had entered the house, she
too went inside and pushing a door leading to one of the rooms, she
saw two bloodied bodies on top of the bed, and on the floor she saw
the first accused with bare buttocks on top of the rape victim, pumping
her. She also saw the second accused at the foot of the bed where
the two bodies lay, which was about to wear his jacket. She saw the
rape victim moaning and in tears, and her mouth was gagged. It was
further found by the trial court that when the first accused was raping
the victim, her seven year-old sister was awakened and, upon seeing
her elder sister being raped, she jumped at the first accused, bit his
shoulder, grabbed his hair, and pulled down his leather jacket. The
first accused became furious, grabbed the young girl, pulled her to the
wall, and stabbed her several times. The medico-legal officer of the
NBI found that the mother of the rape victim was stabbed 12 times
after having been hog-tied with an electric cord like the younger
daughter. The rape victim was found positive for spermatozoa in the
genital area in the smear test conducted by the NBI laboratory
although it was noted that there were no injuries therein. At the time
the cadaver of the rape victim was discovered, she was found naked
from the waist down; and it bore contusions on the left and right
thighs, which meant that she had put up a severe resistance to an
unwanted sexual intercourse. The wounds on the younger sister also
indicated that she was able to ward off her assailant.
It can be seen from this recitation of facts in the decision of the
trial court that there were various sources of DNA evidence which
could have been presented by either the prosecution or the defense.
Aside from the spermatozoa found on her genitalia by the NBI’s
smear test, it was found that the younger sister of the victim bit the
shoulder of the first accused and grabbed his hair. So the police
investigators could have examined her teeth as well as the strands of
hair of the accused to gather DNA evidence. Unfortunately, nothing of
this sort was done by the police. As for the sperm sample obtained by
the NBI laboratory, the first accused wanted to present this as
evidence for the defense at the trial, but the prosecution objected on
the ground that this has been degraded at the time of the trial, which
was held from August, 1995 to February 1998. The trial court
sustained the objection of the prosecution, and the defense let it rest
at that. Thus, the opportunity to use DNA evidence to conclusively
prove the guilt or the innocence of the accused was lost. This case
has been appealed to the Supreme Court with both sides predicting
victory. The defense of the accused was alibi. While we all know that
alibi is a weak defense, it must be noted that in this case, the first
accused presented an array of witnesses as well as documentary
evidence to prove that he was in California at the time of the
commission of the crime. The other accused also depended on alibi
for the defense. A total of 95 witnesses were presented by the
accused to support their defense, while the prosecution presented 7
witnesses. The decision in this case is so controversial that the
Supreme Court has decided to hear it en banc, as it has required the
accused to furnish 19 copies of their briefs (People v. Hubert Webb,
G.R. No. 141859).
Admissibility of DNA evidence under Philippine Law
Under our laws, evidence is admissible when it is relevant to the
fact in issue and is not excluded by the Rules (Rule 128, sec. 2, Rules
of Court). Under this test, evidence is relevant when it has such a
relation to the fact in issue as to induce belief in its existence or non-
existence. Evidence, to be relevant, need not conclusively prove the
ultimate fact in issue, but only have any tendency to make the
evidence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination of the
point in issue more probable or less probable than it would be without
the evidence. DNA evidence would be invaluable as corroborative
evidence without statistical backup if the accused has been identified
by other proof. It would be proper to inform the court that two DNA
samples match or do not match. In the case of a match, this makes it
probable that the DNA in the sample come from the same person
suspected as a perpetrator. It would be corroborative even without the
statistical back up needed in the Frye test or under the Federal Rules
of Evidence. In case of a non-match, this may lead to the acquittal of
a suspect. The probability under this form of presentation would be in
an amount that is not precisely known. This is because the only
criterion we are using is that of relevancy.
Evidentiary facts are relevant in evidentiary rules where there is
such a rational and logical connection between them and the matter in
issue that proof of the former logically tends to make the latter more
probable or improbable – that is, where the fact offered in evidence
has a legitimate tendency to establish the truth concerning a
controversial issue (Francisco, Revised Rules of Court (Evidence)
1964, p. 40, citing Jones on Evidence, p. 240). Under our Rules, even
collateral matters are allowed when they tend in any reasonable
degree to establish the probability or improbability of the fact in issue
(Rule 128, sec. 4). With such liberal rules of evidence, there should
not be any doubt as to the admissibility of DNA profiles in our courts,
even without the support of population genetic statistics.
Thus, in a prosecution for abusos deshonestos, our Supreme
Court held that it was not error for the trial court to convict the
defendant on the basis of a finding of the Bureau of Science that the
substance taken from the sex organ of the defendant showed that he
was suffering from gonorrhea, like the complaining witness who was
infected with the disease as a result of the crime (U.S. v. Tan Teng, 23
Phil. 145 [1912)]). This shows that even a mere finding from the
government bureau which shows a match between the disease of the
defendant and that of the complaining witness can be considered
relevant under our rules, as it tended to show the probability of the
defendant’s physical contact with the complaining witness.
Even in the United States under the Frye test, some courts have
admitted DNA match profiles without the statistical back up. The
Pennsylvania Supreme Court held that “the factual evidence of the
physical testing of the DNA samples and the matching alleles, even
without the statistical conclusions, tended to make the appellant’s
presence more likely than it would have been without the evidence,
and was therefore relevant” (Commonwealth v. Crews, 640 A2d 395
[1994]).
Our rules of evidence are all based on probabilities. “The most
that can be reached is a high probability that the fact in question is
true,” says Wharton, for “it is impossible even to expound the
principles and method of induction, as applied to natural phenomena,
in a sound manner, without resting them upon the theory of
probability” (Wharton, Criminal Evidence, cited in Francisco, id. at 48).
“We have, therefore, to content ourselves with partial knowledge –
knowledge mingled with ignorance producing doubt. Even scientific
conclusions cannot be demonstrated except so far as they deal with
abstrations” (ibid.).
“Probabilities have been with us for years, and a statement
of a probability is, by its nature, a statement of partial
knowledge, so it is paradoxical to imply that in principle we
cannot calculate the probability of an event without further
empirical knowledge” (MacKnight, “The Polymerase Chain
Reaction (PCR): The Second Generation of DNA Analysis
Method Takes the Stand”, 9 Santa Clara Computer & High
Tech. L.J. 287 (1993) at 328).
 Of course, the loose relevancy in our rules does not augur well
for the protection of the rights of the accused. Scientific evidence
tends to mystify even the hard-boiled judges who are ignorant of DNA
technology. The scientific jargon may overwhelm them into admitting
DNA evidence and give these frill credence, unless the accused hires
his own expert to challenge the findings. If the defense counsel fails to
challenge the weight of such evidence because of ignorance of the
procedures for validation, cross-checking and re-testing, or if he fails
to challenge the premise of the expert witness, the accused would
remain at the mercy of the prosecution expert. The relevancy
standard in evidence implicitly relies on the effectiveness of the
adversarial system and on the right of cross-examination to protect
the rights of the accused. Failure of the defense counsel to question
the findings of the prosecution expert will place the accused at the
short end of due process. The defense counsel in a situation like this
should at least have an idea about laboratory testing and sampling
procedures, population genetics, reliability of statistics, and laboratory
error rates. The accused should have the logistics to hire his own
expert so that he can be placed on an even keel with the prosecution.
As for expert opinion on DNA profiles, our rules of evidence
admit such opinion as long as the witness proves that he is an expert
in a given field. And he can do this by proving that he has knowledge,
skill, experience, training, or education in any given field (Rule 130,
sec. 49). Of course, the difficult problem is that the presentation of
DNA evidence requires different forms of expertise. The presenter
may have to present a laboratory technician, a molecular biologist, a
population statistician, and a geneticist. This is because the laboratory
technician may not be qualified to testify on molecular biology, the
biologist may not be able to testify on statistical probabilities on the
frequency of a random match, and the statistician may not be qualified
to testify on population genetics. Thus, in Powell v. State (598 SW2d
829 (1994)), the defendant challenged the expertise of the molecular
biologist to testify on the probabilities of matching DNA patterns
because he was not qualified as a population geneticist. (See also
Swanson v. State, 823 SW2d 812 [1992]). In State v. Lewis, (654
So2d 761 [1995]), the trial court denied expert status to a lab
technician who presented herself as an expert in molecular biology;
the appellate court reversed because she belonged to invitational
professional organizations, received several academic awards, had
written 14 articles on DNA analysis, and had been assistant director of
a laboratory for more than one year.
The other problem here is that there are only a few experts in the
pertinent fields. Experts in statistics, genetics, biology, organic and
inorganic chemistry, computers, laboratory testing and protocols, on
human hair and sperm, blood and bloodstains, etc. would be needed
in this kind of inquiry. They are rare birds, especially here in the
Philippines. They therefore do not come cheap, and engaging their
services would add to the high cost of DNA profiling and testing, which
has been estimated to cost at least P30,000 at pre-devaluation rates.
A poor defendant may not have access to such experts. This raises
constitutional issues of due process and violation of the rights of the
accused. He may not get a fair trial if he cannot engage the services
of such an expert witness. Since most defendants in heinous crimes
like rape and murder are generally poor, they would not have the
resources to pay for their own experts or to import them from abroad.
This would result in a one-sided contest in our criminal justice system.
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION

1. GENERAL:
To know what question to ask and what to look for,
you must have some fundamental bearing on accidents and
their causes. When you speak of traffic accident, everybody
knows what you mean – SOMETHING WENT WRONG on
the highway, either a wrecked car, somebody injured or
possibly killed.
In this relation, as traffic law enforcers, you should
have knowledge of traffic accidents and their investigations.
2. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION DETERMINES
THE FOLLOWING:
a. WHAT happened?
b. WHO were involved?
c. WHERE did it happen?
d. WHY did it happen?
e. HOW did the accident occur?
f. WHEN did the accident happen?
3. PURPOSES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION:
Accidents are generally investigated for four (4) main
reasons, depending on who does the investigation:
a. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and
circumstances of the accident.
b. Police are also interested in finding out whether there
is enough evidence of law violation in the accident to
take enforcement action.
c. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine
negligence on the part of the drivers involved in the
accident so that damage claims can be properly
adjusted.
d. Officials and other want specific information about
accidents to know how to prevent future accidents.
4. DEFINITIONS:
a. TRAFFIC – refers to the movement of persons,
goods, or vehicles, either powered by combustion
system or animal drawn, from one place to another
for the purpose of travel.
b. ACCIDENT – is that occurrence in a sequence of
events which usually produces unintended injury,
death, or property damage.
c. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT – an accident involving travel
transportation on a traffic way.
d. MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT – is any event that
results in unintended injury or property damage
attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a
motor vehicle or its loads. Included are:
1. Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;
2. Fires;
3. Explosion;
4. Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle
while in motion;
5. Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad
train or street car on stationary rails or tracks;
6. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the
vehicle is in motion.
Excluded are:
1. Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or
water-craft in motion;
 2. Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or 1. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – is any motor vehicle
sudden physical change of the earth surface); accident occurring on a traffic way.
3. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not e.g. ordinarily collision between automobiles on a
under its power is being loaded on or unloaded highway.
from another conveyance. 2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident – is any motor vehicle
e. MOTOR VEHICLE – is every device which is self- accident which occurs entirely in any place other than a
propelled and every vehicle which is propelled by traffic way.
electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, e.g. accident on a private driveway.
but not operated upon rails. 3. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – is any accident
f. TRAFFIC WAY – is the entire width between occurring on a traffic way involving persons using the
boundary lines of every way or place of which any traffic way or travel or transportation, but not involving a
part is open to the use of the public for purposes of motor vehicle in motion.
vehicular traffic as a matter of right or custom. e.g. pedestrian and cyclist in a traffic way.
g. ROADWAY – the portion of a traffic way which is
improved, designed or ordinarily used for vehicular
travel, exclusive of the shoulder. 6. CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC
h. KEY EVENT – an event on the road which ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO KEY EVENT:
characterizes the manner of occurrence of a motor
vehicle traffic accident. Running off road 1
i. DEBRIS – is the accumulation of broken parts of Non-collision on road: Overturning 2
vehicles rubbish, dust and other materials left at the Other non-collision 3
scene of the accident by a collision. Collision on road with: Pedestrian 4
j. SKID MARKS – are marks left on the roadway by Other motor vehicle in traffic 5
tires which are not free to rotate, usually because Parked motor 6
brakes are applied strong and the wheels locked. Railroad train 7
k. SCUFF MARKS – are signs left on the road by tires Bicycle 8
that are sliding or scrubbing while the wheel is still Animal 9
turning. Fixed object 10
Other objects 11
5. KINDS OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS:
7. CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO
SEVERITY:
a. Property Damage Accident – is any motor vehicle
accident where three is no fatal or injury to any
person but only damage to the motor vehicle or to
other property including injury to animals.
b. Slight – accident causing slight damages to
properties.
c. Non-Fata Injury Accident – any motor vehicle
accident that results in injuries other than fatal to one
or more persons.
c.1 Less Serious – accidents causing less serious
injuries to persons.
c.2 Serious – causing serious injuries to persons.
d. Fatal – any motor vehicle accidents that results in
death to one or more persons.
8. TRAFFIC UNIT – is any person using a traffic way for travel,
parking or other purposes as a pedestrian or driver, including
any vehicle, or animal, which he is using. It applies not only
to motor vehicle but also to:
a. Pedestrians;
b. Cyclists;
c. Street cars;
d. Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles;
e. Farm tractors; and
f. Other road users in almost any combination.
Example: A traffic accident could involve a cyclist and a
pedestrian.
9. CAUSES OF MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS:
a. SIMULTANEOUS FACTORS:
1. Road conditions.
2. Drivers’ attitude or behavior
3. Weather condition.
b. SEQUENTIAL FACTORS:
1. Speed is greater or less than safe.
2. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction)
c. OPERATING FACTORS:
1. Road hazards
2. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and
regulations.
d. PERCEPTION FACTORS:
1. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a situation.
2. Driver’s faulty action to escape collision course.
HAZARDS – A hazard is generated when a critical space-motion
relationships between a traffic unit and another object develops due to
the movement of either or both. Example: A curve in the path is a
hazard. Another traffic unit in the path is also a hazard.
SAFE SPEED – The speed adjusted to the potential or possible
hazards or the road and traffic situation ahead. Safe speed on the
road is determined by the road rather than the particular driver of a
vehicle. Example: A curve ahead is a hazard and a safe speed for it is
a speed at which it can be taken comfortably.
PERCEPTION OF HAZARD – Seeing, feeling, or hearing and
understanding the unusual or unexpected movement or condition that
could be taken as a sight of an accident about to happen.
 POINT OF NO ESCAPE – is that place and time after or beyond
10. CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT: which the accident cannot be prevented by the traffic unit under
For the purpose of reporting, traffic accident may consideration.
usually be described well enough as a single occurrence but
when accident is investigated, attention is directed to FINAL POSITION – is the place and time when objects involved in
particular stages of the occurrence. an accident finally come to rest without application of power.
In fact, an accident may be usually defined as a
series of an expected events leading to damage or injury. FIVE (5) LEVELS OF ACTIVITY IN ACCIDENT
One event usually leads to another so that the series can be INVESTIGATION
spoken of as a “chain of events”. Some of these events are a. Reporting
described below: b. At-scene investigation
a. Perception of hazard – is seeing, feeling, or hearing c. Technical, preparation
and understanding the usual or unexpected d. Professional reconstruction\
movement or condition that could be taken as sign of e. Cause analysis
the accident about to happen.
b. Start of evasive action – is the first action taken by a
traffic unit to escape from a collision course or 11. STEPS TO BE TAKEN BY THE POLICE AS A TRAFFIC
otherwise avoid a hazard. LAW ENFORCER DURING TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS:
c. Initial Contact – is a first accidental touching of an STEP ONE
object collision course of otherwise avoid a hazard.
d. Maximum Engagement – is greatest collapse or UPON LEARNING OF ACCIDENT:
overlap in a collision the force between the traffic unit A. ASKED FIRST:
and the object collided with - are greatest at 1. When did the accident happen?
maximum engagement. 2. Exactly where was it?
e. Disengagement – is separation of a traffic unit in 3. How bad was it?
motion from an object with which it has collided. 4. Did you see the accident happened?
Force between the object ceases at this time. 5. Where can you be reached?
f. Stopping – is coming to rest. It usually stabilizes the B. DECIDE WHETHER TO GO TO THE SCENE:
accident situation. 1. Will scene have been cleared by the
g. Injury – is receiving bodily harm. time of arrival?
 2. Is it in investigator’s area? Step 1
3. Should headquarters’ be informed or
consulted? a. CHOOSE BEST APPROACH: Consider:
C. THEN FIND OUT, IF NECESSARY: 1. Time
1. Is traffic blocked? 2. Possible traffic jams
2. Has ambulance been called? 3. Possible route of driver
3. Has wrencher been called? involved and
4. Was fire apparatus called? 4. Probable situation at scene.
b. DRIVE SAFELY:
STEP TWO Get there safely, if you get involved
A. UPON ARRIVAL AT THE SCENE OF ACCIDENT: in accident yourself then other units must
1. Select parking place carefully. be used.
2. Is it safe? c. BE ALERT FOR CARS LEAVING
3. Will it block traffic? SCENE:
4. Can headlight illuminate scene? 1. As possible witnesses or hit
5. Look over bystanders and others. and run drivers.
6. Look for drivers. 2. Records registration numbers
7. Look for possible witnesses. of any likely looking vehicles.
8. For volunteers who will help you. d. GET EQUIPMENT READY FOR USE:
9. Get them under control So far as practical on the way.
10. Have spilled gasoline guarded. e. LOOK FOR CONDITIONS
11. Look for fire and electrical hazards. CONFRONTING A DRIVER
12. Look for traffic hazards. APPROACHING SCENE:
13. Put out flares. 1. Low visibility view
14. Ask helper to direct traffic obstructions, and
15. Keep bystanders off roadway. 2. Traffic control devices.
16. Request help from headquarter if needed. f. NOTE HAZARDS TO APPROACHING
B. ARRANGE FOR ANY HELP: TRAFFIC:
START FOR THE SCENE: With two way radio, 1. Drop helper to direct traffic if
you can do two things while on the way. necessary
 2. Look for physical evidence.
Have it guarded until it can be
examined, collected or
located.
Step 2
1. Look for congestion or potential
congestions.
2. Direct traffic or have it directed.
3. CARE FOR INJURED:
a. Stop arterial bleeding
b. Call for help if necessary
c. Help injured from cars safely
d. Ask for emergency assistance from
bystanders from any where.
4. LOCATE DRIVERS:
1. Consider possibility of hit and
run accident and need to alert
headquarters.
2. Look for witnesses at scene,
arrange to question and get
names and addresses.
5. Measure location or short lived
evidences.
6. Arrange for clearing roadway.
7. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid
injured.
Step 3
WHEN EMERGENCY IS UNDER CONTROL
a. PRELIMINARY QUESTIONING OF DRIVERS:
1. Who was driving each vehicle?
2. Note unpremeditated statement.
3. Look for signs of nervousness, confusion and
intoxication.
b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars.
1. Question other witnesses especially bystanders in
hurry to go.
2. It needed, get signed statement at once from why
who may be hard to find later.
c. Examine drivers conditions
1. Get specimen for chemical test.
2. Question about trip plan for possible fatigue.
d. Question drivers carefully
1. Check license and record data from it.
2. Verify and identify address.
3. Check registration and record data.
4. Verify ownership and correct address.
5. Get step by step account of what driver saw and did.
e. Position and condition of vehicles.
1. Note lights and light switches
2. Note gear position and tires.
3. Mark position of vehicles if it must be removed.
4. Look for unusual thing inside the vehicles.
f. From preliminary opinion as to how accident occur:
g. Photography:
1. Photograph skidmark and location of vehicles.
2. Mark skidmark location for later measurement.
h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles
were or will be taken.
Step 4
AFTER GETTING SHORT-LIVED EVIDENCES: i.Clean up location or arrange to have it done.
j.Report to headquarters by radio or telephone.
1. Make test skids. Step 5
2. Decide whether proof of violation is sufficient for arrest. AFTER LEAVING THE SCENE
3. If so, make arrest or issue citation. a. Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or hospital.
4. Get additional formal statements, from witnesses b. Question drivers or witnesses:
remaining at the scene. 1. At hospital or home if not adequately questioned.
5. Have road clear if traffic is obstructed. 2. Take need additional statements.
a. Suggestion to drivers: c. Notify:
1. How much accidents can be avoided in the future. 1. Relatives of dead or injured;
2. Tell drivers what reports they must make and dismiss 2. Owner of vehicles.
them. d. Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical /
3. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit laboratory test.
involved. e. Have photograph developed, get prints if needed for report.
b. Look for: f. Complete the report of the accident.
1. View obstructions. 1. Have copies made if necessary
2. Traffic control devices, etc. 2. File report and copies
3. Probable points of perception. g. Complete factual data on investigation report if not completed
4. Road surface conditions. at scene.
c. Complete examinations of vehicles. h. Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time
d. Locate key event of accident. available for making it.
e. Make additional photographs of vehicle damage. i. Reconstruction of the accident.
1. Vehicle damage 1. Estimate speeds of vehicles involved.
2. View obstruction 2. Draw scale diagram
3. Pavement’s conditions 3. Analyze angle of collision
4. Control devices, and general view, etc. 4. Get technical help if necessary, and
f. Establish exact location of accident and record it. 5. Summarize opinions
g. Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach. j. Present case summary to a lawyer.
h. Review notes of evidence or testimony. k. Complete report or investigation (file reports and notes).
1. Get additional facts at scene. l. Submit to superior for approval.
2. Identify all notes with places and time.
 m. Inform other Agencies or departments of any condition at the
scene which needs attention for safety.
Step 6
IF CASE GOES TO COURT
a. Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop
evidence.
b. Return to the scene if necessary for the following:
1. Additional photographs of general scene and
2. Long-lived evidence
3. Measure for scale diagram for use in court.
4. Locate additional witnesses and review tier testimony.
4.1 Relatives and friends who confirm activities
before the accident.
4.2 Technicians who developed pictures, made
chemical tests, etc and experts who can help.
c. Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court
d. Have large scale diagram made for use in court.
e. Pre-trial conference with prosecution witnesses to review
testimony.
f. Insure that subpoenas are issued
g. Testify in court.
h. Organize papers and file permanently, if necessary, for future
reference.
i. Insure that the disposition of case is recorded in drivers
record and other reports.
12. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT REPORT
a. Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System.
b. Preparation of Traffic Accident report
1. By a competent bonafide traffic accident investigator.
2. Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report
such as evidence gathered, diagrams, sketches as well as
sworn statements of witnesses.
3. Traffic Accident Investigation Report will be accomplished in
five (5) copies:
3.1. For the Court or Prosecutor’s Office;
3.2. For TRAFCOM;
3.3. For the Investigator
3.4. For the Insurance company of Party-involved #1; and
3.5. For the Insurance company of Party-involved #2.
13. PARTIAL CHECK LIST FOR INVESTIGATING
ACCIDENTS:
The following check list will assist the accident
investigation to evaluate the quality of his investigations. It
may be used as an administrative tool to determine the
quality of accident investigation that will be used as a
standard.
1. any of the skid marks.
I. Show only an overall length without separate
measurements for each wheel. This usually includes the
wheel base of the car with the result that the sliding
distance appears to be length longer than it really is. Get
to Scene Quickly and Safely
1. Respond Immediate to Call
2. Drove carefully on way
3. Parked properly at scene
II. Care for Injured
 1. Made immediate inquiry for injuries
2. Provide first aid, or for medical attention
3. Handled injured properly
4. Safeguard properly injured
III. Safeguard Scene
1. Took precautions to prevent further
accident
2. Prove for orderly handling of traffic
3. Obtained required help in handling
the accident
4. Prevented destruction of evidence
5. Parked car properly
Determine if Hit-and-run
1. Quickly located drivers
2. Observed condition of drivers
3. “Listened” to drivers’ story
4. Took notes on drivers’ story
5.”Questioned” drivers about the
accident
IV. Seek and Interview Witnesses
1. Made proper search for witnesses
2. Techniques used in search for
witnesses
3. Approached witnesses
4. “Listened” to witness’ story
5. “Questioned” witnesses on pertinent
information
6. Asked witnesses to write out his
statement
7. Asked for witnesses’ signatures to
statements taken
8. “Handled” witnesses interview
properly.
V. Examine Physical Evidence
1. Checked position of vehicles on
roadway
2. Checked traffic control devices
3. Checked damage of vehicles
4. Checked brakes of vehicles
5. Checked obstruction to view
6. Checked condition of roadway
7. Checked marks and materials on
roadway surface.
: VI. Compare Statements of Drivers and Witnesses
1. Checked statement against each
other :
: 2. Checked with drivers and / or
witnesses on statements inconsistent
with each other or physical condition
3. Decision at this point, tentatively at
least on any violation of law involved
VII. Witnesses Repeat Statement In Presence of Drivers and
Investigator
1. Brought drivers and witnesses together
2. Stories repeated in presence of each
drivers and investigator
3. Drivers permitted to reply to statement
 made
4. Procedure handled tactfully by investigator
VIII. Secure Written Statement of Drivers
1. Drivers asked to write out their story
2. Drivers asked to sign statement they made
3. Signed statement obtained
4. Procedure handled efficiently by
investigators
IX. Take Photograph and Measurements
1. Proper photograph taken
2. Tire and skid marks tied in with vehicles
3. Marked properly measurement
4. Diagram of accident made, both drivers
signed it
X. Take Appropriate Enforcement Action
1. Investigator identified violations involved
2. Proper charges placed against the violator
3. Evidence obtained to satisfy all elements
of charge made
4. Investigator detected all pertinent evidence
XI. Obtain Complete Factual Data
1. All pertinent data on accident obtained.
2. All obtained data factual
3. “On the Scene” notes taken by investigators
4. Complete investigation made by investigators
XII. Pre-Report Follow-up
1. Mechanical inspection of vehicles was made
2. Participants not at scene, interviewed
3. Witnesses not at scene, interviewed
4. All other follow-up requirements made
:
XIII. Write up Report
1. Investigator obtained sufficient data
2. Investigator obtained accurate data
3. Proper diagram included in report
4. Sound opinions also included in the report
5. Finished report meets of department records
SKIDMARKS: AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION
SKIDMARKS - The sudden application of brakes which
results in the locked wheel condition places such a great pressure
between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the frictional force at
this point becomes greater than the frictional force between the tire
and the road surface. When this condition exists, the wheels skid.
One of the main reasons for studying and measuring skid
marks at the scene of a traffic accident is to get some idea how fast
the car which left these marks was going prior to the accident.
Estimates of speed based on skid marks sometimes lead to
convictions in connection with an accident. On the other hand,
knowing how to estimate speed correctly may help to keep an
innocent person from being convicted.
For example, skid marks 80 feet long were measured at an
accident scene. A test skid made 20 miles per hour showed 20 feet
long skid marks.
It was argued in court that with skid marks 20 feet long from a
speed of 20 miles per hour, the car must be going 80 miles per hour to
leave 80 feet skid marks. The driver was unjustly convicted. His
actual speed was more nearly half of that, or 40 miles per hour.
SKIDMARKS AS EVIDENCE IN ACCIDENT CASES
Skid marks are useful in several ways:
1. Aid in determining the speed of the car prior to the accident or
collision.
2. It will show if the vehicle was travelling in the wrong distance
or on the wrong side of the road.
3. It will indicate if the driver failed to observe the right of way.
4. It will also show if the driver did not obey a traffic signal.
SKIDMARKS DO NOT SHOW ALL THE SPEED
Skid marks never show all of the speed of a car before the
accident happened. They show only how far the car would have had
to slide to stop in the distance shown by skid marks.
Evidence of additional speed. A car is somewhat going faster
and often faster is calculated from skid marks because in addition to
losing speed is sliding the distance shown by the skid marks, the car
also losses some of its speed on one or more of the following ways:
1. SLIDING WITH ONE OR MORE WHEELS BEFORE ANY
SKIDMARKS BEGIN TO APPEAR.
Dark clear skid marks do not appear until the
tires have slid far enough to got hot enough to smear
rubber or scar on the pavement. This is less true on such
materials as gravel and dirt.
2. BRAKING WITHOUT SKIDDING
Before sliding begins
During gaps
After marks and before the car comes to rest
Usually, braking just the wheels start to slide
actually shows the car more than after the wheels starts
to slide.
3. DRAGGING THE CAR AS IT HITS SOME OBJECT
The crumpling and smashing some of parts of
the car slows the car down rapidly.
4. DAMAGING OTHER CARS OR OBJECTS
5. SLIDING OTHER CARS OR OBJECTS ALONG THE
ROADWAY.
6. VAULTING OR BOUNCING UP INTO THE AIR.
In many accident of course, other is evidence of terrific speed
is the WRECKAGE (EXTENT OF DAMAGE), but there are no skid
marks at all because brakes were not put on hard enough to lock the
wheels.
In an accident in which brakes are put on just before contact
of vehicles, the skid marks maybe only two or three feet long and
therefore, show a speed of only five or six miles per hour. Whereas,
the wreckage tells us that the total speed may have been ten times as
great.
In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the
speed calculated from skid marks may come close to showing how
fast he car was actually going. Accidents involving pedestrians are
the most common ones of this kind.
In any accident in which great damage was done will skid
marks show more than small part of the speed, often a very minor part
of it; but if the skid marks have been rightly identified and measured, it
can be said that the car was going faster than the speed calculated
from the skid marks, much faster if there was considerable damage.
THINGS THAT DETERMINE SKIDDING DISTANCE
How far a car will take to skid or slide to stop when all four
wheels are locked depends on many things. Three of these factors
are important, and you must consider them in every estimate of
speeds based on skid marks.
1. SPEED ITSELF IS BY FAR THE MOST IMPORTANT
2. SLIPPERINESS OF THE PAVEMENT
3. GRADE OR SLOPE OF THE ROAD UP OR DOWN.
Every driver knows, of course, that it takes much longer to
stop on pavements that are slippery, and that he can stop more
quickly on an upgrade than downgrade road.
Of many other factors on which distance depends, none has
had a very great effect. Most of them will affect a calculated speed by
only a few miles per hour. They therefore have a little effect on the
speed calculated form the skid marks usually not more than a couple
of miles per hour.
Among those other factors are the following:
1. BRAKE PEDAL PRESSURE
When wheels are actually sliding, additional
brake pedal pressure will not make the stop any quicker.
Once the wheels have been locked and the car is sliding,
the brakes have done all they can in slowing the car and
the grab of the pavement on the tires is what determines
how fast the car will slow down.
2. WEIGHT OF THE CAR
Makes a great difference in stopping distance
before the wheels lock, but once they have locked, it
makes a very little difference. It is true that it takes much
greater pressure to lock the wheels on a vehicle when it
is heavily loaded than it is empty. However, when the
wheels are once locked, a greater weight of the vehicle,
which gives it greater momentum, also causes it to press
harder on the road surface and therefore, give it a
corresponding greater drag from the pavement.
3. TIRE TREAD
On the most ordinary surfaces, a smooth tire and
one with a deep tread pattern will stop the car in about
the same distance. On some other surfaces, particularly
on ice, a smooth tread is better because it distributes the
weight over greater area.
4. AIR PRESSURE
Makes a very slight difference in stopping
distance. On ice, for example, soft tire will distribute the
weight a little more and give somewhat better traction.
5. TIRE MATERIAL
There is a slight difference between tires made of
synthetic and those made of natural rubber.
6. ROAD SURFACE
Of surfaces such as mud, snow, and on ice, tires
equipped with chains have a better road-gripping
capacity. On some hard pavements, however, chains
may decrease road gripping capacity.
7. DIRECTION OF SLIDES
Makes a slight but unimportant difference. A tire
will lengthwise except in materials so soft that it ploughs
or sinks.

8. TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR AND ROAD SURFACE
Make some difference. In general, on ordinary
pavements, hot weather produces longer stopping
distance. This is not necessary on ice and snow.
9. AGAINST A HEAD WIND
A car will slide a little farther from given speed
with a tall wind than against a head wind, but this is not a
matter of great importance.
For most ordinary purposes, you do not have to
consider those minor factors in establishing speeds from
skid marks.
SPEED ESTIMATES
Because the minor factors are neglected, we can not
calculate speeds precisely. We only estimate them. Some of the
minor factors would tend to give a higher speed and others a lower
speed, and they would partly balance or cancel out.
Sometimes all of the factors tend to give a high estimated
speed. Remember, in this connection, that skid marks do not show all
of the speed and therefore, the probable actual speed is still greater
than your estimate.
FACTS NEEDED
To make a reasonably good estimate of speed, certain facts
are needed. There must come from observations and measurements
at the scene of the accidents. The accuracy of ht estimate or
calculation depends upon the accuracy of these observations and
measurements.
LENGTH OF SKIDMARKS
Consider the following:
Be sure they are skid marks – not just tire marks.
1. Did all wheels slide or just some of them? It makes little
difference if tire is sliding forward or sidewise.
2. Are there any gaps in the skid marks? Be sure there are
gaps caused by a release of brake pedal pressured and not
skids caused by bounced.
3. What is the length of each skid marks around any curves; it
may not make straight from beginning to the end in the
shortest line. You may want to consider two separate lengths
for each skid marks. One of these is based on the part of the
skid mark you can positively identify. It gives you speed
which will be minimum beyond reasonable doubt. The others
is a possible skid mark which will give you a more likely
speed. The first is all you can use in court, the second is
often much useful in figuring out just what did happen in the
accident.
4. Use the length that the wheel skid, not the tire slid. Dual tires
which leave two marks are considered as one wheel, and the
skid mark length is counted if either tire on the wheel leaves
this mark.
There are two ways of figuring the length of a slide if all on the
same kind of pavement. These are:
1. STRAIGHT LINE
 A slide is considered straight if both rear-wheel skid
marks do not go off to one side of the front wheel skid marks.
Use the length of the longest skid mark left by any wheel minus gaps
in it. This method is possible because all wheels slide about the same
distance. We know that the brakes definitely have been applied
throughout the entire distance of the longest skid mark.
If one wheel does not slide as far as the others, still it was about to
slide when the others began. The drag on the pavement by this
wheel is about the same just before it begins to slide as when it is
actually sliding. It may even be greater.
Therefore, we are usually safe in saying that all wheels are dragging
as mush as if there were sliding wheel skid applies to motorcycles,
trucks, truck and trailer combinations, and buses as well as ordinary
motor vehicles.
2. SPIN
A slide is considering a spin if both rear wheel skid marks do
get off to one side of the front wheel skid marks. Take the length of
each skid marks minus gaps. Add the skid mark length for all wheels
and divide the numbers of wheels. This method is necessary in the
case of the spins, because some of ht wheels slid much farther than
other; that is, one end of the car may practically stand still while the
other sweeps around it.
Use this method only when there is about the same weight on front
and rear wheels; that is usually for ordinary cars, motorcycles, and
light trucks with trailers or heavily loaded trucks having duel tires on
the rear wheels. Uneven weight with a spin is a situation, which
requires special calculations. This method gives you a figure for the
sliding distance of the vehicle. It is not necessary to compute it more
accurately than to the nearest foot. For this length you may have two
figures, one a positive distance and one a possible distance.
Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made. For
example, investigators may:
1. Fail to show whether all wheel slid.
2. Fail to include in the sliding distance a skid shown by a
shadow as well as that more clearly shown by the smear of
the hot fire.
3. Neglect to note whether they are gaps in
4. Fail to note whether the skid marks are straight or a spin.
5. Measure straight across from beginning to the end of a curve
skid marks rather than around its length.
If the facts are not all there, assumptions should have to be
made about the distance the car slid. For legal purposes, you may
assume only what may be true beyond responsible doubt. Hence,
poor observations and measurements often leave you little value to go
on. Nevertheless, reasonable assumptions regarding conditions which
more definitely observed in investigations may be very helpful in
coming to a conclusion about what probably happened.
1. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION – DRAG FACTOR
It is the measurement of the maximum frictional resistance of
pavements. It is equal to the force exerted when the wheels are
skidding divided by the weight of the car.
Slipperiness of surface must also be known in order to calculate
speeds from skid marks. We tell what this slipperiness by a number,
usually decimal less than 1.00. When any object is sliding, the
surface it slid on puts a friction drag on sliding tire that slows the car.
A slippery movement creates a small friction drag and an abrasive
pavement a big drag. If we divide the amount of friction drag in
pounds by the weight of the car in the pounds, we get the number that
describes the slipperiness.

EXAMPLE:
The drag of the pavement on the sliding tires of an automobile is 3,
000 lbs.. The automobile weights 4, 000 lbs.. The number
representing the slipperiness of the pavement, or its friction drag, is
then 3, 000 divided by 4, 000 or 0.75. This friction drag factor or
slipperiness number is called technically the “COEFFICIENT OF
FRICTION”. You can measure the drag factor of a pavement by
making a test skid which tells how far a car slides on that pavement
while stopping from a known speed. The drag factor or coefficient of
friction can be determined by use of a formula. If we let “S” stand for
the speed in miles per hour from which the test skid is made and “D”
the distance in feet that car slides in coming to stop, then the drag
factor, which we call “F” will be:
F = S2 / 30 (D)
The “30” is the formula because speed is given in miles per
hour and the distance in feet (transformation of feet per second to
miles per hour). It is called a constant because it stayed the same in
all problems for which the formula is used.
Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself
and then divided by 30 times the stopping distance. You do not need
to carry the division out more than two places to the right of the
decimal point.
EXAMPLE:
On a test to measure pavement slipperiness, a car was
stopped in 40 ft. from 30 miles per hour. Substituting these numbers
for the letters representing them in the formula, and doing the
arithmetic involved, we have:
F = S2 / 30 (D) = 302 = 900 / 30 (40) = 0.75 / 1, 200
Using a chart, which was especially designed to represent this
formula, is much easier than doing the arithmetic for it. To use it:
1. Locate the test stopping distance on the D scale at
the left.
2. Locate the test speed on the S scale in the middle.
3. Draw a straight line through these two points and
extend to the right until it crossed the F scale at the
right.
4. Read the friction drag on the F scale.
It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement
slipperiness be correctly made. You are unlikely to do it right without
special instruction or experience.
At least two skids are desirable. Compute the slipperiness
separately for each. Unless there are within 0.05 each other friction
calculated from any of several test skids made on the same paving.
This is necessary if you want to be sure beyond reasonable doubt of
calculated speeds. Test skids made the same car that was in the
accident are the best. They thus take care of some o the minor
factors such as the weight of the car, the tire material, the tread
pattern, tire pressure and therefore , make the estimate more reliable.
1. GRADE FOR SLOPE (GRADIENT)
So far, we have been talking only about level roads. You can
stop more quickly if you are going uphill than on a level road. But it
will take to longer to stop when going downhill. Hence, the slope or
grad of the road should also be considered.
Grade is measured by a number that is also usually less than
1.00. The measure of the grade is the number of the feet that the
road rises or falls for each feet of the horizontal distance.
To find it, divide the vertical rise or fall by the horizontal distance. It is
not necessary to carry this divisions more than two places to the
right of the decimal.
USE THIS FORMULA:
f = horizontal distance / vertical rise or fall
Possible ranges of pavement Drag Factors for rubber tires.
The drag factor or coefficient of friction of a pavement of a given
description may vary considerably because quite a variety of road
surfaces maybe described in the same way.
Some of these variations are due to the weight of the vehicles, air
pressure in the tire, treated design, air temperature, speed and some
other factors
REACTION TIME
This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes:
a. Divide seconds in an hour (3, 600) into feet in a
mile (5, 280) = 1, 467.
b. To determine distance you will travel in one
second, multiply 1.467 (1.47 or 1.50) times the
speed which you are traveling.
c. Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on
the brake is ¾ of a second on the average. The
age of the driver should be considered.
d. 1.5 x speed = length in feet covered before brake
works for you.
PROCEDURE FOLLOWED BY THE PNP
a. The officer submits as evidence in a case the
measurements of the skid marks and the Court interprets
the facts in the light of other evidence.
1. Some courts require the assistance of an expert.
2. Measurements should be accomplished by two
men.
3. Sketches and photographs with measurements
indicated should be made soon after the
accident.
b. Some police departments have their officers skid a
vehicle to a stop from the legal speed limit, if this can be
done safely, and compare the skid marks with those in
the accident.
c. Some would draw conclusions from tests on physical
calculation.
MEASUREMENT OF SKIDMARKS
a. Should meet legal standards. Officers measuring the
skid marks and the distances to embankment of other
fixed constructions should verify each other’s
measurements so that they can corroborate each other’s
testimony in court.
b. Evidence should be presented to show that the skid
marks were made by the suspect car.
c. Witnesses should testify in court.
BASIC PRINCIPLES IN CALCULATING SPEEDS FROM
SKIMARKS:
Energy and vehicle speed. An automobile moving at any
speed possesses energy. As the speed of the vehicle increases, the
resulting energy developed is said to increase as the square of the
ration of the increase in speed.
EXAMPLES
20 kph = 40
30 kph = 90
40 kph = 160
STOPPING A MOTOR VEHICLE
Whenever a moving vehicle is stopped, the energy that it
possesses at that time must be expended or spent. It is only when
most or all of the vehicle’s energy is expended through skidding of
tires that a fairly accurate calculation may be made of the vehicle’s
speed before the accident.
TEST RUNS
In making calculations for speeds from skid marks, it is often
necessary to conduct one or more test runs, using the vehicle
involved in the accident or, if it cannot be driven, another vehicle of
similar characteristics may be used.
a. Conditions should be the same as those existing when the
accident occurred. The character of the road, whether wet or
dry, should be the same.
b. Conduct tests on the same road surface and in the same
direction.
c. The vehicle’s speedometer should be checked, and any
difference from accurate calibrations should be noted.
d. A speed consistent with safety, such as 20 or 30 miles per
hour, should be selected for the test run.
e. Brakes should be applied suddenly and as hard as possible
when the car is moving at the selected test speed.
f. The length of each skid mark should be measured.
g. If a brake detonator is available, the total braking distance
should be accurately determined using such equipment,
either mechanically or electrically operated.
h. Generally, it is advisable to conduct two or three tests at the
selected speed. The test producing the longest braking
distance, that which favors the defendant most, is generally
used in the calculation.
i. To avoid possible differences in the application of brakes by
the driver, it may be advisable to have the driver of the
accidents vehicle drive the car in the test runs.
SPEED CALCULATION
a. When a vehicle is stopped solely by skidding, it is possible to
calculate the speed of the vehicle at the beginning of the skid
by using the formula based on the principle that the skidding
or braking distance vary as the square of the speed.
FORMULAS USED IN FINDING SPEED ESTIMATES:
The following are some of the formulas being used in
conducting reconstruction, particularly the speed estimates (mph)
to wit:
01. S = 5.5 . / DF = (speed on a level road)
02. S = 5.5. / DF = uphill or downhill
03. D = S2 / 30 F = Skid marks
 04. F = S2 / 30 D = Drag Factor
WHERE:
S = speed (mph)
F = coefficient of friction (drag factor)
f = grade (1, 2, 4) or super elevation
D = distance (feet)
b. When accident vehicle cannot be driven.
When the vehicle is damaged so badly that if cannot be
driven, part of the vehicle’s energy is expended in damaging
the car and the object struck.
A calculation of speed form skid marks left under these
circumstances gives a speed based only on the amount of energy
expended in the skidding.
Consequently, the resulting speed value may be
considerably less than the actual pre-accident speed, since it is
not possible to determine how much farther the vehicle would
have skidded had there been no collision.
HIT AND RUN ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
The objectives of the investigation of motor vehicle accident
involving the flight of one of the participants in are two fold. First,
responsibility for the collision must be determined and secondly, the
identity of the driver of the vehicle who fled the scene must be
established.
What is Hit and Run Case?
Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to a traffic
accident in which a driver fails to comply with any of the duties
required (Sec. 55 of RA 4136). Further, it states that no driver of a
motor vehicle concerned in a vehicle accident shall leave the scene of
the accident without aiding the victim, except under any of the
following circumstances:
a) If the driver is imminent danger of being
seriously harmed by any person or persons by reason of the
accident;
b) If the driver reports the accident to the
nearest officers of the law; or
c) If the driver has to summon a physician or
nurse to aid the victim.
TWO IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS
In any investigation of this kind of accident, two basic
considerations must be kept in mind. These are:
a) The driver who flees the scene of an accident is not
necessarily the driver responsible for the accident.
His reason for flight are often more important than the
simple evasion of responsibility. He may be wanted
for another crime, or intoxicated, or without a valid
license, etc.
b) The hit-and-run driver often will report the damage to
his own vehicle as having been the result of another
hit-and-run accident in which some “other mysterious
driver” fled without identifying himself. Similarly, it is
not unusual for the hit-and-run driver to abandon his
vehicle and then report it stolen as a means of
covering up his involvement in the accident.
 As stated earlier, the basic objectives of these investigations using his vehicle for several days since the accident, this
are the identification of the driver who fled the scene. The discovery would also indicate the guilt.
and arrest of the driver, once identified generally comes after the 3. Guard against
location and of the vehicle. claims that the vehicle was stolen to evade responsibility.

However, the mere recovery of the vehicle does not always CLASSES OF HIT-AND-RUN DRIVERS
immediately establish the identity of the driver. a. Drunk
drivers
ELEMENTS OF HIT-AND-RUN CASES b. Criminals
a. You must prove suspect was fleeing from the scene of the crime.
driving the vehicle at the time of the accident. Even if you c. Improperly
have witnesses to prove this, get evidence to disprove his licensed drivers, or drivers with no license or with revoked
alibi. or expired license.
b. Suspect was involved in an d. Drivers who
accident resulting in death, personal injury or damage to fear publicity and prosecution.
property. e. Ignorance
c. Suspect failed to stop, give of the accident.
aid or information as to his identify to other person (s) f. Driver who
involved, to police or to anyone at the accident scene; or flees in panic
failed to take reasonable steps to notify the owner of g. Drug
damaged property other than a vehicle. Do not overlook the addicts.
possibility of a simulated second accident to explain damaged h. Insurance
caused by the first accident. or financial reasons.
d. Suspect had knowledge of i. Juveniles.
the accident.
1. Physical evidence PRELIMINARY STEPS
may prove the vehicle figured in the accident. a. Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.
2. Extent of damage b. Obtain the best possible description of the car and
to vehicle. Extensive damage to vehicle would preclude driver.
allegation of lack of knowledge. If suspect refrained from 1. A good description may be obtained from
partial descriptions given by witnesses.
 2. Get the license plate and any unusual 2. If the victim is killed, get samples of
features of the vehicle. uncontaminated blood from him at the
3. Concentrate on the car’s description first morgue and samples of hair, skin, etc.
4. Dispatch initial description and all 3. Collect and preserve for laboratory
subsequent information to the Headquarters examination, the clothes, shoes, and other
and to police agencies that may assist in items he was wearing at the time of the
spotting and stopping the suspect vehicle. accident.
5. Broadcast descriptions of the suspected car SPECIAL CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
and river to all police units and offices.
6. Try to determine the damage to the feeling
HOMICIDE AND MURDER INVESTIGATION
car.
c. Appeal for information through local newspapers,
Homicide Investigation - It is the official inquiry made by the police
radio, T.V., etc.
on the facts and circumstances surrounding the death of the person
d. Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical
which is expected to be criminal or unlawful .
evidence.
1. These may include broken glasses and
Homicide
fragments, hubcaps, paint scrapping from hit-
Any person who, not falling within the provisions of Article 246
and-run car, other evidence such as dirt from
(Parricide) Revised Penal Code shall kill another without the
subject car, radiator ornament, etc.
attendance of any of the circumstances enumerated in Article 248
2. Carefully preserve and label all evidence
(Murder) RPC, shall be deemed guilty of homicide.
found at the scene.
The elements of homicide are:
3. Request laboratory study of evidence.
(1) A killing exist
4. Watch out for the possible return of the hit-
(2) The accused did the act without legal justification and with
and-run driver to the scene of the accident.
intent to kill
This has been known to happen.
(3) The killing is neither murder, parricide nor infanticide.
e. The Victim
Intent to kill is presumed if deaths results from the unjustified
1. Check his clothing; other parts of his body,
act. If death did not result from the act, intent to kill is essential to
tire marks, grease, paint chips, fragments,
prove attempted or frustrated homicide otherwise the crime may be
and such things that might have been left on
physical injuries only.
him by the suspect car.
Murder
Any person who, not falling within the provision of Article 246
(Parricide) of the RPC shall kill another, if committed with any of the
following attendant circumstances:
1. With treachery, taking advantage of superior strength, with
the aid of armed men, or employing means to weaken the
defense or of means or persons to insure or afford impurity.
2. In consideration of a price, reward, or promise.
3. By means of inundation, fire, poison, explosion, shipwreck,
stranding of a vessel, derailment or assault upon a street car
or locomotive fall of an airship, by means of motor vehicles or
with the use of any other means involving great waste and
ruin.
4. An occasion of any of the calamities enumerated in the
proceeding paragraph or of an earthquake, eruption of a
volcano, destructive cyclone, epidemic, or any other public
calamity.
5. With evident premeditation.
6. With cruelty, by (deliberately and inhumanly augmenting the
suffering of the victim, or outraging or scoffing at his person or
corpse.
The elements of murder are:
(1) A killing exists.
(2) The accused killed the deceased under any of the above
circumstances qualifying the killing to murder.
(3) The killing does not constitute parricide or infanticide.
The circumstances that qualify the killing to murder must be alleged in
the information as otherwise the killing may be considered as merely
homicide.
Parricide
Any person who shall kill his father, mother, or child, whether
legitimate or illegitimate, or any of his ascendants or descendants, or
his spouse, shall be guilty of parricide.
The elements of parricide are:
(1) A person is killed by the accused.
(2) The person killed is the father, mother or child (not less than
three days old), whether legitimate or illegitimate, or the
ascendant or descendant or the spouse of the accused.
The relationship with the other ascendant or descendant
(grandfather or grandson) must be legitimate. The spouse killed
must be legitimate wife or husband. But the father, mother or child
may be legitimate or illegitimate. If the child killed is less than
three days old, the crime is infanticide.
Responsibilities of a Homicide Investigator
1. Homicide investigator when called upon to investigate a
violent death, stand on the dead man’s shoes, to produce his
instincts against those suspects. Consequently, the zeal,
enthusiasm and intelligence the investigator brings in the
case marks the difference between a murderer being
convicted or set free.
2. If the investigator interprets an accidental death as due to
natural death and wisdom or the family may be deprived of
benefits and other properties which the deceased have
sacrificed to obtain.
3. If he interprets a criminal death as accidental or natural, a
guilty person is otherwise set scot free.

Note: Remember that the police is the first line of defense in the
effective application of criminal justice.
The Primary Job of the Investigator
1. To discover whether an offense has been committed under
the law.
2. To discover how it was committed.
3. Who committed it and by whom it was committed.
4. When it was committed.
5. And under certain circumstances why it was committed.
Mistakes in Homicide Investigation
1. The mistakes of the homicide investigator can not be corrected.
2. The homicide investigator should not cross the three bridges,
which he burns behind him. It is important that competent
personnel adequately handle the case.
The following are the three bridges:
A. The dead person has been moved.
It is therefore necessary that photographs be taken,
measurements made, fingerprints taken and other necessary
tasks to be first carried out.
B. The second bridge is burned when the body is embalmed.
Embalming destroys traces of alcohol and several kinds of
poison. If poisoning is suspected, the internal organs should
be removed.
C. The third bridge is burned when the body is burned or
cremated.
The exhume body is difficult and expensive. The lapse of time
make s the examination doubtly difficult and a conclusion is
hard to arrive at. Cremation destroys body itself.
The Medico-Legal Autopsy
1. The real beginning of any homicide investigation should be to
establish the cause of death accurately.
2. An autopsy should be performed at once when there is the
slightest reason to suspect the probability of homicide.
3. In general, it maybe stated that death has been caused by
violence, an autopsy is always performed unless there is
adequate proof to the contrary.
The value of the Investigator in attending autopsies
During the conduct of autopsy, an investigator can observe
first hand and ask questions pertinent to the case under investigation.
The medico-legal officer can explain the autopsy findings as they
progress. As the results of the autopsy are received by the
investigator such information, if pertinent and requiring expeditious
investigative attention, can be passed along to the other investigators
for immediate handling. When the investigator has a suspected
weapon, comparison of the weapon with the wound can be made. The
officer present at the autopsy can be the liaison with the investigation
team working on the case and see that all evidence is obtained during
the examination.
The Role of the Medico-Legal officer in Homicide Investigation
The determination of criminal responsibility in death has been
developed into a specialized field of medical science called forensic
pathology. A pathologist can assist in homicide investigation by:
 1. Documentation of all wounds, bruises, scratches, scars or
other marks at the time of the autopsy.
2. Interpretation of findings based on medical facts.
Necropsy Report- It is a document stating the cause of death of the
victim. This is the medico-legal report.
The Facts of Death
1. The first action of an investigator upon arriving at the crime scene
of the homicide is the verification of death.
2. An individual is said to be dead in the medical sense when one of
the three vital function is no longer performing within the body:
a. Respiratory system
b. Cardiac Activity
c. Central nervous system activity
3. In the legal sense, death is considered to occur when all of the
three above vital functions have ceased.
Presumptive signs and Test of Death
1. The following are few of the signs indicative of death:
A. Cessation of breathing and respiratory movement
B. Cessation of heart sounds
C. Loss of placing of nail beds when pressure is applied in the
fingernails is released.
Suspended Animation
1. Cardiac activity, breathing and functioning of the nervous system
may reach such a low-level activity that a homicide investigator
maybe deceived into an assumption of death.
2. The following conditions produced simulated appearance of
death:
1. electric shock
2. prolonged emersion
3. poisoning from narcotic drugs
4. barbiturate poisoning
5. certain mental diseases
The Importance of Establishing the Identification of Homicide Victims
The identification of the victim is an important investigative
step for the following reasons:
1. It provides an important basis for the investigation processes
since it may lead the investigator directly to other important
information leading to the solution of the crime.
2. The identity of the dead person provides the focal point/starting
point for the investigators can then center their attention on
associates and haunts of the deceased.
3. The identity of the deceased may arouse suspicion in mysterious
death since the victim maybe a person whose life had been
threatened or whose death was desired for criminal purposes.
4. The identification of the deceased can be traced or related to
wanted persons or missing one.
5.
Methods of Identification
a. DNA Analysis
b. Fingerprints - ingerprint identification is the most positive
and quickest method of ascertaining identity. However the
prints of the deceased may not be on file or may not be
obtainable because of trauma, mutilation, incineration or
decomposition. The sole clue maybe bone, a skull or a few
teeth.
c. Skeletal Studies - Examination of the skeleton may provide
a basis for identification because of individual peculiarities
 such as old fractures and presence of metal pins. Bones may Investigative Leads
also provide information about age, sex, and race. The problem of who did it is a simple on when the offender is
d. Visual Inspection - Someone knowing the deceased person caught in the act or apprehended in flight from the scene the scene
may recognize the victim. However, trauma, incineration, or shortly after the crime. When the perpetrator is not promptly arrested,
decomposition may render the features unrecognizable. In the direction of the investigation varies according to whether the case
addition, a visual inspection without further verification has falls into one of the two categories- known identities or unknown
the advantage of possible subjective error or deliberate false identity. Whenever investigators encounter cases of the later,
identification. Visual inspection combined with fingerprint investigative leads now are necessary to attain the objective of
evidence is a favored method for rapid identification. criminal investigation.
e. Personal Effects - Identification of a victim by personal
effects such as Jewelry, I.D. card, wallets, belts, shoes etc. Establishment of Motive to the killing
f. Tattoo and Scars - Identification scars, moles, tattoos, This will furnish a good clue in the solution of the crime. The
pockmarks or other markings may be helpful in identification, investigator drawing from his ingenuity, experience and availability of
particularly in conjunction with other findings. data, must base his investigation on a theory that rationally explains
g. Dental Evidences (Forensic Odontology) - Identification the fatal act. Note maybe done on the following:
based on the examination of teeth (teeth charts, fillings, inlays
crowns, bridgework, dentures etc.) is valuable inasmuch as
the teeth are probably the most durable part of the human
body. There are probably no two people alive with dentures
that are completely identical in all respects. Dental evidence
is legally recognized and accepted, if properly presented in
court.
h. Clothing - Articles of clothing containing cleaner’s mark,
labels, initials, size, color, texture knitting, etc. have provided
investigators with the leads and even identification in most
instances.
i. Photographs - Identification of victims has been made by
publication in bulletins, circulars, television and other
distribution media, artist sketches, death mark and casts have
likewise aided the police in identifying unknowns.
 Victims Background - very promising leads can be developed
from the review of the background of the victim that can
provide the background of the victim which can give the
pursuit defined goals.
 Modus Operandi - choice of particular crime to commit and
the selection of a method of committing a criminal act that
forms the signature of the criminal give a clear lead on who
might have committed the crime.
 Informants - are a traditional starting point in seeking basic
leads. In fact informants sometimes offer data about an
unreported or undiscovered crime or one in its planning
stage.
 Benefits - the question of who might benefit from the crime
provides an excellent focus for making inquiry. The “benefit
factor” can provide investigative leads.
 Opportunity
 Knowledge - simply determining who might have knowledge
of the crime to establish further information
 Approximate time of death
 Composite Sketches
 Photographs of Known criminals
 Voice Identification
 Polygraph testing
 Fingernail Scrapings
 Signs of Struggle
 Field Contact Report
 Motor Vehicle
ROBBERY AND THEFT INVESTIGATION
Robbery
The law on robbery in the Philippines can be found on the
following articles of the Revised Penal Code:
Article 293
Who are guilty of robbery?
Any person who, with intent to gain, shall take any personal
property belonging to another, by means of violence or intimidation of
any person, or using force upon anything shall be guilty of robbery.
Elements of Robbery:
1. Unlawful taking of personal property
2. The property must belong to another
3. The taking is done with violence against an intimidation of any
person of force upon things
4. The taking is with intent to gain
Note the following:
 Article 294 – Robbery with violence or intimidation of persons
 Article 295 – Robbery with physical injuries committed in an
uninhabited place and by
 band or the use of firearm on a street.
 Article 297 – Attempted and frustrated robbery committed
under certain circumstances.
 Article 298 – Execution of deeds by means of violence or
intimidation
 Article 299 – Robbery in an inhabited house or public building
or edifice devoted to worship – Any armed person who shall
commit robbery in an inhabited house or public building or
edifice devoted to religious worship – and if:
(a) The malefactors shall enter the house or building in which the
robbery was committed, by any of the following means:
 1. Through an opening not intended for entrance or
egress
2. By breaking any wall, roof or floor or breaking any
door or window
3. By using false key, padlocks or similar tools
4. By using fictitious name or pretending the exercise of
public authority or if –
(b) The robbery be committed under any of the following
circumstances:
1. By the breaking of doors, wardrobes, closets, or any
other kind of locked or sealed furniture or receptacle.
2. By taking such furniture or objects away to be broken
or forced open outside the place of the robbery.
 Article 302 – Robbery in an uninhabited place or in a private
building
 Article 303 – Robbery of cereals, fruits or firewood in
uninhabited place or private building.
Anti-Piracy and Anti-Highway Robbery Law of 1974
(Presidential Decree 532)
Piracy – Any attack upon or seizure of any vessel, or taking away of
the whole or part thereof of its cargo, equipment or the personal
belonging of its complement or passengers, irrespective of value
thereof, by means of violence against or intimidation of person or foce
upon things, committed by any person, including a passenger or
member of the complements of said vessel in Philippine waters, shall
be considered as piracy. The offender shall be considered as pirates.
Highway Robbery/Brigandage – The seizure of any person for
ransom, extortion or other unlawful purposes, or the taking away of
the property of another by means of violence against or intimidation of
persons or force upon things of other unlawful means committed by
any person or any Philippine highway.
Aiding Pirates or Highway Robbers/ Brigands or
Abetting Piracy or Highway Robbers/Brigands – Any person who
knowingly and in any manner aids or protects pirates or highway
robbers/brigands, such as giving them information about the
movement of police or other peace officers of the government or
acquire or receives property taken by such pirates or brigands or
indirectly abets the commission of piracy or highway robbery or
brigandage, shall be considered as an accomplice of the principal
offender.
Anti-Cattle Rustling Law of 1974
(Presidential Decree 533)
Cattle Rustling – Is the taking away by any means, methods
or scheme, without the consent of the owner/raiser, of any of the
above animals (cow, carabao, horse, mule or other domesticated
member of the bovine family) whether or not for profit or gain, or
whether committed with or without violence against or intimidation of
any person or force upon things. It includes the killing of large cattle,
or taking its meat or hide without the consent of owner/raiser.
Anti-Fencing Law of 1979
(Presidential Decree 1612)
Fencing is the act of any person; who, with intent to gain, for himself
or for another shall buy, posses, keep, acquire, conceal, sell or in any
other deal on any articles, items, objects or anything of value which he
knows to have been derived form the proceeds of crime or robbery or
theft.
Fence – include any person, firm, organization, association, or d. liquor stores
corporation or partnership and other organization who which commits e. other retail outlets
the act of fencing. f. motel-hotel (robbery of manager/owner)
g. taverns (restaurants, bars, cafes)
The Targets in Robberies h. delivery services (chicken, pizza, etc.)
The selection of a victim and the place of the robbery are two i. drive-ins
basic keys to developing a pattern which will furnish clues to a j. service stations
robbers identity. Data usually are correlated in the following areas: 5. Vehicles
1. Victim: a. taxis
a. alone b. bus
b. in the company of two or three c. trailer
c. in the company of four or more persons d. passenger jeepney
2. Residence: e. victims personal car
a. one family 6. Vessels:
b. multi family a. inter island (passenger)
c. motel – hotel (robbery of guest) b. cargo
d. garage ( or other residence – occupancy shed or c. ferry
structure) d. tugboats
3. Street and highways
a. sidewalk Style and Tactics in Robbery Cases
b. roadway The identification in an armed robbery case often relates to
c. alley the tactics and style of the robbery. Robbery has been categorized as
d. publicly accessible area ( parks, parking lot, having three styles:
entranceway) (1) The ambush – is the least planned of all and is based on the
e. over and under pass element of surprise
f. highways (2) The selective raid – involves a minimum of planning but some
4. Commercial (nonresidence) casing of the robbery scene
a. bank (3) The planned operation – is carefully structured and the
b. business office or off-street retail sales outlet (loan robbery group examines all aspects of the situation, plans for
companies, pawnshops, jewelry store, etc.) all foreseeable constingencies.
c. markets
Crime Partnership in a Robbery Group
Crime partners in a robbery group form a loose partnership,
providing the skills for the various task necessary to carry out different
types of robberies. They participate in the planning of robberies as
well as the basic decision as to whether or not a certain target can be
successfully robbed.
Crime partners usually are associates from spontaneous play
groups in the underworld. Investigators assigned a single robbery or
series of robberies to investigate should search for “link-up” “connect-
up” which will indicate the operations of a group.
Types of Robbers
1. Amateurs – motivated by greed, want, the desire for a thrill, or
need for self-testing.
2. Professionals – are described as those persons who worked
at robbery as a trade making it their living and having no other
means of income.
Technique Commonly Employed by Robbers – Means of Entry
The means of entry differs in various burglaries and are
related to the skill of a robber. The various known means of entry are:
1. The open door or window entry – the robber/s roams
residence areas, apartments, and hotels looking for open
doors or windows.
2. The jimmy entry – the robber/s forces a door or window with
an iron tool such as a tire iron, screwdriver, or small crowbar
or box opener.
3. The celluloid entry – the burglar forces open a door spring
lock with a small piece of celluloid.
4. The stopover or human fly entry – the burglar is an aerialist,
the stopover robber steps from a fire escape, balcony or other
building to a nearby window. The “human fly” robber can
progress upward or downward or the sides of a building to a
selected point of entry.
5. Roof entry – the burglar breaks into a premises through a
skylight or air conditioning duct or the roof or by cutting a hole
in the roof of a building or residential home.
6. The hide –in entry – the burglar hides in a commercial
premises until all employees have left and then breaks out
with the stolen property.
7. The cut-in entry – the robber uses tools of various kinds to cut
through the floor, ceiling, or wall of a store or office to another
store or office.
8. Hit and run – the robber breaks a window of a ground floor
store and takes property from a window or nearby portions of
the premises, and flees before police can be alerted to the
crime.
9. Key entry – the robber uses a key – the key may be given to
him by an informant (finger-man) it may be stolen or the
burglar may obtain a duplicate or master key by various
means.\
Methods of safebreaking
1. Punching- In this manner of entry a sledge hammer and a
drift punch are used to knock the combination dial from the
safe and to drive the spindle back into the safe. This makes
the release mechanism of the lock accessible and allows the
safe to be opened.
2. Pulling – A device similar to a gear or wheel puller is used to
pull the dial or spindle completely out of the safe door and
thus allow the safe to be opened.
 3. Peeling – This means of entry involves the prying off the outer 4. If a window was broken is effecting entry, glass particles may
surfaces of the safe door so that the locking mechanism of be present in the trouser cuffs and pockets of suspect.
the safe is exposed and can be pried open, allowing entry to Samples of broken glass should be collected for possible
the safe. future comparison in the event that a suspect is picked up.
4. Drilling – One or more holes are drilled in the door of the safe 5. Paint- If a crowbar has been used to force the window, paint
to expose the lock mechanism allowing the safe-breaker to may adhere to the tool. Paint samples should be taken for
align the lock tumblers manually and open the door of the future comparison.
safe. 6. Tool marks
5. Ripping – This is a battering of the top, bottom or sides of a 7. Tools
safe with a chisel or other metal cutter, such as a ripping bar 8. Some robbers are given to add behavior such as defecation
the hydraulic ramming device used in a body and fender on the floor, stealing fountain pen, eating candy or drinking
shop. excessively from bottles found on the premises. The
6. Burning – Use of oxygen/acetylene torch. peculiarity of the behavior would be noted and check in
7. Blasting – Use of explosives modus operandi index.
8. Carrying away. 9. Cords and ropes use.
10. Firearms use.
Physical Evidence to be Collected 11. Get-away vehicle.
1. Footprints 12. Stolen articles/properties
2. Fingerprints
a. areas of break Investigative Techniques in Robbery Cases
b. closets – prints may be found in door and jambs 1. The investigator must initiate similar preliminary steps upon
c. door knobs reaching the crime scene (discuss earlier or this note)
d. dressers 2. Determine the point of entrance and point of exit by the
e. pieces of furniture perpetrator.
f. bottles and glasses 3. Determine the value of stolen articles
g. walls 4. The full and detailed description of the stolen articles.
h. tools 5. Gather physical evidence.
i. desks 6. Determine the modus operandi of the perpetrator as it would
3. Clothings – sometimes the robbers exchange their own jacket give leads in the identification and arrest of the suspect.
with that one found 7. Full and detailed description of a get-away vehicle if any, or
vessel, boat in cases of piracy.
 8. Coordinate with other law enforcement agencies
9. Exploit investigative leads (discuss earlier on this note)
10. Written testimony of the complainant witnesses.
11. Accumulate clues and traces at the scene of a crime which
will serve to identify the offender.
12. Develop informants in the local underworld who are aware of
the activity of robbery, particularly the activity of the semi-
skilled and amateur groups (usually the addict robber)
13. Conduct a surveillance of likely fences and uncover and trace
back stolen property from its receiver to the robber.
14. Conduct surveillance of known burglars to ascertain if they
are presently committing robbery
15. Accumulate information on various types of robber, the known
and newcomers, whether they are in or out of prison, whether
they are active
16. Be alert on a modified modus operandi
17. In cases homicide is committed; follow the pattern of
homicide investigation.
KIDNAPPING
Kidnapping - a word derived from kid, meaning child and
nap (nab) meaning snatch, recorded since 1673, was originally used
as a term for the practice of stealing children for use as servants or
laborers in the American Colonies .It has come to mean any illegal
capture or detention of a person or people against their will,
regardless of age. Since 1768 the term abduction has also been
used in this sense.
Kidnapping for Ransom - Philippine jurisprudence defines
kidnapping for ransom as “the unlawful taking and carrying away of a
person by force or fraud or against his will, or in any manner depriving
him of his liberty for the purpose of extorting ransom as payment for
his/her release.”
This is punishable under the Revised Penal Code of the
Philippines which provides that any individual who shall kidnap or
detain another, or in any manner deprive him of his liberty, shall suffer
the penalty of reclusion perpetua to death, if:
1. the kidnapping or detention shall have lasted more than five
(5) days;
2. if it shall have been committed simulating public authority;
3. if any serious physical injuries shall have been inflicted upon
the person kidnapped or detained, or if threats to kill him shall
have been made; and
4. if the victim shall be minor, female or public officer.
Modus Operandi in Kidnapping
Kidnapping activity varies with the capability and resources of
kidnappers to do surveillance, safekeeping and negotiation with their
target group. One common thing all KFRGs, however is that they
have a well planned strategy of abduction process
Kidnappers usually start their activity in surveying trough an
informer or sputter whose work is to locate targets for the group. To
facilitate the operation, a gang member is sometimes made to seek
employment such as driver or household help or have a business
transaction to gain access and control of the victim. KFRG conducts a
thorough study of background of their victims, such as capability to
pay and daily movements’ activities. Surveillance to establish routes is
extensively carried out.
 Perpetrators of kidnapping have some peculiar operational
style that distinguishes one group from the other. Some groups are
contented with money given immediately by the victims'
families/relatives while others are capable of prolonged negotiations
for a bigger ransom. Some groups are crude in executing their plan
while others do it with precision and finesse
However, most cases of kidnapping particularly those undertaken by
criminal groups, revealed the following stages:
1. Spotting. The first step in planning a kidnapping operation is
to come up with a shopping list of three to four possible
targets that are capable of paying a huge amount of ransom.
Targets are usually businessmen of Chinese descent.
2. Surveillance. Targets are then subjected to a thorough
surveillance and investigation. The investigation focused on
the financial capability, home address and place of work,
phone numbers, complete description of the vehicle being
used, travel routes, identities of household helpers, drivers
and employees, and personal security of potential targets
3. Risk analysis and target selection. After a thorough
investigation, the group selects one of the targets, which
present a lower risk and difficulty in ransom negotiation. In
some cases, the group selects the one whom the group had
gathered the information first. In order to enhance precision in
their operation, some group send out members of the
syndicate to apply as drivers, employees, and household
helps to gain further access on the target
4. Seizing of victim. The time allotted for forcibly taking the
victim is usually two to three hours. The victim is usually
forcibly taken on his/her way to place of work or while going
home after work. Most of the victims are successfully
intercepted while crossing road intersections or traveling
along highly traveled streets.
5. Negotiation. Ransom demand may range from PhP1 million
to PhP100 million, depending on the paying capacity of the
victim and the operational capability of the group. The
weakest member of the victim's family is usually selected by
the syndicate to act as negotiator, warning the latter not to
report the incident to the concerned police authorities.
6. Collection of ransom. After the ransom has been
negotiated, the group will design a pay-off procedure. The
ransom is usually brought to a predesignated site. In some
pay-off situations however, the ransom courier is usually
instructed to bring along a cellular phone for ease of
communication during the actual pay-off. There were
instances where couriers were given a round-the-bush before
reaching the final pay-off venue. Professional groups normally
release the victims after the pay-off had been secured.
Even with the “no ransom policy” of the government, it was noted
that the victims' family easily give in to the demands of the
kidnappers, with minimum negotiations. Usually, kidnapping victims
are released in 3 to 6 days, after ransom money has been paid
For investigation of special crimes, please refer to SPECIAL
CRIMES noted under the area on Criminal Jurisprudence.
DRUG EDUCATION AND VICE CONTROL
(NARCOTICS INVESTIGATION)
Definition of Terms
Drug – is a chemical substance used as medicine or in the making of
medicines, which affects the body and mind and have potential for
abuse.
Chemical – is any substance taken into the body that alters the way
and the mind and the body work.
Chemical Abuse – is an instance when the use of chemical has
produced negative or harmful consequences.
Narcotic Drug – refers to illegally used drugs or dangerous drugs,
which are either prohibited or regulated drugs. It also refers to drugs
that produces sleep or stupor and relieves pain due to its depressant
effect on the CNS. The term Narcotic comes from the Greek word
“narcotikos”. It is sometimes known as “opiates”.
Drug Abuse – is the illegal, wrongful or improper use of any drug.
Drug Addiction – refers to the state of periodic or chronic intoxication
produced by the repeated consumption of a drug.
Drug Dependence – refers to the state of psychic or physical
dependence or both on dangerous drugs following the administration
or use of that drug. WHO defines it as the periodic, continuous,
repeated administration of a drug.
Physical Dependence – an adaptive state caused by repeated drug
use that reveals it self by development of intense physical symptoms
when the drug is stopped (withdrawal syndrome).
Psychological Dependence – an attachment to drug use that arises
from a drug ability to satisfy some emotional or personality needs of
an individual.
Tolerance – is the increasing dosage of drugs to maintain the same
effect in the body.
Pusher – any person who sell, administer, deliver or give away to
another, distribute, transport any dangerous drug.
Use - the act of injecting, consuming, any dangerous drugs. The
means of introducing the dangerous drug into the physiological
system of the body.
Administer – the act of introducing any dangerous drug into the body
of any person with or without his knowledge.
Manufacture – the production, preparation, compounding or
processing a dangerous drug either directly or indirectly or by
extraction from substances of natural origin or by chemical synthesis.
Drug Experimenter – one who illegally, wrongfully, or improperly
uses any narcotic substances for reasons of curiosity, peer pressure,
or other similar reasons.
Drug Syndicate – It is a network of illegal drug operations operated
and manned carefully by groups of criminals who knowingly traffic
through nefarious trade for personal or group profit.
Drug Abuse Jargons
 “Opiate”- Narcotic
 “On-the-Nod/ “Nodding” - the state produced by opiates like
being suspended on the edge of sleep.
 “Mainline’/ “to shoot”- injecting a drug into the vein
 “A Hit”- the street slang for injection of drugs
 “Work”- an apparatus for injecting a drug
 “A Fix”- one injection of opiate
 “Juni”-heroin
 “Junkie”- an opiate addict
 “Skin popping”- to inject a drug under the skin
 “A Bag” - a pocket of drug
 “Cold Turkey”- the withdrawal effect that occurs after a
repeated opiate use
 “Track” - scars on the skin left from the repeated injection of
opiate
 “Overdose”- death occurs because the part of the brain that
controls breathing becomes paralyzed.
 “Speed”- amphetamines
 “Speed Freaks” - amphetamine addicts
  “Uppers”- street slang for amphetamines
 “Rush” - the beginning of a high
 “High” - under the influence of drugs
 “Coke” - street slang for cocaine
 “Flashback”- user can be thrown back into the drug
experience months after the original use of drug.
 “Acid” - slang term for LSD
 “Acid Head”- LSD user
 “Drop” - taking drug orally
 “Joint” - an MJ Cigar
 “Roach”- butt end of a joint
 “Stoned”- the intoxicating effect of a drug
 “Trip”- the name for the reaction that is caused by drugs
 “Head” - drug user
 “Downer”- street slang for depressant
WHAT ARE DRUGS?
A drug, as defined, is a chemical substance used as a
medicine or in making medicines, which affects the body and mind
and have potential for abuse. Without an advice or prescription from a
physician, drugs can be harmful.
Hundreds of pure chemicals have been developed plants and
put into pills, capsules or liquid medicines. There are also two forms of
drugs, natural and synthetic/artificial. The natural drugs include
natural plant leaves, flowering tops, resin, hashish, opium, and
marijuana, while the synthetic drugs are produced by clandestine
laboratories which include those drugs that are controlled by law
because they are used in the medical practice. Physicians prescribe
them and are purchased in the legitimate outlets like drugstores.
Drugs also help a person’s body and mind function better
during an illness. But drugs have to be taken correctly in order to do
these things. The wrong drug or the wrong amount of the right one
can make an illness, worse, destroy blood cells, damage the body and
many cause death. For this reason, most drugs can be legally
purchased only with doctor’s written order called prescription. Only a
medical doctor can prescribe medicinal drugs. These drugs could be
dangerous and must be used with care, according to the doctor’s
prescription. He gives direction on how much medicine to take and
how often. The practice of taking drugs without proper medicinal
supervision is called the non-medical use of drugs or drug abuse.
A. THE PRESCRIPTIVE DRUGS
These are drugs requiring written authorization from a doctor
to allow a purchase. They are prescribed according to the individual’s
age, weight and height and should not be taken by anyone else. It is a
personal requirement and self-medication that should be strictly
avoided. The pharmacist should never allow the consumer to request
them knowingly without first consulting a doctor.
Once again strict emphasis of following directions needs to be
stated. In addition to dosage, the physician indicates both when and
for how long the medicine should be taken. Theses directions are
intended to safeguard the patient from needlessly treating himself
after his illness has been brought under control or from prematurely
stopping a drug because he thinks he is well. Since the chemistry of
the body is subtle and variable, only a physician should have the
responsibility of prescribing and directing the use of drugs in the
treatment of illnesses.
B. THE OVER - THE COUNTER - DRUGS (OTC)
 These are non-prescription medicines, which may be
purchased from any pharmacy or drugstore without written
authorization from a doctor. They are use to treat minor and short
term illnesses and any persistent condition should be immediately
referred to a physician. It should be strongly emphasized that
“directions” be closely followed and all precautions necessarily taken
to avoid complications.
OTC drugs are used for the prevention and symptomatic relief
of minor ailments. The precautions that must be observed when
dispensing OTCs are the following:
1. the correct drug with the correct drug content is given to
the correct patient in the correct dosage form;
2. the pharmacist must counsel the patient to make sure that
he/she takes the drugs correctly; and
3. the pharmacist must be aware of and know about the
possible toxicity’s possessed by the OTC drugs to avoid food/drug
incompatibilities and overdoses.
OTCs must be used discriminately:
1. To avoid the dispensing of OTC to known identified habitual
drug users.
2. To avoid complications, this is done by inquiring from the
buyer of the drugs as to the identity of the patient, the patient’s age
and other information such as pregnancy, hypertension, etc.
3. Counseling the patient so as to avoid the “self-medication”
syndrome by inquiring about the buyer’s source of information about
the drug.
C. The “Self-Medication Syndrome”
The “self-medication” syndrome is found in users and would
be users of drugs whose sources of information are people or
literature other than doctors, pharmacists and health workers. These
could be members of the family, relatives, and/or neighbors, all of
whom may have previously used the drug for their specific disease or
disorder. Self-medication may work against the good of the user
because it can lead to intoxication and other adverse reactions.
Possible outcomes of self-medication are:
1. Adverse reaction towards the drug, such as allergies that
may be mild or severe.
2. Possible non-response of the patient to the drug effectively
due to incorrect drug usage.
3. Possible drug toxicities, through over dosage which may
lead to severe reactions such as nausea, vomiting, rashes, etc.
4. Possible habit-forming characteristics due to periodic use
of the drugs even when such are no longer needed.
HOW DRUGS WORK?
Most drugs act within a cell, rather than on the surface of a
cell or in the extracellular fluids of the body. Similar to normal body
chemicals, a drug enters a cell and participates in a few steps of the
normal sequence of a cellular process. Thus, drugs may later,
interfere with or replace chemicals of normal cellular life, hopefully for
the betterment of the person. The actual action of a particular drug
depends on its chemical make-up.
When two drugs are taken together or within a few hours of
each other they may interact with unexpected results. This is one
reason a physician should always know the names of all drugs one is
using. A dose of a drug is the amount taken at one time. The doses
taken become an extremely important part of drug abuse. The amount
of drug in a dose can be described as:
1. Minimal dose – amount needed to treat or heal, that is, the
smallest amount of a drug that will produce a therapeutic effect.
2. Maximal dose – largest amount of a drug that will produce a
desired therapeutic effect, without any accompanying symptoms of
toxicity.
3. Toxic dose – amount of d rug that produces untoward effects or
symptoms of poisoning
4. Abusive dose – amount needed to produce the side effects and
action desired by an individual who improperly uses it
5. Lethal dose – amount of drug that will cause death
HOW DRUGS ARE ADMINISTERED?
The common methods of administration are the following:
1. Oral – this is the safest most convenient and
economical route whenever possible. There are however,
drugs, which cannot be administered this way because they
are readily destroyed by the digestive juices or because they
irritate the mucous lining of the gastro-intestinal tract and
induce vomiting.
2. Injection – this form of drug administration
offers a faster response than the oral method. It makes use of
a needle or other device to deliver the drugs directly into the
body tissue and blood circulation.
3. Inhalation – this route makes use of
gaseous and volatile drugs, which are inhaled and absorbed
rapidly through the mucous of the respiratory tract.
4. Topical – this refers to the application of
drugs directly to a body site such as the skin and the mucous
membrane.
5. Iontophoresis – the introduction of drugs
into the deeper layers of the skin by the use of special type of
electric current for local effect.
THE CONCEPT OF TOXICOLOGY
A drug may cause effects because of any of the following:
1. Overdose – when too much of a drug in taken, there
may be an over extension of its effects.
2. Allergy – some drugs cause the release of histamine
giving rise to allergic symptoms such as dermatitis, swelling,
fall in blood pressure, suffocation and death.
3. Idiosyncrasy – for unexplained reasons, morphine,
which sedates all men, stimulates and renders some women
some maniacal. Perhaps the phrase “catty woman” has
pharmacological basis since most mammals are sedated by
morphine but some cats become extremely excited by it.
4. General Protoplasmic Poison Property – drugs are
chemicals and some of them have the property of being
general protoplasmic poisons.
5. Side Effects – some drugs are not receptors for one
organ but receptors of other organs as well. The effect in the
other organ may constitute a side effect, which is unwanted.
THE MEDICAL USE OF DRUGS
The best use of medicine depends upon the physician, the
user or patient, and lastly, the pharmacist. This idea was subscribed
to by both Metro Manila Physicians (PNC Health Education Survey,
1983) and the Pharmaceutical Manufacturer’s Association of
Washington, D.C. (U.P., MEC, DDB 1979). Their common
agreements on the intelligent use of drugs are presented below.
1. Take medicines on doctor’s advice. In prescribing medicine, the
doctor considers factors like age and weight, prevalent signs and
symptoms, severity of the disease, results of laboratory examinations,
route of administration tolerated by patient, and presence of
impairment in the organ or system. The physician has always a
reason for his orders.
2. When taking prescribed medicines, remember carefully the dosage,
manner of administration, frequency and time when to take it. Patient
must not trust his memory when taking medicine. The label of the
medicine should be read three times – once when medicine id remove
from cabinet, again before medicine is taken and a third time after it is
taken. Medicine should not be taken in the dark even if patient knows
its location.
3. If patient goes to more than one doctor, each one of them must
know about all the drugs being taken.
4. Avoid self-medication. Patient should not try to guess what is wrong
with him or to select his own medicines even if his symptoms seem to
be familiar to those of his neighbor.
5. Report any untoward effects of medicine to the physician. After
taking medicine, tell the doctor if any symptoms develop.
6. Patient should not take additional drugs without asking his
physician.
7. See whether the medicine has expired or not.
8. Be sure that the label stays on a prescription container until all is
used.
9. Store medicine in a safe, cool and dry place and out of reach of
children.
10. Some people just purchase and use common drugs without
knowing their functions and contradictions. Thus, instead of being
relieved of some symptoms, their conditions are aggravated.
Physicians share the same opinion that the following drugs are better
used under medical supervision to avoid harmful consequences and
habit formation.
11. Analgesics relieve pain. However, they may produce the opposite
effects on somebody who suffers form peptic ulcer or gastric irritation.
12. Antibiotics combat or control infectious organisms. Ingesting the
same antibiotics for a long time can result in allergic reactions and
cause resistance to the drug.
13. Antipyretics can lower body temperature or fever due to
infection.
14. Antihistamines control or combat allergic reactions. People who
on antihistamine therapy must not operate or drive vehicles since
these drugs can cause drowsiness.
15. Contraceptives prevent the meeting of the egg cell and sperm
cell or prevent the ovary from releasing egg cells. Pregnant women
must not take birth control pills to avoid congenital abnormalities. This
advice also applies to women suffering from heart disease, varicose
veins, breast limps, goiter and anemia. The effectiveness of oral
contraceptives may be reduced when taken with antibiotic.
16. Decongestants relieve congestion of the nasal passages.
Prolonged used of these decongestants might include nasal
congestion upon withdrawal.
17. Expectorants ease the expulsion of mucus and phlegm from the
lungs and the throat. They are not drugs of choice for the newborn
that does not know to cough the phlegm out.
18. Laxatives stimulate defecation and encourage bowel movement.
They should not be given to pregnant women and those suffering from
intestinal obstruction. Taking purgatives (stronger than laxatives)
unnecessarily might result in rupture of the intestines or appendix if
there is an obstruction. Constant use might make the intestines
sluggish.
19. Sedatives and tranquilizers calm and quiet the nerves and
relieve anxiety without causing depression and clouding of the mind.
Precautions must be taken in the use of tranquilizers since they can
cause impairment of judgement and dexterity.
20. Vitamins are food substances necessary for normal growth and
development and proper functioning of he body. A person who eats a
balanced diet does not need supplements. If they are found
necessary, vitamin preparations should be taken with meals. Vitamins
should be treated as drugs since the body does not manufacture
them. Excessive dosage of vitamins A and D can be dangerous and
harmful to health. Excess of vitamin D can lead to nausea, diarrhea,
and weight loss, calcification and heart and kidney troubles. Too much
vitamin A might result in symptoms of a disease of the liver.
HISTORY OF DRUG ABUSE
The Holy Bible is a very reliable source in tracing the early
use and abuse of narcotics. The Book of Judges of the Old Testament
revealed that the mighty Samson was put to sleep by Delilah by
means of a drug-laced wine before cutting his hair, the source of his
strength, and subsequently gouged his eyes before the feasting
Philistines already “high spirited” with narcotics mixed with intoxicants.
There are also many allusions of drug abuse in the old cities of
Sodom and Gomorrah, which might have led to the widespread
adultery, bestiality and incest (Sotto, 1994).
Ancient Greek and Roman literature likewise are replete with
stories alluding to drug abuse, as in the lamentable and tragic
romance of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra. Cleopatra, in desperation
over her disprized love drank a narcotic-laden wine before allowing
her self to be bitten to death by a poisonous asp from the River Nile.
Even in the practice of oracles and black magic during the Roman
ancient times were believed to be accomplished by “narcotics”(Sotto,
1994).
Historians credited that marijuana (Cannabis Sativa) is the
world’s oldest cultivated plant started by the Incas of Peru. Peruvian
and Mexican Incas have also the common practice to use the coca
leaves during religious offering ceremonies. It was also known that
marijuana was a “sacred tree” in the belief of the Assyrians being
used during religious rituals – some 9,000 years B.C. The use of
marijuana is also deeply ingrained in the cultures of many
countries such as India, Jamaica, Morocco, Nepal, Mexico and Peru
(Sotto, 1994). The first reference of introduction was in Northern Iran
as an intoxicant. And from there it spread throughout India by the
Hindus used for religious rituals in the belief that it is a source of
happiness and “laughter provoker”. The word “hashis” (resin) of the
Marijuana plant was derived from the name Hasan or Hashasin, the
Muslim cult leader who fed his disciples a preparation made from the
resin of the female hemp plant as a reward for their successful
activities in assassinations.
American Indians too are believed to use not only the
stimulant tobacco but also opium in their peace pipes in order to
“narcotize” an oppositionist to their common objectives (Sotto, 1994).
Knowledge on the opium poppy plant (Papaver Somniferum)
goes back about 7000 years B.C cultivated and prepared by the
Summerians. Even the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, the
Father of Medicine, prescribed the juice of the white poppy plant as
early as 5,000 B.C in the belief that it can cure many illnesses both in
the internal and external use. The plant was first harvested in
Mesopotamia and its use spread through out the neighboring
Mediterranean areas, then to Asia. From there, it was introduced to
Persia, India and China by the Arab came caravans (Dungo, 1988).
 Opium use in China was stemmed out from India and became
widespread in the 19th Century. From Middle East, the plant was
cultivated in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Five centuries later, An
Opium trade between China and Portuguese merchants became a
lucrative business. The British took over the trade from the
Portuguese and established the Opium Trade Monopoly through the
British East Indies Company.
In an Attempt to stop the extremely high rate of opium
addiction in China, Emperor Yung Chen prohibited the smoking of
opium and attempted to close ports for its importation. This triggered
the “opium war” of 1840 which induced China to accept the British
sponsored opium trade and forced to sign a treaty permitting the
importation of opium intro China after her defeat.
It was in 1806 that a German pharmacist in the name of
Friedrich W. Serturner discovered Morphine, the first derivative of
opium. He called this new drug as “Morphium” and later changed to
Morphine after the Greek god of dream, Morpheus. This was the first
attempt to cure opium addiction. But morphine addictive properties
came to prominence during the American Civil War vast numbers of
American soldiers became addicted to the drug – so much so that
morphine addiction became known as “soldiers disease”.
The second attempt of treating opium and morphine addiction
started in 1896 when Heroin (Diacetylmorphine), synthesized from the
drug morphine, was discovered by a British chemist in the name of
Alder Wright. It was called the “miracle drug” because it is believed
that it can cure both opium and morphine addiction. It was named
after the word “hero” due to its impressive power. So physicians
began to use heroin but it became a substitution of one addiction to
another. It turns out later that heroin is the most addictive of all drugs.
Meanwhile, codeine, the third derivative of opium was
discovered in France while in the process of discovering other drugs
that could cure opium, morphine and heroin addiction but it also
ended in the same tragic result. Today, it is widely used as an
ingredient in most cough syrup.
There are of course other historical events that would reveal
drug abuse in the history of man, the greatest influence of the modern
medical practice today. In fact, physicians all over the world still
consider narcotics as the most effective pain reliever (Sotto, 1994).
HISTORY OF DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Very little known about drugs in the Philippines during the pre-
Spanish era. The intoxicants and stimulants used by the early
Filipinos were fermented alcoholic beverages and the masticatory
preparations known as “nga-nga” in vernacular. Narcotics, including
marijuana, were not in the list of vices in the country at that time. The
opium poppy plant and the coca bush were absent in the Philippine
vegetation prior to 1521.
During the Spanish era, drug control laws prohibited the use
of opium by the native Filipinos and other people except the Chinese.
Chinese residents in the Philippines particularly in Manila and of the
more distant Chinese pariahs (ghettos) started smoking opium in
1780. As a vice, it was not widespread and was particularly accepted
and tolerated by the authorities. In 1844, The Spanish colonial
government laid down an opium monopoly, which entitled the
importation by the Spanish government and its sale to Chinese users.
At this period, opium smoking became widespread among Chinese as
its use was forbidden to Indians, Mestizos and the Filipinos.
This compromise policy lasted up to 1896, a period of revolt and
insurrection.
 The Americans took over the rule of the country, and after
establishing a civil government in 1901, a systematic survey was
conducted and it was found out that there were 190 joints where the
Chinese smoke opium. It was observed that the habit had not yet
gained foothold among Filipinos. In 1906, partial legislation allowed
Chinese addicts to obtain a license to use opium in their homes for a
fee of P5.00. The opium sale was under the government control and
the quality was limited.
In 1908, the total ban of opium was effected. The campaign
continued until the Japanese occupation in 1946, at which point all
supplies of opium were cut of from the country and during that period
the number of opium addicts was probably the lowest in Asia.
In 1953, Republic Act No. 953 was enacted which provided
for the registration of collection, and the imposition of fixed and
special taxes upon all persons who produce, import, manufacture,
compound, deal-in, dispense, sell, distribute, or give away opium,
marijuana, opium poppies, or coca leaves or any synthetic drugs
which may declared as habit forming. The law also declared as a
matter of national policy, the prohibition of the cultivation of marijuana
and opium poppy.
Some time in 1955, the marijuana plant was introduced in
Pasay City by foreigners for purpose of producing “reefers”. These
were sold in taverns in Pasay City and introduced into elite schools in
the same area. The PC Criminal Investigation on January 8, 1959
conducted the first marijuana raid in Pasay City when several potted
marijuana plants were seized.
The Philippines has been relatively heroin-free until the early
60’s when small heroin laboratories opened in Manila. In 1963, new
trends appear. There was a waning of opium addiction among the
Chinese but a concurrent increase among the Filipinos, just the latter
contributed 63 percent of the total arrests from drug offenses.
Recognizing the deleterious effect of drug abuse on the
health and well-being of the Filipino youth and the threat that it poses
to national security, then President Ferdinand Marcos signed into law
Republic Act No. 6425 known as the “Dangerous Drug Act of 1972” on
March 30, 1972. This law which was amended by Presidential Decree
No. 44, dated November 9, 1972 placed under control not only
narcotics by also psychotropic substances. On November 14, 1972,
the Dangerous Drug Board was organized to provide leadership,
direction and coordination in the effective implementation of R.A.
6425. By early 1974, addiction to opiates and barbiturates had almost
disappeared among the native population.
During the period 1975-1980 the cultivation of marijuana
increased and became geographically widespread, thus the pattern of
drug taking involved marijuana, abuse of pharmaceutical products
(especially cough syrup) and the inhalation of solvents. There was
very little trafficking of heroin, cocaine and LSD and the non-
availability of narcotic drugs made the prices sour beyond the reach of
Filipino drug abusers.
THE INFLUENCES OF DRUG ABUSE
Concept of Drug Abuse
The term Drug Abuse most often refers to the use of a drug
with such frequency that it causes physical or mental harm to the user
or impairs social functioning. Although the term seems to imply that
users abuse the drugs they take, in fact, it is themselves or others
they abuse by using drugs.
Traditionally, the term drug abuse referred to the use of any
drug prohibited by law, regardless of whether it was actually harmful
or not. This meant that any use of Marijuana, for example, even if it
occurred only once in a while, would constitute abuse, while the same
level of alcohol consumption would not.
The term drug is commonly associated with substances that may be
purchased legally with prescription for medical use. Other substances
that may be purchased legally without prescription and are commonly
abused include alcohol and the nicotine contained in tobacco
cigarettes (Groiler, 1995).
Concept of Drug Dependence
Drug abuse must be distinguished from drug dependence.
Drug dependence, which is sometimes called drug addiction, is
defined by basic three characteristics (Groiler, 1995).
The users continue to take a drug over an extended period of time.
Just the long this period is dependent on the drug and the user.
The users find it difficult to stop using the drug. They seem
powerless to quit the drug use. Users take extraordinary and often
harmful measures to continue using the drug. They will drop out of
school, steal, leave their families, go to jail and lose their job to keep
using drug.
The users stop taking their drug – only if their supply of the
drug is cut off, or if they are forced to quit for any reason – they will
undergo painful physical or mental distress. The experience of
withdrawal distress, called the withdrawal syndrome, is a sure sign
that a drug is dependency-producing and that the user is dependent
on the drug. Drug dependence may lead to drug abuse – especially
the illegal drugs
Concept of Drug Addiction
Drug addiction is a state of mind in which a person has lost
the power of self-control in respect of a drug. He consumes the drug
repeatedly leaving aside all values of life. In other words a drug addict
will resort to crime even, to satisfy his repeated craving for the drug.
The effects of addiction are mainly deteriorative personality Changes.
They include insomnia, instability, lack of self-confidence especially
when not under the influence of drug. The addict can not concentrate
on any work. He avoids social contacts. Slowly, mentally, physically,
and morally he becomes from bad to worse and a burden to the
society.
One or more of the following attributes characterizes drug
addiction:
1. Compulsion/ Uncontrollable Craving – the addict feels a
compulsive craving to take drug repeatedly and tries to procure the
same by any means.
2. Tolerance – it is the tendency to increase the dose of the drug to
produce the same effect as to that of the original effect.
3. Addiction – the addict is powerless to quit drug use.
4. Physical Dependence – the addict’s physiological functioning is
altered. The body becomes sick, inactive and incapable of carrying
out useful activity in the absence of the drug. The withdrawal
syndromes will occur once the drug use is stopped.
5. Psychological Dependence – Emotional and mental discomfort
exist to the individual. The drug addict feels he can not do without the
drug, consequently if he does not take the drug his mental processes
are affected. He can not carryout his work efficiently.
6. Withdrawal Syndrome – The addict becomes nervous and
restless when he does not get the drug. After about 12 hours, he
starts sweating. His nose and eyes becomes watery and continue
doing so increasingly for another twelve hours. It is followed by
vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite and sleep. Respiration, blood
pressure and body temperature also rises. This will continue up to
three days. After which, the trouble starts subsiding and most of it is
gone in about a week’s time. Complete recovery takes place in three
to six months.
UNDELYING CAUSES/INFLUENCES OF DRUG ABUSE
The drug addict or abuser is generally an emotionally
unstable person before he acquires the habit. He can not face painful
situations without help, he has less will power and self control. He has
not adjusted himself to his emotional reaction. Due to this, drug
addicts have low capacities for dealing with frustrations, anxieties and
stress.
Drug abuse is a multi-faceted problem exits in our locality and
countryside, there is usually more than one reason why this problem
exists. Any of the following factors may influence people to abuse
drugs.
A. Biological Factors
There are some reasons or pre-existing induced biological
abnormalities of chemicals, physiological or structural in nature that
induced a person to take drugs. The following are some to consider:
1. Individual ‘s general health – there are several
diseases that easily make a person become a drug
abuser. Examples are fatigue, chronic cough, insomnia,
and discomfort.
2. It is believe that drug has the special power to
prevent or to increase sexual capacity.
3. One specific genetic theory proposes that there
is an inherited defect in the production of endorphin,
similar to morphine. A deficiency of the substance leads
to bodily discomfort. With the use of the morphine, this
feeling is induced. According to theory, a person who
uses morphine has the physiological abnormality where
endorphin production is less. The drugs when we use the
body cells work actively.
B. Common Causation of Drug Abuse
1. Children of broken home easily join peer groups as
substitutes to their lost family solidarity.
2. To strike and over protectiveness of parents.
3. For curiosity – eagerness to know what they have not
experienced.
4. To assert their independence.
5. To rebel from parental authority.
6. To prove their guts.
7. To escape problems.
8. Peer pressure and for the sake of PAKIKISAMA.
9. They believe that drug can give deeper insights.
10. The belief that medicines can magically solve problems.
11. The easy access to drug or various sort in an affluent society.
12. The enjoyment of euphoria or excitement induced by drugs.
13. The search for sharpened perception and high perception and
creativity, which some people believe they obtained from
drugs.
14. The beliefs that they are just taking it like alcohol.
15. The dissatisfaction or disillusion of lost of faith in the
prevailing system.
16. The tendency of persons with psychological problems to seed
easily solution with chemicals.
17. The statement of proselytizers who proclaim the goodness of
drugs.
 18. Slum condition - the most critical is that the slum dweller are
often deprived of emotional support.
C. Factors in Youthful Drug Abuse
(Psychological, mental health, family conditions)
1. Motives and Attitudes
Psychologically speaking, in terms of motives and function of
drug use, some of which may not be recognized by users themselves.
The more a drug is used, the more it tends to satisfy more than one
motive or need.
Recent surveys of college drug use have induces the students
reasons for drug use. In one study smaller or larger groups
mentioned all of the following motives;
1. To feel more courageous.
2. To find out more about oneself.
3. To have a religious experience to come close to God.
4. To satisfy a strong craving or compulsion.
5. To increase or reduce appetite.
6. To feel less dull or sluggish, improve sex.
7. To reduce sexual desire and keep from being panicked or crazy.
8. To improve intelligence or learning, prepare stress.
9. To feel less depress of sad, relieve tension or nervousness
10. To make good moral mood last longer, relieve anger or irritation
2. Personality and Pathology
This psychology has been described as follows:
1. Chronic, low-grade depression.
2. Smoldering, tense and restlessness.
3. A sense of not being taken seriously.
4. Narcissism or egocentricity.
5. Preoccupation with issues or identity, autonomy, and freedom of
expression.
6. Repeated dwelling on drug taking and its effects.
7. Difficulty in interpersonal relations.
3. Family Background
The kinds of personality disturbances found in some young
addicts and heads cannot, in the current state of knowledge, be
identified as brain damage or schizophrenia. It is more in the manner
of character disorder. And the behavior may be the result of
inadequate socialization, condition of child rearing and family
interaction. The few available facts about families of young abuser
lend credence to this idea.
In one broad study of New York’s high addiction areas, the
families of adolescent narcotics users showed the following
characteristics:
1. Absent or weak father
2. Overprotective, overindulgent and domineering mother
3. Inconsistent standards of behavior, lack of definition of limits
4. Hostility or conflict between parents
5. Unrealistic aspiration for children
D. The Psycho-Social Factors
1. Personality Disorder - Drug abuse is a manifestation of an
underlying character of personality disorder. Thus majority of the drug
users are fundamentally immature, emotionally childish, insecure or
are suffering from problems of adolescence.
2. Social Disorder - A sign or symptom of family problem involving
parent – child relationship, peer pressures, unethical values.
Drugs use does not also occur in isolation of other
environmental factors but rather, is greatly influenced by these factors.
Some of the sociological factors also influenced drug use is as high
toll.
a. Availability of over-the counter and prescription drugs
variety of drugs available for different ailments.
b. Influence of media-advertisement message that all
aliment can be cured through the use of chemical
substances toward messages and help to create the
acceptance of drugs.
c. Impact of affluent lifestyle or of high employment.
d. Effect of increased travel and exposure to different
culture and social values
e. Modeling, if parents or key influence are drug users,
young persons often tend to model the behavior they
are at home.
f. Social pressures exerted by peers
g. Collapse of religious values
h. Alienation and enemies feeling of powerless
i. Lower value on academic achievement
E. Other Factors
1. Ignorance, curiosity
2. Laxity of government and other authorities
3. Mass media influence
4. Nature of society resulting in the increased violent behavior
for youth.
F. The 7 Deadly Sins - Primary Causes of Drug Abuse
1. Pride – excessive feeling of self-worth or self-esteem, sense of self-
importance.
2. Anger - unexpressed, deep-seated anger against himself, his
family, his friends or the society in general.
3. Lust – burning sexual desire can distort the human mind to drug
abuse.
4. Gluttony – “food trip” in the lingo of junkies
5. Greed – wealth, fame, recognition as exemplified by people under
pressure in their work of art, such as musicians, actors, athletes who
indulge in drug abuse.
6. Envy – to get attention from someone: as a sign of protest envy is a
major cause of drug abuse.
7. Laziness –“ I can’t syndrome”, incapacity to achieve – the breeding
ground of drug abuse. Boredom coupled with poor self-image.
How Addiction is acquired?
People have generally different motivation in life. The young
ones are very much adventurous and some of them have strong
attraction in Drug-taking, because these “Space are era belongs to
them so to speak, thus, the “IN” thing these days are drugs. To see
drug abusers around seemed to be of a common sight.
The drug habit is acquired in three ways:
1. Association
2. Experimentation
3. Inexperienced doctors
Likewise, addiction may be acquired through:
1. Habituation – closely related to euphoric effect, and
the relief of pain or emotional discomfort.
2. Toleration – the necessity to increase the dose to
obtain an effect equivalent to the original dose.
3. Dependence – the altered physiological state
brought about by the repeated administration of the drug,
which necessitates the continued use of the drug to avoid
withdrawal syndrome.
What are the Group Classifications of Drug Abusers?
1. Situational Users – those who use drugs to keep them awake or 7. pale face, red eyes, dilation or constricted pupils, wearing
for additional energy to perform an important work. Such individual sunglasses at wrong places
may or may not exhibit psychological dependence. 8. change from active to passive and withdrawn behavior
2. Spree Users – school age users who take drugs for “kicks’, an 9. secretive about money, disappearance of money and other
adventurous daring experience, or as a means of fun. There may be valuables from the house
some degree of psychological dependence but little physical 10. friends refusing to identify themselves or hang up when you
dependence due to the mixed pattern of use. answer the phone
3. Hard Core Addicts – those, whose activities revolve almost 11. overreaction to mild conditions
entirely around the drug experience and securing supplies. They show 12. smell of marijuana, sweetish odor, like a burned rope in the
strong psychological dependence on the drug. clothes or room, etc.
4. Hippies – those who are addicted to drugs believing that drug is 13. symptoms of nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tremors, muscular
an integral part of life. aches, insomnia and convulsions, etc.
14. presence of :
DETECTION OF DRUG ABUSERS a. butt from marijuana joint
Detecting a drug user is not an easy task. The signs and b. holders (i.e. pipe clips) for the joint
symptoms of drug abuse, especially in the beginning stages can be c. presence of leaves, seeds in pockets or lining
identical to those produced by conditions having nothing whatsoever d. rolling paper, pipes, “bong” in closet or pocket
to do with drugs. e. cough syrup bottles, capsules, syringes, etc.
It is always necessary to exercise certain prudence before f. visines or Eye-Mo bottles to treat red eyes
drawing conclusions. Some judgments may only hurt the individual; if g. devices for hiding drugs like trash cans, soft
he is innocent and one may lose his love and trust. Only after drinks bottles
observing calmly and patiently his behavior, appearance and h. presence of other pills like valium, artane, other
associations, may one pass judgment and act. tranquilizers
To detect a drug abuser one should observe the following: i. presence of physician’s prescription pad in blank
1. neglect of personal appearance form
2. diminished drive, lack of ambition
3. reduced attention span IDENTIFICATION OF DRUG ABUSER
4. poor quality of school work The following markers can help in identifying them:
5. impaired communication skills 1. Change in interest – they lose interest in their studies and in
6. less care for the feeling of others, lessening of accustomed their work. They fail in school, shift from one course to another,
family warmth transfer of school of lower standard until eventually drop out.
2. Frequent shifting of mood – they are euphoric, elated and
sometimes even ecstatic when under the influence of drugs. They
would be indifferent, irritable and even hostile when the effect of
drug is waning from the system.
3. Changes in behavior – they usually spend a lot. They are usually
in the company of known drug users in the community. They
come home late; they become disrespectful and would sell
personal or family valuables.
4. Changes in physical appearance – if they can be seen while still
under the influence of drugs the following can be noted:
The following can also help in identifying drug abusers.
a. They know the lingo of the abusers, i.e. OMAD. Chongki,
Bitin, etc.
b. Presence of linear scar in the arms, forearms and
abdomen.
c. Lobule of left ear punctured and some of the males even
wear earrings.
PROCESS OF DETECTING DRUG ABUSERS
The detection of drug abuse involves five processes namely:
a. Observation
b. History taking
c. Laboratory examination
d. Psychological examination
e. Psychiatric evaluation
1. OBSERVATION
Observations of the signs and symptoms of drug abuse may take
relatively a long period of time. Good sensory equipment and a high
degree of objectivity are two requirements for a good observer. To be
an effective observer, the observer should not let his own personal
judgements and reactions affect his observations. He should exercise
care in his observation such that the suspected drug abuser is not
made aware of being observed.
2. HISTORY TAKING
A. Collateral Information (Interview with information)
The best information is from the patient himself, but collateral
information is necessary. Ideally, a parent or close relative or a
close friend should be present to furnish useful details as to the
different changes observed in the patient that made them suspect
the subject is abusing drugs. These changes may be in his
appearance, behavior, mood, or interest.
Added information
1. If subject’s “barkadas” are also known drug
abusers in the community.
2. He knows the language of drug dependents.
3. Seeing in his room, books or in his belongings or
in his possession empty bottles of cough syrups,
empty medicine foils, MJ sticks or rolling paper.
B. Interview with patient
Inquire regarding the drugs being abused, onset of his drug
taking activity, reason for abusing drugs, how he supports his
vice, etc.
3. LABORATORY EXAMINATION
Accurate laboratory examinations cannot be performed by any
ordinary chemist since detection of dangerous drugs requires
sophisticated equipment and apparatus, special chemical reagents
and most of all, the specialized technical know-how.
4. PSYCHOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
This phase of drug detection requires the expertise of trained
psychologists. Teachers therefore are not in a position to administer
psychological examinations among their students. Psychological
examination findings will correspond to the general findings of a drug
prone individual:
- drowsy or lethargic appearance accompanied by
scratching and without alcoholic breath, tendency to
giggle excessively at things which others don’t consider
funny, and over-active and over talkative
5. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
a. Intelligence Test – the test is designed to cover a wide
variety of mental functions with special emphasis on
adjustment comprehension and reasoning.
b. Personality Test – this type of test is used to evaluate
the character and personality traits of an individual such
as his emotional adjustment, interpersonal relation,
motivation and attitude.
c. Aptitude Test – this test is to measure the readiness with
which the individual increases his knowledge and
improves skills when given the necessary opportunity and
training.
d. Interest Test – this is designed to reveal the field of
interest that a client will be interested in.
e. Psychiatric Evaluation – it is a process whereby a team
of professionals composed of psychiatrists,
psychologists, psychiatric social workers conduct an
examination to determine whether or not a patient is
suffering from psychiatric disorder.
Practical Ways of Recognizing the Drug Addict
A drug abuser will do everything possible to conceal his habit.
To be able to recognize the outward signs and symptoms, it is equally
important to realize that the drug problems are so complex. Even
expert advice not to judge abruptly an individual taking narcotics drug
as it could lead to falsely accusing an innocent person.
It should also be remembered that a person might have a
legitimate reason for possessing a tablets, syringe and needle (may
be a diabetic) having capsules (they may prescribe by doctor).
Having the sniffles and running eyes may due to head cold or an
allergy. Unusual or add behavior may not be connected in any way
with drug use.
Based on the lecture of U.S experts doctor of medicine, Forensic
chemist at the London International Police academy usually detect
drugs abusers without too much trouble by means of the following:
1. Presence of drug on the person – which he may try to conceal.
2. Presence of equipment for smoking, drinking or injection of drugs.
3. Presence of hypodermic needle marks or tracks on arms and on
various parts of the body.
4. Drug test on blood and Urinalysis
5. Drug intoxication in the absence of alcoholic smell. It is indicated
by:
a. dilation or contraction of the pupils
b. unsteady gait and incoherent speech
c. loose mental processes, drowsiness and itching
d. tendency to laugh at trivial
e. Withdrawal symptoms
6. Nalline test indicates an opiate addict.
 - A small dose (3 mg.) of nalline is injected into the Nature of Drug Taking Monodrug use
body of the suspect. The size of the pupil of the Drugs of Abuse Shabu; Marijuana
suspect is measured before and after the injection.
An addict will show appreciable dilation of the pupil. Actual Outward Physical Signs/ Symptoms of Drug Abusers:
The drug has practically no effect on non-addicts. The actual profile of an abuser of narcotic drugs may show
some of the following manifestations.
The General Profile of Drug Abusers 1. Admission of the addict himself.
The data may help one in understanding drug abusers in the 2. Consistently wear long-sleeved shirt or blouses, dark
Philippines. eye-classes unlikely times to hide dilated or constricted pupils
As to: The Profile of eyes.
3. Blood spots around elbow areas of blouses shirt or
Age Mean age of 26 years (since 1996), pajamas.
27 yrs (1999) 4. Walk, talk and act as if under alcoholic influence.
Sex Ratio of male to female remained 12: 5. Prolonged period of sleep or lethargy, abnormal
1 sleepless, nervous, jumpy and talkative.
Civil Status Single (55.78%) 6. School works deteriorates (grades and home works)
Married (32.58%) 7. Work habits, become slip-shod, too many emotional
Separated (4.43%) explosions, loss body weight., abnormal bowel habits, blood-
Family Size Three to four siblings in the family shot eyes.
Occupation Workers/Employees (42.51%) 8. Sloppy in dress and careless in bodily hygiene,
Unemployed (21.75%) inordinate desire for consumption of sweets. Unusual odor in
Self-Employed (12.58%) the house or room (marijuana, hash, or incense)
Students (12.16%) 9. Develop defiant or contemptuous attitudes towards
Out-of-School Youth (3.68%) authority (Parents, Teachers, Police, Etc.) constant demand
Educational Attainment High school level (27.77%) for ever-increasing amount of money.
College level (27.07%) 10. Takes money from everyone and fails to repay, steel
High School Graduate (22.77%) and sells all possible items of value from home or elsewhere
Economic Status Average monthly income of P5,290 when opportunity comes.
Place of Residence Urban 11. Receives or makes numerous phone calls to people
Duration of Drug Taking More than two years who are unknown in the house. Associates only with people
I.Q Average who have the reputation for playing with using drugs.
 12. Persistently lies when asked to explain in expected a game of hide-and-seek with the international drug syndicates (Sotto,
knock on the door. 1994).
13. Unrealistic attitudes, having difficult of concentration. A. The 1 st Important Drug Traffic Route
14.
The Personality Profile of a Filipino Drug Abuser Middle East – discovery, plantation, cultivation, harvest
1. They are of average or above average intelligence
2. They are witty and manipulative
3. They have negative attitude, they demonstrate hostile Turkey - preparation for distribution
feelings to the world or to anybody who does not want to
conform to what they want.
4. They are emotionally immature, selfish and demanding. Europe - manufacture, synthesis, refine
5. They want immediate gratification of needs and desires.
6. They have low frustration tolerance.
7. Their interest and aptitude are on dramatics, persuasive and U.S. - Marketing
musical field in that order.
9. They are depressed and excessively dependent. B. The 2 nd Major Drug Traffic Route
10. They are rebellious and have impulsive behavior.
11. They are pleasure seeker and pathologically liars A. Drugs that originates from the Golden Triangle
12. They like to join anti social groups/ delinquent groups.
13. They have difficulty in solving problems. Burma/Myanmar

THE GLOBAL DRUG SITUATION

Drug abuse has become not only a national issue or a
problem of just a few countries but it is a clear and present global Laos Thailand
danger.
Today, highly entrenched, well-organized drug syndicates are B. Drugs that originates from the Golden Crescent
behind this menace. They employ the most advanced and most
sophisticated technology coupled with unlimited financial resources at - Iran
their command and disposal. Police agencies around the world, - Afghanistan
pooling their resources together are more often than not, the losers in - Pakistan
- India

C. World’s Drug Scene
1. Southeast Asia – the “Golden Triangle” approximately produced
60% of opium in the world, 90% percent of opium in the eastern part
of Asia. It is also the officially acknowledged source of Southeast
Asian Heroin.
2. Southwest Asia – the “Golden Crescent” is the major supplier of
opium poppy, MJ and Heroin products in the western part of Asia. It
produces at least 85% to 90% of all illicit heroin channeled in the drug
underworld market.
3. Middle East – the Becka Valley of Lebanon is the biggest
producer of cannabis in the Middle East. Lebanon is also considered
as the transit country for cocaine from South America to European
markets.
4. Spain – major transshipment point for international drug traffickers
in Europe – known as “the paradise of drug users in Europe”.
5. South America – Columbia, Peru, Uruguay, and Panama are the
sources of all cocaine supply in the world.
6. Morocco – the number one producer of cannabis in the world.
(2003 to 2006)
7. Philippines – the major transshipment point for the worldwide
distribution of illegal drugs such as shabu and cocaine from Taiwan
and South America. The second world’s supplier of MJ and the drug
paradise of drug abusers in Asia.
8. India – center of the world’s drug map, leading to rapid addiction
among its people.
9. Indonesia – Northern Sumatra has traditionally been the main
cannabis growing area in Indonesia. Bali Indonesia is an important
transit point for drugs en route to Australia and New Zealand.
10. Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand – the most favorable sites
of drug distribution from the “Golden Triangle” and other parts of Asia.
11. China – the transit route for heroin from “Golden Triangle” to H.K.
12. Hong Kong – the world’s transshipment point of all forms of
heroin.
13. Japan – the major consumer of cocaine and shabu from U. S.
and Europe.
D. Organized Crime Groups behind the Global Drug Scene
Columbian Medellin Cartel
Founded during the 1980’s by Colombian drug lords in the
name of Pablo Escobar Gaviria and drug bosses Jose Gonzalo
Rodriguez Gacha and the top aid cocaine barons Juan David and the
Ochoa Brothers.
The Medellin Cartel is reputedly responsible for organizing
world’s drug trafficking network. The Columbian government
succeeded in containing the Medellin Cartel, which resulted in the
death, surrender, and arrest of the people behind the organization.
This further resulted to the disbandment of the Cartel led to its
downfall.
Cali Cartel
The downfall of the Columbian Medellin Cartel is the rise of
the Cali Cartel - the newly emerged cocaine monopoly. Gilberto
Rodriquez Orajuela –Don Chepe - “the chess player” heads the
syndicated organization. Under him, the Cali cartel was considered
the most powerful criminal organization in the world.
The cartel produces over 90% of cocaine in the world. Due to
this, it was called the best and the brightest of the modern underworld.
“ They are professionals of the highest order, intelligent, efficient,
imaginative, and nearly impenetrable” – US - Drug Enforcement
Agency.
The Chinese Triad
 The Chinese Triad is also called the Chinese Mafia – the
oldest and biggest criminal organization in the world. It is believed to
be the controller of the “Golden Triangle”.
Drug Syndicates in the Philippines
The Binondo-based Chinese syndicate has been identified as
the nucleus of the Triad Society, the Bamboo gang based in Taiwan
and the 14K based in Hong Kong. The Bamboo Gang is the influence
of the Green Gang of the Chinese Triad while the 14K is the newest
among the triads families established only in 1947.
The most common “modus operandi” by the syndicates –
posing as fishermen along Philippine seas, particularly, the northern
provinces of Luzon such as La Union, Ilocos, and Pangasinan where
they drop their loads of shabu to shoreline based members. The
syndicates are famously involved in marijuana cultivation and other
drug smuggling including drug manufacture.
THE DANGEROUS DRUGS
A. According to Effects
1. Depressants – those that depress the CNS
2. Stimulants – those that stimulate the CNS
3. Hallucinogens – those that distort perception, mind; alter
moods
B. According to Medical Pharmacology
1. Depressants
2. Narcotics
3. Tranquilizers
4. Stimulants
5. Hallucinogens
6. Solvents/Inhalants
The Depressants (Downers)
These are group of drugs, which suppress vital body
functions especially those of the brain or central nervous system with
the resulting impairment of judgment, hearing, speech and muscular
coordination. They dull the minds, slow down body reactions to such
an extent that accidental deaths and/or suicides usually happen. They
include the narcotics, barbiturates, tranquilizers, alcohol and other
volatile solvents. These drugs, when taken in, generally decrease
both the mental and the physical activities of the body. They cause
depression, relieve pain and induce sedation or sleep and suppress
cough.
a. Narcotics - are drugs, which relieve pain and produce
profound sleep or stupor. Medically, they are potent
painkillers, cough depressants and as an active
component of anti-diarrheal preparations. Opium and it
derivatives like morphine, codeine and heroin, as well as
the synthetic opiates, meperidine and methadone, are
classified as narcotics.
b. Opium – derived from a poppy plant – Papaver
somniferum popularly known as “gum”, “gamot”,
“kalamay” or “panocha”.
c. Morphine - most commonly used and best used opiate.
Effective as a painkiller six times potent than opium, with
a high dependence – producing potential. Morphine
exerts action characterized by analgesia, drowsiness,
mood changes, and mental clouding.
d. Heroin – is three to five times more powerful than
morphine from which it is derived and the most addicting
opium derivative. With continued use, addiction occurs
 within 14 days. It may be sniffed on swallowed but is
usually injected in the veins.
6. Codeine – a derivative of morphine, commonly available
in cough preparations. These cough medicines have
been widely abused by the young whenever hard
narcotics are difficult to obtain. Withdrawal symptoms are
less severe than other drugs.
7. Paregoric – a tincture of opium in combination with
camphor. Commonly used as a household remedy for
diarrhea and abdominal pain.
8. Demerol and Methadone – common synthetic drugs
with morphine – like effects. Demerol is widely used as a
painkiller in childbirth while methadone is the drug of
choice in the withdrawal treatment of heroin dependents
since it relieves the physical craving for heroin.
9. Barbiturates – are drugs used for inducing sleep in
persons plagued with anxiety, mental stress, and
insomnia. They are also of value in the treatment of
epilepsy and hypertension. They are available in
capsules, pills or tablets, and taken orally or injected.
10. Seconal – commonly used among hospitality girls.
Sudden withdrawal from these drugs is even more
dangerous than opiate withdrawal. The dependent
develops generalized convulsions and delirium, which are
frequently associated with heart and respiratory failure.
11. Tranquilizers – are drugs that calm and relax and
diminish anxiety. They are used in the treatment of
nervous states and some mental disorders without
producing sleep.
12. Volatile Solvents – gaseous substances popularly
known to abusers as “gas”, “teardrops”. Examples are
plastic glues, hair spray, finger nail polish, lighter fluid,
rugby, paint, thinner, acetone, turpentine gasoline,
kerosene, varnishes and other aerosol products. They
are inhaled by the use plastic bags, handkerchief or rags
soaked in these chemicals.
13. Alcohol – the king of all drugs with potential for abuse.
Most widely used, socially accepted and most extensively
legalized drug throughout the world. In the field of
medicine, it is “valuable” as disinfectant, as an external
remedy for reducing high fever among children, and as
preservative and solvent for pharmaceutical preparations
like elixirs, spirits and tincture.
The Stimulants (Uppers)
They produce effects opposite to that of depressants. Instead
of bringing about relaxation and sleep, they produce increased mental
alertness, wakefulness, reduce hunger, and provide a feeling of well
being. Their medical users include narcolepsy – a condition
characterized by an overwhelming desire to sleep. Abrupt withdrawal
of the drug from the heavy abuser can result in a deep and suicidal
depression.
a. Amphetamines – used medically for weight
reducing in obesity, relief of mild depression and
treatment
b. Cocaine – taken orally, injected or sniffed as to
achieve euphoria or an intense feeling of “highness”.
c. Caffeine – it is present in coffee, tea, chocolate,
cola drinks, and some wake-up pills.
5. Shabu/ “poor man’s cocaine” – chemically known as
methamphetamine. It is a central nervous system
stimulant and sometimes called “upper” or “speed”. It is
 white, colorless crystal or crystalline powder with a bitter
numbing taste. It can be taken orally, inhaled (snorted),
sniffed (chasing the dragon) or injected.
6. Nicotine – an active component in tobacco, which acts
as a powerful stimulant of the central nervous system. A
drop of pure nicotine can easily kill a person.
The Hallucinogens (Psychedelic)
Consists of a variety of mind-altering drugs, which distort
reality, thinking and perceptions of time, sound, space and sensation.
The user experiences hallucination (false perception), which at times
can be strange. His “trips” may be exhilarating or terrifying good or
bad. They may dislocate his consciousness and change his mood,
thinking and concept of self.
1. Marijuana – It is the most commonly abused hallucinogen in the
Philippines because it can be grown extensively in the country. Many
users choose to smoke marijuana for relaxation in the same way
people drink beer or cocktail at the end of the day. The effects of
marijuana include a feeling of grandeur. It can also produce the
opposite effect, a dreamy sensation of time seeming to stretch out.
2. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) – This drug is the most
powerful of the psychedelics obtained from ergot, a fungus that
attacks rye kernels. LSD is 1, 000 times more powerful than marijuana
as supply, large enough for a trip can be taken from the glue on the
flab of an envelope, from the paste of a postage stamp, or from the
hidden areas inside one’s clothes. LSD causes perceptual changes so
that the user sees colors, shapes, or objects more intensely than
normal and may have hallucinations of things that are not real. To him
real objects seem to change, buildings seem to be crackling open,
and walls pulsating. He experiences frequent bizarre hallucinations,
loss spatial perceptions, personality diffusion and changes in values.
Usually, users perceive distortion of time, colors, sounds and depth.
They experience “scent” music and sounds in “colors”.
3. Peyote – Peyote is derived from the surface part of a small gray
brown cactus. Peyote emits a nauseating odor and its user suffers
from nausea. This drug causes no physical dependence and,
therefore, no withdrawal symptoms, although in some cases
psychological dependence has been noted.
4. Mescaline – It is the alkaloid hallucinogen extracted from the
peyote cactus and can also be synthesized in the laboratory. It
produces less nausea than peyote and shows effects resembling
those of LSD although milder in nature. One to two hours after the
drug is taken in a liquid or powder form, delusions begin to occur.
Optical hallucinations follow one upon another in rapid succession.
These are accompanied by imperfect coordination and perception
with a sensation of impeded motion, and a marked sense that time is
still standing. Mescaline does not cause physical dependence.
5. STP – It is a take-off on the motor oil additive. It is a chemical
derivative of mescaline claimed to produce more violent and longer
effects than mescaline dose. Its effects are similar to the nerve gas
used in chemical warfare. It is less potent than LSD although its
effects are similar to those of psychedelics.
6. Psilocybin – This hallucinogenic alkaloid from small Mexican
mushrooms are used by Mexican Indians today. These mushrooms
induced nausea, muscular relaxation, mood changes with visions of
bright colors and shapes, and other hallucinations. These effects may
last for four to five hours and later may be followed by depressions,
laziness, and complete loss of time and space perceptions.
7. Morning Glory Seeds – The black and brown seeds of the wild
tropical morning glory that are used to produce hallucinations. The
seeds are ground into flour, soaked in cold water, then strained
though a cloth and drunk. They are sold under the names of
“heavenly blues”, “flying dancers’, and “pearly gates”. The active
ingredient in the seed is similar to LSD although less potent. The
reactions are likened to those resulting from LSD. Prolonged
psychosis is also one of its effects.
COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS
Drugs that are commonly abused depending on their
pharmacological effects may be classified into:
1. Sedatives – drugs which reduce anxiety and excitement such as
barbiturates, non-barbiturates, tranquilizers and alcohol.
2. Stimulants – drugs which increase alertness and activity such as
amphetamines, cocaine and caffeine.
3. Hallucinogens/Psychedelics – drugs which affect sensation,
thinking, self-awareness and emotion. Changes in time and space
perception, delusions (false beliefs) and hallucinations) may be mild
or overwhelming, dispensing on dose and quality of the drug. This
includes LSD, mescaline and marijuana.
4. Narcotics – drugs that relieve pain and often induce sleep. The
opiates, which are narcotics, include opium and drugs derived from
opium, such as morphine, codeine and heroin.
THE EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE
1. PHYSICAL EFFECTS
a. Malnutrition – The life of an addict revolves around drug
use. He misses even his regular meals. He losses
appetite and eventually develops malnutrition. Likewise,
the drug dependent who has tried on his own to withdraw
may suffer from severe gastrointestinal disturbance that
results to severe dehydration.
b. Skin Infections and Skin Rashes - Oftentimes the drug
abuser neglects his personal hygiene, uses unsterilized
needles and syringes that result in skin infections or even
ulceration at the sites of the needle puncture. Skin rashes
may even occur as a side effect or sensitivity reaction to
certain drugs of abuse.
Infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, bronchitis,
bronchial asthma, viral hepatitis, sequelae of drug abuse. Marijuana
smoking can produce physical conditions like chronic bronchitis and
asthma. Physically ill persons, like a tuberculosis individual who has
suffered so much from his illness may resort to drug taking as a
temporary measure for relief. A drug abuser, because of his use of
unsterilized paraphernalia, tends to develop lowered resistance and
becomes susceptible to various infections, among them are viral
hepatitis, and HIV infections/AIDS.
An individual suffering from arthritis or terminal cancer who
experiences acute, unbearable pains and insomnia is likely to become
a drug dependent to opiates or sedatives.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS
a. Deterioration of personality with impaired emotional
maturation.
b. Impairment of adequate mental function.
c. Loss of drive and ambition.
d. Development of psychosis and depression.
e. Loss of interest to study.
f. Laziness, lethargy, boredom and restlessness.
g. Irritability, rebellious attitude.
h. Withdrawn forgetfulness.
3. SOCIAL EFFECTS
a. Deterioration of interpersonal relationship and
development of conflict with authority.
 b. Leads to crime. It is impossible for a drug abuser to hold a steady job
c. Social maladjustment; loss of desire to work, study since he spends all his time and money on drugs. If he does not have
and participate in activities or to face challenges. a regular job, he and his friends steal to raise money. If he has one,
he would be unable to concentrate since he would be either over-
4. MENTAL EFFECTS stimulated or lazy and drowsy.
a. Adverse effect on the central nervous system.
Regular use or injection of large doses of a b. Dependence on family resources.
substance reduces the activity of the brain and Instead of contributing to the economic stability of
depresses the central nervous system. The drug the family, a dependent becomes an economic burden.
dependent then manifests changes in his mind and Besides depending on the family for his basic necessities, he
behavior that are undesirable by people in his also has to rely on the family resources to provide him money
environment. for the support of his expensive habit.
b. Deterioration of the mind. c. Accidents in industry.
The dependent is a “mental invalid” in the sense that drugs In a state of agitation or dullness of the mind as a
can manipulate him, make him lose his power, and prod him to result of the drug he has taken, the dependent becomes
behave contrary to what he usually think is right. These drugs are careless and loses concentration on his job. Consequently, an
essentially reality modifiers, which create a masked sense of well accident may occur which may adversely affect both drug
being by either dulling or distorting sensory perceptions and providing abuser and his co-workers.
a temporary means of escape from personal difficulties, either real or SYMPTOMS OF ABUSE ON THE DANGEROUS DRUGS
imaginary. They can reduce or accelerate activity to create COMMON EFFECTS/SYMPTOMS OF DRUG ABUSE
indifference, depressive mood, or carelessness.
As a result, the abuser’s mind deteriorates gradually. In other Effects Downers Uppers Psychedelics
instances, he abruptly loses interest and motivation in the pursuit of (depressant (stimulants) (hallucinogens)
achievement and constructive goals. s)
Instead of providing him relaxation and escape from Changes in Pupils Dilated Marijuana – no
discomfort, drug, alcohol and tranquilizers may blur his attempts to the eyes constricted change in pupils but
come to terms with reality. His character becomes weak and the conjunctivae are
inadequate in coping with his problems. red because of dilation
5. ECONOMIC EFFECTS of the vessels of the
a. Inability to hold stable job. eyes. Other
hallucinogens –
 pupils are dilated. inject drug in the body where needle marks will not
Locomotive Decrease Increase None be seen readily
changes 5. user often leaves syringes, bent spoons, bottle caps,
eye droppers, cotton and needles in lockers at school
Speech Under- Talkative, None or hidden at home
productive, Loquacious 6. user scratches self frequently
Under- with flight of 7. loss if appetite
talkative ideas 8. sniffles, running nose, red watery eyes, coughing
Hallucinatio None None Present usually in which disappears when user gets a “fix”
n visual field
Delusion None Usually Sometimes b. Barbiturates/Tranquilizers
encountered encountered 1. symptoms of alcohol intoxication without odor or
Vital signs Low High Usually no change alcohol on breath
i.e. 2. staggering or stumbling
temperature 3. falling asleep unexplainably
, blood 4. drowsiness, may appear disoriented
pressure, 5. lack of interest in school and family activities
pulse rate,
respiratory c. Volatile Solvents
rate 1. odor of substance on breath and clothes
2. excessive nasal secretions, watering of eyes
3. poor muscular control
1. DEPRESSANTS 4. increased preference for being with a group rather
a. Narcotics than being alone
1. lethargy, drowsiness 5. plastic or paper bags or rags, containing dry plastic
2. pupils are constricted and fail to respond to light cement or other solvent, found at home or in locker at
3. inhaling heroin in powder form leaves traces of white school or at work
powder around nostrils causing redness 6. slurred speech
4. injecting heroin leaves scars, usually on the inner
surface of the arms and elbows although user may 2. STIMULANTS
a. Amphetamines/Cocaine/Speed/Bunnies/Ups

1. pupils may be dilated
2. mouth and nose dry, bad breath; licks lips frequently
3. goes long periods without eating or sleeping;
nervous; has difficulty sitting still
4. chain smoking
5. if injecting drug, user may have hidden eye droppers
and needles among possessions
b. Shabu
1. produces elevations of mood, heightened alertness
and increased energy
2. some individuals may become anxious, irritable or
loquacious
3. causes decreased appetite and insomnia
3. HALLUCINOGENS
a. Marijuana
1. may appear animated with rapid, loud talking and
bursts of laughter
2. sleepy or stuporous
3. pupils are dilated
4. odor(similar to burnt rope) on clothing or breath
5. remnants of marijuana, either loose or in partially
smoked “joints” in clothing or possessions
b. LSD/STP/DMT/THC
1. user usually sits or reclines quietly in a dream or
trance – like state
2. user may become fearful and experience a degree of
terror which makes him attempt to escape from his
group
3. senses of sight, hearing, touch, body image and time
are distorted
4. mood and behavior are affected, the manner
depending upon emotional and environmental
condition of the user
INDIVIDUAL EFFECTS OF THE DANGEROUS DRUGS
1. DEPRESSANTS
a. Death due to respiratory arrest.
b. In large doses can cause respiratory depression and coma,
the combination of depressants and alcohol can multiply the
effect of the drugs, thereby multiplying the risks.
c. Babies born to mothers who abuse depressants during
pregnancy may be physically dependent on the drug and
show withdrawal symptom shortly after they are born. Birth
defects and behavioral problems may also result.
2. STIMULANTS
a. Death due to infections, high blood pressures.
b. Extremely high doses can cause a rapid or irregular
heartbeat, tremors, loss of coordination, and even physical
collapse.
Shabu
a. Overdosage leads to chest pains, hypertension, acute
psychotic reaction, convulsions and death due to cardiac
arrest
b. Due to the appetite suppressing effects of shabu,
pregnant mother may become malnourished. This may
affect the nutritional needs of the baby.
c. Babies born to shabu-using women show sever
emotional disturbances.
3. HALLUCINOGENS
Marijuana
a. Can lead to serious mental changes (psychoses) like
insanity, suicidal and/or homicidal tendencies
b. Poor impulse control.
c. Damage to chromosomes, hence, affecting potentially the
offspring.
Effects On The Body
a. Brain – impairs skills for driving cars and operating
machinery, interferes with memory, and intellect.
b. Eyes – lowers pressure inside eye ball
c. Heart – raises heart rate, potentially hazardous to heart
patients
d. Lungs – impairs lung functions
e. Reproductive Organ – decreases sex hormones and
sperm production in males
f. Immune System – impairs immunity of the body against
infection and cancer
APPROACHES TO THE DRUG PROBLEM
The present nature and extent of drug abuse and misuse
among the youth constitutes one of the gravest health problems
facing the nation and the world today. Public concern about drug
abuse is focused not only on drugs that can be abused but also on the
individual who misuses them.
Today, there are many measures undertaken by both the
private and the government sectors in the fight against drug abuse as
a disease of society. This includes the major approaches as follows:
A. The Law Enforcement Approach
B. The Treatment and Rehabilitation Approach
C. The Educational Approach
D. The International Efforts Against Drug Abuse
THE LAW ENFORCEMENT APPROACH
The Philippine government considers drug abuse as a multi-
faceted problem that threatens the health and well being of the
Filipinos across all levels of society. The Comprehensive Dangerous
Drugs Act of 2002 or Republic Act No. 9165 was enacted to add more
teeth on the government response to the ongoing problem on drug
abuse in the country. This is the major arm of the government in its
law enforcement approaches that derived from the supply and
demand reduction strategies.
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9165: Important Features
R.A. 9165 – COMPREHENSIVE DANGEROUS DRUGS ACT
OF 2002 (Approved on June 7, 2002 - Effective July 4, 2002)
What is Dangerous Drug under this law
Includes those listed in the schedules annexed to the 1961
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, as amended by the 1972
Protocol, and the schedules annexed to the 1971 Single Convention
on Psychotropic Substances (Art 1, Sec. 3).
Ex. MMDA – Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstacy),
Tetrahydrocannabinol (MJ); Mescaline (Peyote)
What are the Controlled Precursors and Essential
Chemicals?
Include those listed in Tables I and II of the 1988 UN
Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotrophic
Substances (Art 1, Sec 3)
Ex. Table 1 – Acetic Anhydride, N- Acetyl Anthranilic Acid, Epedrine,
Ergometrine, Lysergic Acid
 Table 2 – Acetone, Ethyl Ether, Hydrochloric Acid, Being an employee or visitor Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs
Sulfuric Acid, etc. of a den, dive or resort (sec. and 1 day to 20 yrs and a fine
NOTE: 7) ranging from P100, 000 to P500,
000.
Under RA 6425 (Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972), Dangerous drugs Manufacture of dangerous Life Imprisonment to Death and a
refers to the Prohibited drugs, Regulated drugs and Volatile Drugs and/or Controlled fine ranging from P500, 000 to P10
substances. Precursors and Essential Million
Prohibited Drugs – ex. Opium and its derivatives, Cocaine and its Chemicals (sec. 8)
derivatives, Hallucinogen drugs like MJ, LSD, and Mescaline Illegal Chemical Diversion of Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs
Regulated drugs – ex. Barbiturates, Amphetamines, Tranquillizers Controlled Precursors and and 1 day to 20 yrs and a fine
Volatile Substances – ex. rugby, paints, thinner, glue, gasoline Essential Chemicals (sec. 9) ranging from P100, 000 to P500,
000.
Table 8. What are the Unlawful Acts and Penalties? Manufacture or Delivery of Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs
Equipment, Instrument, and 1 day to 20 yrs and a fine
Penalty Apparatus and other ranging from P100, 000 to P500,
Unlawful Acts Paraphernalia for Dangerous 000.
Importation of Dangerous Life Imprisonment to Death and a Drugs and/or Controlled
drugs and/or Controlled fine ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Precursors and Essential
Precursors and Essential Million Chemicals (sec. 10)
Chemicals (sec. 4) Possession of Dangerous Life Imprisonment to Death and a
Sale, Trading, Administration, Life Imprisonment to Death and a Drugs fine ranging from P500, 000 to P10
Dispensation, Delivery, fine ranging from P500, 000 to P10 (sec. 11) Million
Distribution and Million
transportation of Dangerous Possession of Equipment, Imprisonment ranging from 6 mos
Drugs and/or Controlled Instrument, Apparatus and and 1 day to 4 yrs and a fine
Precursors and Essential other Paraphernalia for ranging from P10, 000 to P50, 000
Chemicals (sec. 5) Dangerous Drugs
Maintenance of a Den, Dive Life Imprisonment to Death and a (sec. 12)
or Resort where dangerous fine ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Possession of dangerous The maximum penalties provided
drugs are used or sold in any Million Drugs during Parties, Social for Sec. 11.
form (sec. 6) Gatherings or Meetings (sec.
13), and part of practioners,
Possession of Equipment, manufacturers, wholesalers,
Instrument, Apparatus and importers, distributors,
other Paraphernalia for dealers, or retailers (sec.
Dangerous Drugs during 17)
Parties, Social Gatherings or Unnecessary Prescription of Imprisonment ranging from 12
Meetings (sec. 14) Dangerous Drugs (sec. 18) yrs and 1 day to 20 yrs and a
Use of Dangerous Drugs Minimum 6 mos rehabilitation (1 st fine ranging from P100, 000 to
(sec. 15) offense), P500, 000.
Imprisonment ranging from 6 yrs Plus revocation of license to
and 1 day to 12 yrs and a fine practice profession
ranging from P50,000 to P200, 000 Unlawful Prescription of Life imprisonment to Death and
(2nd Offense) Dangerous Drugs (sec.19) a fine ranging from P500, 000
to 10 Million pesos
NOTE:
Section 15 shall not be applicable where the person tested is NOTE:
also found to have in his/her possession such quantity of any The Possession of Dangerous drugs in the following
dangerous drug provided in sec.11, in which case the penalty quantities, regardless of degree of purity: 10 grams or more of opium;
provided in sec. 11 shall apply. morphine; heroin; cocaine; MJ resin; 10 grams or more of MMDA,
LSD and similar dangerous drugs; 50 grams or more of “shabu”/
Cultivation of Plants Life Imprisonment to Death and Methamphetamine Hydrochloride; 500 grams or more of Marijuana.
classified as dangerous a fine ranging from P500, 000 If the quantity involved is less than the foregoing, the
drugs or are sources thereof to P10 Million penalties shall be graduated as follows:
(sec. 16) 1. Life imprisonment and a fine ranging from P400, 000 to P500, 000
Failure to comply with the Imprisonment ranging from 1 yr if “shabu” is 10 grams or more but less than 50 grams;
maintenance and keeping of and 1 day to 6 yrs and a fine 2. Imprisonment of 20 yrs and 1 day to Life imprisonment and a fine
the original records of ranging from P10, 000 to P50, ranging from P400, 000 to P500, 000 if the quantities of dangerous
transaction on any 000 drugs are 5 grams or more but less than 10 grams of opium,
dangerous drugs and/or Plus revocation of license to morphine, heroin, cocaine, mj resin, shabu, MMDA, and 300 grams or
controlled precursors and practice profession. more but less than 500 grams of marijuana
Essential Chemicals on the
3. Imprisonment of 12 yrs and 1 day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from
P300, 000 to P400, 000 if the quantities of dangerous drugs are less
than 5 grams of opium, morphine, heroin, cocaine, mj resin, shabu,
MMDA, and less than 300 grams of marijuana.
The Unlawful Acts Punishable by Death Penalty
(Prior to the abolition of Death Penalty)
1. Importation or bringing into the Philippines of dangerous
drugs using diplomatic passport or facilities or any means
involving his/her official status to facilitate unlawful entry of
the same (sec 4, Art II).
2. Upon any person who organizes, manages or acts as
“financiers” of any of the activities involving dangerous drugs
(sec 4, 5, 6, 8 Art II).
3. Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery,
Distribution and transportation of Dangerous Drugs and/or
Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals with in 100
meters from the school (sec 5, Art II).
4. Drugs pushers who use minors or mentally incapacitated
individuals as runners, couriers and messengers or in any
other capacity directly connected to the dangerous drug trade
(sec 5, Art II).
5. If the victim of the offense is a minor or mentally incapacitated
individual, or should a dangerous drug and/or controlled
precursors and essential chemical involved in the offense be
the proximate cause of death of the victim (sec 5, Art II).
6. When dangerous drug is administered, delivered or sold to a
minor who is allowed to use the same in such a place (sec 6,
Art II).
7. Upon any person who uses a minor or mentally incapacitated
individual to deliver equipment, instrument, apparatus and
other paraphernalia for dangerous drugs (sec. 10, Art II).
8. Possession of dangerous Drugs during Parties, Social
Gatherings or Meetings (sec. 13), and Possession of
Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other Paraphernalia
for Dangerous Drugs during Parties, Social Gatherings or
Meetings (sec. 14)
What is the Dangerous Drugs Board (DDB)?
o The DDB is the policy-making body and strategy-making body
in the planning and formulation of policies and programs on
drug prevention and control. (under the Office of the
President) (sec. 77, Art IX)
o Composition: 17 members (3 as permanent, 12 as ex-officio,
2 regular members)(sec. 78, Art IX)
o 3 permanent members: to be appointed by the President, one
to be the Chairman.
o 12 ex officio members:
o Secretary of DOJ, DOH, DND, DOF, DOLE, DILG, DSWD,
DFA, and DepEd, Chairman of CHED, NYC, and the Dir.Gen
of PDEA.
o 2 regular members: President of the IBP, and the
Pres/Chaiman of an NGO involved in a dangerous drug
campaign to be appointed by the President.
o The NBI Director the Chief of the PNP – permanent
consultant of the Board.
What are the Powers and Duties of the DDB?
(sec. 81, Art IX)
 1. Formulation of Drug Prevention and Control Strategy,
2. Promulgation of Rules and Regulation to carry out the
purposes of this Act,
3. Conduct policy studies and researches,
4. Develop educational programs and info drive,
5. Conduct continuing seminars and consultations,
6. Design special training,
7. Coordination with agencies for community service programs,
8. Maintain international networking.
What is the PDEA?
o PDEA means Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency.
o It is the implementing arm of the DDB and responsible for the
efficient and effective law enforcement of all the provisions on
any dangerous drugs and/ or precursors and essential
chemicals.
o Head: Director General – appointed by the President
o Assisted By: 2 Deputies Director General (one for Admin,
another for Opns) – appointed by the President (sec. 82, Art
IX).
PDEA Operating Units:
o It absorbed the NDLE-PCC (created under E.O. 61),
NARCOM of the PNP, Narcotics Division of the NBI, and the
Customs Narcotics Interdiction Unit (sec. 86, Art IX).
What are the Powers and Functions of the PDEA?
(sec. 84, Art IX)
1. Cause the effective and efficient implementation of the
national drug control strategy,
2. Enforcement of the provisions of Art II of this Act,
3. Undertake investigation, make arrest and apprehension
of violators and seizure and confiscation of dangerous drugs,
4. Establish forensic laboratories,
5. Filing of appropriate drug cases,
6. Conduct eradication programs,
7. Maintain a national drug intelligence system,
8. Close coordination with local and international drug
agencies.
Other Features of R.A 9165
1. In the revised law, importation of any illegal drug, regardless
of quantity and purity or any part therefrom even for floral,
decorative and culinary purposes is punishable with life
imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from P500, 000 to
P10 million.
2. The trading, administration, dispensation, delivery,
distribution, and transportation of dangerous drugs is also
punishable by life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging
from P500, 000 to P10 million.
3. Any person who shall sell, trade, administer, dispense,
deliver, give away to another or distribute, dispatch in transit
or transport any dangerous drugs regardless of quantity and
purity shall be punished with life imprisonment to death and a
fine ranging from P500, 000 to P10 million.
 But if the sale, administration, delivery,
distribution or transportation of any of these
illegal drugs transpires with in 100 meters
from any school, the maximum penalty shall
be imposed.
 Pushers who use minors or mentally
incapacitated individuals as runners,
couriers, and messengers or in dangerous
 drug transactions shall also be meted with
the maximum penalty.
 A penalty of 12 yrs to 20 yrs imprisonment
shall be imposed on financiers, coddlers, and
managers of the illegal activity.
4. The law also penalizes anybody found in possession of any
item or paraphernalia used to administer, produce, cultivate,
propagate, harvest, compound, convert, process, pack, store,
contain or conceal illegal drugs with an imprisonment of 12
yrs to 20 yrs and a fine of P100, 000 to P500, 000.
5. Owners of resorts, dives, establishments, and other places
where illegal drugs are administered is deemed liable under
this new law, the same shall be confiscated and escheated in
favor of the government.
6. Any person who shall be convicted of violation of this new
law, regardless of the quantity of the drugs and the penalty
imposed by the court shall not be allowed to avail the
privilege provisions of the Probation Law (P.D. 968).
(sec.58, Art VIII) Filing of charges against a drug dependent for
confinement and rehabilitation under voluntary submission program
can be made:
1. second commitment to the center
2. upon recommendation of the DDB
3. may be charge for violation of sec. 15
4. if convicted – confinement and rehabilitation
Parents, spouse or guardian who refuses to cooperate with
the Board or any concerned agency in the treatment and rehabilitation
of a drug dependent may be cited for Contempt of Court (sec. 73, Art
VIII).
Anti-Drug Drives and Operational Concepts
The Operational Plans (OPLANS) against the Drug Problem are:
1. Oplan Thunderbolt I –operation to create impact to the
underworld
2. Oplan Thunderbolt II –operations to neutralize suspected
illegal drug laboratories
3. Oplan Thunderbolt III – Operations for the neutralization of
big time drug pushers’ drug dealers and drug lords.
4. Oplan Iceberg – Special operations team in selected drug
prone areas in order to get rid of illegal drug activities in the
area.
5. Oplan Hunter – operations against suspected military and
police personnel who are engage in illegal drug activities.
6. Oplan Mercurion – Operations against drug stores, which are
violating existing regulations on the scale of regulated drugs
in coordination with the DDB, DOH and BFAD.
7. Oplan Tornado – Operations in drug notorious and high profile
places.
8. Oplan Greengold – nation wide MJ eradication operations in
coordination with the local governments and NGO’s.
9. Oplan Sagip-Yagit – A civic program initiated by NGO’s and
local government offices to help eradicate drug syndicates
involving street children as drug conduit.
10. Oplan Banat – the newest operational plan against drug
abuse focused in the barangay level in cooperation with
barangay officials.
11. Oplan Athena – operation conducted to neutralize the 14k,
the Bamboo gang and other local organized crimes groups
involved in illegal drug trafficking.
12. Oplan Cyclops – operations against Chinese triad members
involved in the illegal drug operations particularly
Methamphetamine Hydrocloride.
 a. Preventive education and information campaigns
In the conduct of anti-drug operations, the following must be to prevent further demand of society particularly the
strictly considered: youth.
1. Respect for Human Rights (Sec. 11, Art. 2, Phil. Constitution) b. Treatment and rehabilitation of drug dependents.
2. Respect for right of the people to due process and equal
protection (Sec. 1, Art. 3, Phil. Constitution) 2. Supply Reduction Strategy
3. Respect of Right of the people against unreasonable search a. Dangerous Drug Law enforcement
and seizure. (Sec. 2, Art. 3, Phil. Constitution). b. Judicial and Legislative measures
4. Respect for right of the people to privacy of communication Operational Plans against the Drug Problem
(Sec. 3, Art. 3, Phil. Constitution). 1. Oplan Thunderbolt I – operations to create
5. Respect for constitutional rights of the accused undergoing impact to the underworld.
custodial investigation (RA 7438), (Sec. 12, Art. 3, Phil. 2. Oplan Thunderbolt II – operations to neutralize
Constitution) suspected illegal drug laboratories.
6. Respect for the statutory rights of the accused undergoing 3. Oplan Thunderbolt III – operations for the
custodial investigation under RA 7438. neutralization of big time drug pushers, drug dealers and
drug lords.
The Principles of Drug Operations are: 4. Oplan Iceberg – special operations team in
1. Knowledge on circumstances on when to use necessary force selected drug prone areas in order to get rid of illegal
(Art. 11, Chapter 3, RPC). drug activities in the area.
2. Knowledge on the statutory provisions on arrest (Rule 113, 5. Oplan Hunter – operations against suspected
Rules on Criminal Procedures). military and police personnel who are engaged in illegal
3. Knowledge on the administrative guidelines on arrest, search drug activities.
and seizure. 6. Oplan Mercurio – operations against drug stores,
4. The Miranda Doctrine (384 U.S. 346) which are violating existing regulations on the scale of
5. Warrantless Search and Search incidental to lawful arrest regulated drugs in coordination with the DDB/DOH and
(Rule 126, Rules on Criminal Procedure). BFAD.
7. Oplan Tornado – operations in drug notorious
National Campaign Strategies and high profile places.
1. Demand Reduction Strategy 8. Oplan Greengold –nationwide MJ eradication
operations in coordination with the local governments and
NGO’s.
 9. Oplan Sagip-Yagit – A civic program initiated by 1. Coverage: The rules covers the following anti-
NGO’s and local government offices to help eradicate narcotics operations.
drug syndicates involving street children as drug a. Buy-bust Operations
conduits. b. Search with warrant
10. Oplan Banat – the newest operational plan c. MJ Eradication
against drug abuse focused in the barangay level in d. Mobile Check point Operations
cooperation with barangay officials. e. Airport/Seaport Interdiction
f. Controlled delivery
Rules on Narcotics Operations g. Undercover Operations
General Rules and Procedures: h. Narcotics Investigation
2. Stages of Operations:
1. Only specially trained and competent drug
enforcement personnel shall conduct drug enforcement Phase I – Initial stage
and prevention operations.  Planning and preparations which
2. All drug enforcement and prevention operations include surveillance, casing,
shall be covered by a Pre-Operations report. reconnaissance and other preliminary
3. All steps taken before, during, and after the activities.
conduct of the operation must be documented and  Conduct the operation
properly authenticated. Phase II – Action and post-action stage
4. Operating units shall promptly submit written a  Tactical interrogation (follow-up
report after the operation. operation)
5. No apprehendee or seized item shall be  Post operation
released without authorization from the duly designated  Custodial Investigation
authority.  Prosecution
6. All pieces of evidence confiscated will be
 Trial
deposited with the proper Evidence Custodian for
 Resolution
safekeeping and proper handling.
7. Each participating element must be given clear
Buy-Bust Operations
and do-able task.
a. Concept: It is a form of entrapment employed by peace
officers as an effective way of apprehending a criminal in the
Coverage of the Rules
 act of the commission of the offense. Entrapment has
received judicial sanction as long as it is carried with due
regard to constitutional and legal safeguards.
b. Planning and Preparation: The operation must be
preceded by an intensive surveillance, casing, or other
intelligence operations and gathering, evaluation and timely
dissemination. Intelligence must be evidence-based and shall
be supported by documents such as summaries of info,
maps, sketches, affidavits and sworn statements.
Search For Drug Evidence with Warrant
a. Concept: A search warrant is an order in writing issued in the
name of the People of the Philippines, signed by a judge and
directed to a peace officer, commanding him to search for
personal property described therein and bring it before the
court. (Sec. 1, Rule 126, Revised Rules of Court)
b. Planning and Preparation:
1. Prior to the procurement of search warrant,
intensive intelligence data gathering must be
undertaken, evidence-based and supported by
credible documents.
2. Conduct of surveillance, casing, and other
intelligence operations.
3. Identification, movement, activities and location of
suspects should be established.
4. Search warrant shall be applied with competent
court
5. Conduct of Operation
6. Submission of reports
Marijuana Eradication
a. Concept: Marijuana eradication involves the location and
destruction of marijuana plantations, including the
identification, arrest and prosecution of the planter, owner or
cultivator, and the escheating of the land where the
plantations are located.
b. Planning and Preparation: The planning and operation
shall be preceded by intelligence gathering to verify the
existence of marijuana plantation and the existence to be
supported by documentary evidence such as summary of
information, maps, sketches, photographs and others. The
intelligence gathering must be appropriately documented by
pre-operations orders and after-casing reports.
c. Conduct of Operation:
1. Briefing, rehearsals, and proper formations.
2. Exact location of the plantation must be established.
3. Identify owner of the land or the cultivators.
4. Coordination with other operating units in the area.
5. Barangay eradication team should be organized.
6. Strict compliance with SOPs under Rules of Opns.
Mobile Checkpoint Operations
a. Concept: No other forms of checkpoints other than mobile
checkpoints are authorized for drug enforcement and
prevention operations. They shall be established only in
conjunction with on-going operations/situation or when there
is a need to arrest a criminal.
b. Planning and Operation: Intensive intelligence gathering
supported by credible documents, with proper pre-operations
orders and after surveillance or after casing reports.
 c. Conduct of Operations shall be in consonance with the
existing SOPs on checkpoint operations.
Airport and Seaport Interdiction
a. Concept: Airport and seaport interdiction involves the
conduct of surveillance, interception and interdiction of
persons and evidence during travel by air or sea vessels.
b. Planning and Operation: Intensive intelligence gathering
supported by credible documents, with proper pre-operations
orders and after surveillance or after casing reports.
c. Conduct of Operations
1. Coordination with airport and seaport authorities.
2. Operations shall be in consonance with the existing
SOPs on airport and seaport checks/operations.
Controlled Delivery
a. Concept: This is the technique of allowing illicit or suspect
consignment of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances or
substances substituted for them to pass out of, through or into
the territory of one or more countries, with the knowledge and
under the supervision of their competent authorities with a
view to identifying persons involved in the commission of drug
related offenses. International cooperation in facilitating the
controlled delivery of illicit drugs is considered the most
effective means to neutralize transnational criminal
syndicates.
b. Planning and Operation: Intensive intelligence gathering
and evaluation to determine the applicability of controlled
delivery operations. It must be supported by credible
documents, with proper pre-operations orders and after
surveillance or after casing reports. A committee or board
shall be constituted to study the project proposal for the
suitable employment of a controlled delivery operation.
c. Conduct of Operations
1. Proper formation for accounting of personnel
2. Coordination with airport, seaport and other travel
agency authorities.
3. Operations shall be in consonance with the existing
SOPs on controlled delivery operations.
Undercover Operations
a. Concept: Undercover operation is an investigative technique
in which the personnel involve assumes different identities in
order to obtain the necessary information. This technique may
also be considered as a method of surveillance.
b. Planning and Operation: Undercover operations shall be
resorted to only under circumstances where evidence can be
hardly obtained in an open investigation or when an open
investigation is unsuccessful.
c. Conduct of Operations
1. Proper briefing and rehearsals.
2. Identification of effective cover and undercover.
3. Buy-bust or search with warrant operations.
4. Operations shall be in consonance with the existing
SOPs on Undercover operations.
Narcotic Investigation
a. Concept: Narcotic investigation is a necessary tool employed
by drug enforcement agencies in building up relevant and
competent evidence, which are vital in the development of a
drug case. Several investigative techniques may be utilized
for the successful attainment of the operation. This include
but not limited to use of informants, interviewing,
 interrogation, surveillance operations and undercover
operations.
b. Planning and Operation: The most effective way of
investigative technique or combination of two or more or all
techniques under a given situation and setting that shall be
determined by considering the magnitude of drug law
violations.
c. The conduct of investigation shall follow the basic steps in
criminal investigation and detection. The application of the
following:
1. Initial Investigation
2. Tactical Investigation (Follow-up)
3. Post Operations
4. Custodial Investigations
5. After Investigation and Inquest
d. Prosecution and filing of the case
e. Trial of the case
THE TREATMENT AND REHABILTITATION APPROACH
A. Assisting the Drug Abuser
1. Treatment - the medical service rendered to a client for the
effective management of physical and mental conditions related to
drug abuse.
Aims of treatment
a. To prevent death from overdose.
b. To treat complications following drug dependency.
c. To make them comfortable during the withdrawal period.
d. To encourage confirmed drug dependent clients to
undergo rehabilitation and other specialized services.
Detoxification - it is a medically supervised elimination of drugs from
the system of any addicted person.
Methods of Detoxification includes:
1. Cold Turkey
2. Substitution – the use of methodex, catapres,
haemasin, dextropropoxyphene, tranquilizer, etc.
3. Reduction Method – using the same drug to
which the patient is dependent. The process
could be gradual or rapid.
4. Acupuncture
2. Rehabilitation - the dynamic process directed towards the
physical, emotional/psychological, vocational, social and spiritual
change to prepare a person for the fullest life compatible with his
capabilities and potentialities, and render him able to become a law
abiding and productive member of the community without abusing
drugs.
Objectives:
To restore an individual to a state where he is
physically, psychologically and socially capable of coping with
the same problems as others of his age group and able to
avail of the opportunity to live a happy, useful and productive
life without abusing drugs.
Modalities:
a. Multi-disciplinary Team Approach
b. Therapeutic Community Approach
c. Primal Scream Therapy
d. Spiritual Approach
e. Eclectic Approach
f. The 12 Steps of AA/NA
Methods of Rehabilitation
1. Psychotherapeutic Methods
a. Individual Therapy – This involves a one to one
relationship whose aim is to help the patient
reduce his drug abusing behavior and develop
insight into his condition.
b. Group Therapy – This is a form of therapy
where the individual is helped through group
process. Each member of the group receives
immediate feedback from the other members
regarding his verbal and other forms of behavior.
Group support and encouragement are given to
the subject on the premise that these are
effective devices, which can produce positive
results toward behavioral modification.
c. Unstructured Group Therapy – The role of the
therapist can be assumed by the entire group or
group members. In the therapeutic community,
group therapy is commonly used, among others,
through (a) group encounter, (b) verbal haircut
(tongue lashing reprimand), (c) group games,
and (d) family encounters.
The Family Therapy – This form of intervention is based on
recognition that while the family as a primary social unit, can be a
source of problem leading to drug abuse, can also be a powerful
factor in improving the behavior of the drug dependent. Family
therapy may include restructuring of the family, environmental
manipulation, strengthening family communication, and discovering
other means of family communication, and discovering potentials of
family members to help facilitate the rehabilitation of the drug
dependent.
2. The Spiritual and Religious Means - development of moral and
spiritual values of the user.
3. The Follow-up and After – Care
The process of rehabilitation does not end upon the release or
discharge of client from a center. After his discharge, he has to
undergo follow-up and after-care services for a period of not more
than 18 months by the appropriate center personnel. The
Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) and
the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) are deputized agents
of the board to handle this. A Transfer Summary of the case from the
rehabilitation facility is necessary and should be forwarded to the
entity undertaking the follow-up and after-care services. The Social
Worker of the receiving entity assigned to the case shall maintain a
close contact with the client, family, the accredited physician attending
to the case, and the police, for the purpose of assisting the client
maintain his progress towards adjusting to his new environment. He
shall also see to it that a regular laboratory examination of the client’s
body fluids is made to ensure that the client remains drug-free.
Duration of Rehabilitation - If the patient is found to be an opiate
abuser, the treatment prescribed shall be for a period of not less than
six (6) months.
Criteria of Rehabilitation
a. The patient achieves a drug-free existence.
b. He becomes adjusted to his family and peers.
c. Socially integrated to the community.
d. The client is not involved in socially deviant behaviors.
B. DIAGNOSTIC GUIDELINES
A definite diagnosis of dependence should only be made if
three or more of the following have been experienced or exhibited at
some time during the previous year.
 1. A strong desire or sense of compulsion to take the
substance.
2. An impaired capacity to control substance-taking
behavior in terms of its onset, termination, or levels of
use.
3. Substance used with the intention of relieving withdrawal
symptoms and with awareness that this strategy is
effective.
4. A psychological withdrawal state.
5. Evidence of tolerance such that increased doses of the
substance is required in order to achieve effects originally
produced by lower doses. (Clear examples of this are
found in alcohol and opiate dependent individuals who
may tale daily doses of the substance sufficient to
incapacitate or kill non-tolerant users).
6. A narrowing of the personal repertoire of patterns of
substance use (e.g. tendency to drink alcoholic drinks in
the same way on weekdays and weekends and whatever
the social constraints regarding appropriate drinking
behavior).
7. Progressive neglect of alternative pressures or interests
in favor of substance use.
8. Persisting with substance use despite clear evidence of
overtly harmful consequences. (Adverse consequences
may be medical as with harm to the liver through
excessive drinking, social as in the case of loss of a job
through drug-related impairment of performance, or
psychological as in the case of depressive mood states
consequent to periods of heavy substance use).
THE EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES
Drug Abuse Prevention Education
Drug abuse prevention education is concerned with bringing
about changes in the people’s knowledge, attitudes and practices
towards drug abuse. It utilizes a variety of approaches and methods
whereby people go through teaching-learning process, and which may
be planned, implemented and evaluated through the barangay
organized groups and other organizations and agencies in the
community.
There are six known strategies in drug abuse prevention,
which are the following:
1. Drug Education – learning situations during seminar-
workshops, symposiums and lecture forums, which take up values
clarification, leadership training, coping skills and decision-making. It
is a movement, which utilizes humanistic techniques in both school-
based and community oriented drug abuse prevention programs.
2. Drug Information – it is an activity, which focused on the
dissemination of basic facts of the causes and effects of drug abuse
with the objective of creating awareness and vigilance of the people in
the community.
It includes the following information drive activities:
a. Youth-Adult Communication
- parent-youth dialogues
- family encounters
b. Info-Oriented Classroom/Community Activities
- Contest in the school/community – essay,
slogans, posters, cartoon, play writing.
c. Broadcast Media: TV/Radio or Printed
 - plugs, films, slides, spot announcement,
music programming, newsletter, comics,
leaflets/brochures, magazines, other publications.
3. Alternatives – this includes a number of ideas for stimulating
meaningful involvements for the youth that can compete successfully
with the demands of drugs and alcohol. Primarily the emphasis should
be on service or constructive and productive pursuits and recreational
activities that are usually community-based such as:
a. Voluntary service works
b. Income producing activities
c. Sports, arts development: theater – choral/dance
groups
d. Community fair/contest
e. Other recreational activities: development of physical,
emotional interpersonal, mental-intellectual, social,
spiritual, and all aspects of behavioral development.
4. Interventions – this strategy is applied to experimenters and
potential drug abusers. Activities like peer or group counseling should
be encouraged in every community. It is applied to the
individual/group, which needs specific assistance and support.
The techniques or activities recommended for intervention are:
a. Peer counseling
b. Hot lines
c. Cross-age tutoring
d. New peer group creation
B. Peer and Cross-age Tutoring and Counseling
Peer and cross-age tutoring and counseling enable the
person/student to assume adult and mature roles, to become actively
involved in their own learning and in other’s learning and to take on a
“real world” responsibility. It can provide a meaningful “work” in the
school setting to the students who might otherwise suffer from low
self-esteem and a general lack of involvement with school or cross-
age tutoring and counseling programs.
The program is focused on:
a. Life Career Planning – the preparation towards a
comprehensive career education helps young people to
make the right choices.
b. Parenting and Family Communication – activities that
fosters better understanding and wholesome family
relationship.
C. Effective Techniques and Learning Activities
1. Values Formation or Development – the articulation of
personal values. Its process includes choosing from
alternatives and repeatedly and consistently acted upon.
2. Role Playing – a technique used to help students
identify more closely with historical figures or characters
in literature, which will help them at sensing problems and
testing solutions with out taking any great risk.
3. Decision Making and Problem solving – techniques
using conflict resolutions focused on group problems,
which help the students in identifying possible
alternatives to solve the problem.
4. Individual Contact – the basic principles in working with
an individual with the emphasis of making him feel at
ease, involving him by asking questions, supplying with
the necessary information and arriving at a decision that
will end to action. It is carried out by:
a. person-to-person relationship or individual
counseling
 b. House/Office visits
c. Telephone calls or by letters
d. Information conversation or dialogues
5. Small Group Approach – involves contact with a
number of people assembled in isolated group or in one
of a series of related groups. This technique can be
carried out by:
a. Lecture – one way discussion
b. Small group discussion –mutual interchange of
ideas or opinions between the small group
c. Symposium – group of talks, speeches or
lectures presented by several individuals on
various phases of a single subject.
d. Panel Discussion – discussion before an
audience by a selected group of persons
expressing a variety of view points under a
moderator
e. The Buzz Session – the count off procedure
f. Seminars, simulation games, debate, field trips
6. Community Approach – this involves working together
about their common problems, identify these and
implement the kind of action patterns for the solution of
the problems. This technique can be carried out by:
a. Community assemblies and barangay fairs
b. Sport festivals or on test in the community
c. Church related activities
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION APPROACH
The UNDCP
The United Nation International Drug Control Program
(UNDCP) was established in 1991 pursuant to General assembly
Resolution 45/179 of 21 December 1990.
The UNDCP is mandated by the General Assembly with the
exclusive responsibility leadership for all United Nation Drug Control
activities in order to ensure coherence of actions, coordination, and
non-duplication of such activities in the United Nation System.
The UNDCP assists government in fulfilling their obligation
under the existing regulatory structures so that they can become
parties to these conventions.
The UNDCP Resources for Operations
The financial resources come from the regular budget of the
United Nation and voluntary contributions of the U.N members.
UNDCP in SEA
UNDCP is created in the different field offices in Laos and
Burma (Myanmar), which handles national programs while Thailand,
handles Regional programs.
Master Plan Approach
This involves encouraging and assisting governments in
undertaking a thorough analysis of drug problems with in a country or
region, the identification and assessment of all anti-narcotics
intervention undertaken and planned. It also involves the identification
of needs for new projects and activities.
Measures Undertaken in SEA
1. Enhancement of Capital Punishment
2. ASIAN Drug Official group meetings/Conventions against
Drug Abuse
 3. Instant Urine Test Machine
4. Denial of Passport on all drug offenders upon released
from prison
5. Use of Narcotic Drug Detector
6. ASEAN Cooperation on against Drug Trafficking
Drug Outlook in the ASEAN Countries (Major Contributors)
1. Thailand – the training center for:
a. undercover operations
b. investigations
c. informant handling
d. surveillance
e. other enforcement techniques
2. Philippines - the adoption of the Drug Demand
Reduction Strategy and Supply Reduction Strategy. The
Drug Supply strategy is carried out by the conduct of anti-
narcotics operations (raids on plantations, laboratories,
etc); arrest, search and seizure; surveillance and other
intelligence operations; legislative and judicial measures.
The Demand Reduction strategy is carried out by the
conduct of information and educational drives and the
treatment or rehabilitation of drug addicts.
3. Malaysia - The Asian treatment and rehabilitation
training center is sponsored by the International Labor
Union located in Malaysia. Malaysia then is considered
as the training center for treatment and rehabilitation of
drug abusers in Asia.
4. Singapore - Singapore is responsible in the area of
research as part of the Asian anti-narcotic work. The
urine test project was adopted with the aim to train
chemist from ASEAN members in the techniques of mass
urine screening.
SOCIETAL ROLE IN DRUG ABUSE PREVENTION
Different sectors of society play vital roles in preventing drug
abuse. All should exert concerted efforts to fight the spreading
tentacles of this menace.
A. The Individual
The primary role of the individual is to improve his personality
and develop traits and characteristics that would help him build-up his
self-concept, thereby making himself confident. He should develop
strong spiritual and moral values, sharpen his skills in making
decisions, and strengthen his will power. He should improve his
physical qualities as well as his mental faculties.
What a person can do to prevent drug abuse?
1. Maintain good physical and mental health.
2. Use drugs properly. Most drugs are beneficial when used
under medical advice.
3. Understand himself. Accept and respect himself for what
he is.
4. Develop potentials. Engage in wholesome, productive
and satisfying activities.
5. Learn to relate effectively with others. Talk to others
regarding problems.
6. Learn to cope with problems and other stresses with out
the use of drugs.
7. Seek professional help regarding problems that are hard
to cope with.
8. Develop strong moral and spiritual values.

B. The Family
The Role of Parents
Parents are looked upon by their children as models. The
parents should:
1. Create a warm and friendly atmosphere in the home.
2. Develop effective means of communication with their
children.
3. Understand and accept the children for what they are and
not for what they want them to be.
4. Listen to their children, respect for their opinions, and
guide them in making decisions.
5. Praise their children for whatever positive achievement
they have accomplished no matter how trivial this may
seem.
6. Take time to be with their children no matter how busy
they are.
7. Strengthen moral and spiritual values.
C. The School
Next to the home, the school is the child’s next impressive
world. Here, the child moves about in a bigger social environment
predominantly made up of his peers and teachers. As part of a
broader social process for behavior influence, it is said that the school
is an extension of the home having the strategic position to control
crime and delinquency. It exercises authority over every child as a
constituent. The teachers are considered second parents having the
responsibility to mold the child to become productive member of the
community by devoting energies to study the child behavior using all
available scientific means and devices in an attempt to provide each
child the kind and amount of education they need. The school take
the responsibility of preventing the feeling of insecurity and rejection
of the child which can contribute directly to maladjustment and to
criminality by setting up objectives of developing the child into a well
integrated and useful, law abiding citizens. The school has also the
role of working closely with the parents and neighborhood, and other
community agencies and organizations to direct the child in the most
effective and constructive way.
D. The Church
The church is also committed to fight against drug
abuse. Religion is a positive force for humanitarian task of moral
guidance of the youth. It is the social institution with the primary role
to strengthen faith and goodness in the community, an influence
against crime and delinquency. The church influences people’s
behavior with the emphasis on morals and life’s highest spiritual
values, the worth and dignity of the individual, and respect for
person’s lives and properties, and generate the full power to oppose
crime and delinquency. Just like the family and the school, the church
is also responsible to cooperate with institutions in the community in
dealing with problems of children, delinquents and criminals as
regards to the treatment and correction of criminal behaviors.
D. The Police
The police are one of the most powerful occupation groups in
the modern society. The prime mover of the criminal justice system
and the number one institution in the community with the broad goals
of maintaining peace and order, the protection of life and property, and
the enforcement of the laws. The police are the authority having a
better position to draw up special programs against drug abuse and
crime in general because it is the very reason why the police exist.
That is to protect the society against lawless elements since they are
the best equipped to detect and identify criminals. The police are the
agency most interested about crime and criminals and having the
most clearly defined legal power authority to take action against them.
E. The Government and the other Components of the CJS
The government and the other components of the criminal
justice system is the organized authority that enforces the laws of the
land and the most powerful in the control of people. Respect for the
government is influenced by the respect of the people running the
government. When the people see that public officers and employees
are the first ones to violate the laws, people will refuse to obey them,
they set a bad example for others to follow and create an atmosphere
conducive to crime and disrespect for the law. In this regard, the
government itself indirectly abets the commission of crimes.
F. The Non-Government Organizations
The group of concerned individuals responsible for helping
the government in the pursuit of community development being
partners of providing the common good and welfare of the people
through public service. When the government is inefficient and unable
to provide the necessary goods and services to the people, these
non-government organizations are good helpers in providing the
required services, thus preventing drug abuse.
G. The Mass Media
The media is the best institution for information dissemination
thereby giving the public the necessary need to know, and do help
shape everyday views about drug abuse, its control and prevention.
SUBSTANCE ABUSE
A. ALCOHOL
Alcohol is colorless, tasteless clear liquid, which gives a
burning sensation to the mouth, esophagus and stomach. Like
many drugs, alcohol is toxic. It can poison the human body if taken in
large amounts or in combination with other drugs. Alcohol is a
depressant not stimulant.
There are two kinds of alcohol – methyl and ethyl alcohol.
Methyl alcohol is ver poisonous and is not put in drinks but is use in
some industries. Ethyl alcohol is used in alcoholic drinks, which are
made by breweries. This occurs when germs called yeast act on
sugars in food to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. Fermented
brews and spirits contain different amounts of alcohol. The amount in
beer is less than in other drinks. It varies from 2.5% to 8% in different
countries.
Types of Drinkers
1. Occasional Drinker – drinks on special occasions or uses
alcohol as a home remedy, takes only a few drinks per year.
2. Frequent Drinker – drinks at parties and social affairs.
Intake of alcohol may be once a week or occasionally
reaches three or four times per week, uses beverages to
release inhibitions and tensions.
3. Regular Drinker – may drink daily or consistently on
weekends, usually comes from cultural background where
wine or beer is used with meals to enhance the flavor of the
food.
4. Alcohol Dependent – drinks to have good time, excessive
drinking occurs occasionally but drinker may not become
alcoholic.
5. Alcoholic – has lost control of his use of alcohol. Alcohol
assumes primary goal in his life, even to the exclusion of
physical health and interests of family and society in general.

Motives for Drinking
1. Traditional – social and religious functions.
2. Status – symbol of success and prestige.
3. Dietary – dining incomplete without wine, integral part of
today’s way of “gracious living”.
4. Social – release tensions and inhibitions so user can tolerate
and enjoy another’s company.
5. Shortcut to Adulthood – user unsure of maturity, drinks to
prove himself.
6. Ritual – fosters group feeling, cocktail parties, toasts made to
brides, wishes for good health.
7. Path of least Resistance - doesn’t want to drink but doesn’t
want to abstain so goes along with everyone else.
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE BODY
When a person drinks alcohol, it passes down to the
stomach. Here, unlike foods we eat, it does not need to be digested or
broken down by juices in the stomach. It is absorbed easily into the
blood stream and most of it stays in the blood. While in the blood
stream, the alcohol is carried around the body many times as the
heart pumps blood through the vessels. The alcohol stays in the blood
and can only be passed out of the body when the liver changes it. A
healthy liver takes approximately one hour to change the alcohol in
one bottle of beer. While the liver is trying to remove the alcohol, the
alcohol is having effects on body functions.
The Brain and the Nervous System - The nerves are like
telephone wires coming out of the control system in the brain and
spinal cord. They send and receive messages from all parts of the
body. Alcohol slows down the work of the brain cells and stops proper
messages being sent to the rest of the body. Alcohol stops people
behaving correctly to other people. They may do whatever comes first
into their minds. They may say things that do not make sense or
behave rudely to others. They may also have feelings of increased
personal or social power. This is because their thinking is slowed
down and not because it has sparked up. They are less able to cope
with situations where drinking is needed.
As the level of alcohol becomes higher in the blood, brain and
nerve cells die from the poisonous or toxic effects of the alcohol.
Unlike other body cells, once a brain cell is destroyed it is never
replaced. As more and more of these brain cells are destroyed from
repeated drinking over a period of years, the person’s thinking
becomes cloudy. His feelings about things also change. He also will
get a burning feeling and pain or numbness in his hands and feet from
the death of nerve cells. After heavy drinking, and when the pain
killing effects of the alcohol are removed, the person may suffer from
a hangover. A hangover is the word used to describe the terrible pain
and horrible effects, which follow a period of heavy drinking.
Stomach and Intestines - Alcohol damages the stomach and
intestines and makes them sore. This can cause a burning sensation,
nausea and vomiting. Sometimes there is bleeding.
Liver
a. The first thing the liver does is to turn part of the
alcohol into fat. Some of this goes into the blood, but
a lot builds up in the liver cells. After drinking six (6)
medium-sized glasses of beer everyday for a few
days, fat is formed in the liver.
b. To cope with the extra work of getting rid of the
alcohol, the liver becomes larger.
c. As the liver enlarges, the person gets more used to
the effects of alcohol in the body. A person can drink
 larger amounts of alcohol without getting drunk. This
effect is called tolerance to alcohol. However, the
alcohol is still doing its damage.
d. As the liver enlarges, it changes they way other drugs
and medicines work in the body. So it can be
dangerous to take medicines with alcohol.
e. While the liver enlarges, some of the liver cells are
damaged.
The liver can become permanently damaged. As the
alcohol poisons the cells of the liver, they die. If many
of these cells die, the person may get what is called
“ALCOHOLIC HEPATITIS”.
f. Scar tissue is formed where the liver cells die. This
means the liver doesn’t work so well. This is called
“CIRRHOSIS”.
g. People with scarred livers can get a swollen
abdomen, swollen feet and hands and may bleeding
from inside the body.
Waste products build up in the body and give a
yellow color to the skin and eyes (jaundice). This also
affects the brain so that a person may become
unconscious and die.
Heart and Muscles - Alcohol affects the heart and other muscles so
that they become weaker and less effective. This makes people tired
and breathless.
Blood - The activity of the liver I trying to get rid of the alcohol results
in many changes to the blood – for example – blood sugar is lowered
and blood fats are increased.
Kidneys - Alcohol decreased the ability of the kidneys to get rid of
some waste products.
Sexual Activities - After the excessive use of alcohol, the ability to
have satisfactory sexual activity is decreased.
Malnutrition - The illness that occurs when a person doesn’t have
enough food to eat or eats the wrong kind of food. The person who
drinks alcohol may suffer from malnutrition because:
a. He spends his time, money and energy in drinking.
He may not eat the proper foods.
b. Drinking alcohol decreases a person’s desire to eat.
c. Alcohol burns the stomach and bowel so that food
eaten is not used well by the body.
d. If the liver is damaged, some important vitamins are
not produced.
Malnutrition in itself causes further liver damage, which
makes the condition even worse. The result of all these are
that the heavy drinker gets weak because of lack of energy
and body building food. His body defenses are weakened
against infections such as pneumonia, tropical ulcers and
tuberculosis. The person may get severely emotional
disturbed. The nerves in his arms or legs may be damaged so
that he may not feel what he is touching. He may not walk
properly and may keep falling over.
Alcohol effect on General Behavior
Drinking affects a person’s behavior. Most of the changes are
due to the effect of alcohol on the brain and nerves. The effects of
alcohol depend on how much there is in the blood. A large person has
to drink more than small person to produce the same level of alcohol
in the blood.
Alcohol Effects on the Community
 Because drinking affects people’s behavior, it has effects on
the community as a whole.
a. Trouble in the Home – Heavy drinkers takes money needed
for food, clothes and furniture. This causes debts. Husbands
and wife fight and accuse each other of being unfaithful.
There will be often be sexual problems. Children are badly
treated and badly fed. And drinking makes people lazy and
they may not go to work. Women may have to steal food to
feed their families.
b. Trouble among Friends – The heavy drinker will often fight
with his friend and may even kill people.
c. Trouble at Work – The heavy drinker often does not go to
work because he feels sick. He sometimes works badly and
hurts himself or others.
d. Trouble at Play – Heavy drinkers has a bad effect on
sportsmen. Because alcohol affects the brain, the drinker can
not control his arms and legs well. A sportsman who has been
drinking can not play well as he should.
e. Trouble on Roads – The driver has lost his judgement, he is
careless and takes risks. Accidents result. A person who is
drunk may walk onto the road and be killed by a motor
vehicle.
f. Trouble with Crime – excessive drinking is the biggest
cause of crime. People become aggressive, fight, break into
houses and steal.
g. Trouble with the Economy and the Nation - The economy
is badly affected when people do not go to work and
production falls. Heavy demands are made on health
services, the police force and correctional institutions.
Alcoholism is burden to the government.
Alcohol Dependence
A person who drinks a lot can become a dependent on
alcohol. This means he can not live without it. If he tries to stop
drinking, he will have the shivers and shakes and feels very bad. He
may also experience acute anxiety or fear, delirium and hallucinations.
Prevention of Alcohol Problem
Solely treating people with medications can not control
problem drinking and alcoholism. Treatment should be coupled with
proper education both in the schools and in the adult community to
develop the nation habits of moderation in the use of alcoholic
beverages. It requires investigation and testing of social policies on
the control of the distribution of alcohol as well as the effective
implementation of these prevention policies.
TOBACCO
Facts about Tobacco Smoking
The use of tobacco is one of the foremost public health
problems in the world today. Tobacco had for centuries been used all
over the world as a way of increasing the enjoyment of life or as an
aid in coping with some of its problem. The World Health Organization
estimates that around the world one person dies every 13 seconds
from tobacco-related diseases. Doctor’s cite 50,000 scientific studies
from various independent bodies that have proved beyond doubt that
smoking is responsible for around 90% of all cases of lung cancer,
95% of all cases of chronic bronchitis and emphysema, and 25% of
heart conditions in men under 65 years of age.
The World Health Organization Advisory Panel on Smoking
and health estimates that at least two million of 30 million Filipinos
under 20 years of age today will eventually be killed by smoking.
Smoking threatens not only the adults, but also children – born and  Increases in
unborn. The Philippine Obstetrical and Gynecological Society notes Cardiovascular heart attack risk with amount smoke
that premature in infants of mothers who smoke is three times more System  Increases heart
common than in mothers. Spontaneous abortion is likewise more rates 15-25 beats with one to
common in smoking mothers.  two cigarette.
Too often, the smoking habit begins in the early teens or even  Constricts small
earlier. Becoming a smoker may have the immediate value to some arteries causing higher blood
teenagers of being accepted by their peers, feeling more mature  pressure.
because smoking is an adult behavior to the child providing level of  Increases
psychological stimulation and pleasure and might even serve the
chance of developing peripheral
function of an cat of defiance to authority figures.
 vascular
diseases.
General Effect of Tobacco Smoking
The effects of tobacco smoking consist primarily of ill-health  Causes carbon
and of human suffering. These necessarily, too, the productivity of the monoxide from smoke to rob
work force, the need for medical care and other variables. Thus  oxygen carrying
smoking impairs society’s total well-being and posses substantial potential of blood.
economic loss to the nation.  Causes
increase of free fatty acids in blood
Properties of Tobacco which
Cigarette smoke contains over 2,000 different chemicals and  may be related
gases whixh can produce coughing, broncho spasm, increased to heart attack.
mucus secretion. Respiratory  Increases risks
NICOTINE – It is the most important active ingredient in System of developing lung cancer ten-fold for the
controlled doses. It is an extremely toxic substance. A typical cigarette average of one pack a day smoker.
contains 1-2 mg of nicotine. When smoked, less than 1 mg from each  Increases lung
cigarette is filtered or not depending on the characteristics of the filter, cancer risk with amount, with length of
the depth and frequency of inhalation and the length of the butt. time smoked and early age starting.
 Major factor
Effects of Smoking on the Following identified in the development of lung
cancer
  Only one in
twenty lung cancer victims is saved from
death per year
 Lung cancer
deaths slightly exceed traffic deaths per
year
 A major cause
of chronic bronchitis
 Increases risk
of dying of chronic bronchitis and
emphysema about six fold.
 Tends to
paralyze bronchial cilia and stimulate
production of mucus. Eventually destroys
ciliary structure cleansing system
predisposing to respiratory infections
 Increases in
abnormal cell growth in bronchial tube
walls with increase in basal cell layers
and thickening
 Causes closing
of the bronchi, reducing effective
breathing space.
Increased  Increase cancer of the larynx, the mouth,
Mortality from bladder and the esophagus.
other Causes  Increase in ulcer deaths, death from
cirrhosis.
 Increase in kidney problems.
Over all  Greater incident of infant pre-maturity and
Morbidity and mortality.
Mortality  Life expectancy is expected to reduce by
about 14 minutes per cigarette smoked.
Reproductive  Women who smoke during pregnancy
System increase the risk of still birth and prenatal
mortality, and the child physical and
intellectual is delayed
 Women who smoke causes menopause
in early age than in normal.
 Male smokers, penile arteries become
constricted bringing about slower erection
time, impotence in 1 in 4 heavy smokers
versus 1 in 12 non- smokers. Smoking
fathers may beget children who may
suffer from brain tumor, leukemia and
other abnormalities due to decreased
number of spermatozoa.
Measures to Reduce Smoking
Government support of anti-smoking campaign demonstrates
commitment to the eradication of health problems related to smoking
and public influences and attitudes to smoking. Successful programs
to reduce the prevalence of tobacco use by young people need a
combination of legislative measures and health education including:
 prohibition of sales in minor
 prohibition of smoking in schools and other places frequented
by the young
 restriction on advertising and promotion of tobacco products
especially those aimed at young people
  health education at both primary and secondary levels of
schools
 use of fiscal policies to increase the price of tobacco products
 health warnings on cigarette packets
 Collaboration with the media to deglamorize the image of the
smoker.
NARCOTIC INVESTIGATION
Since narcotic use has direct link with criminal activities,
investigation of this must be specialized. The following are some
reasons why it has to be investigated in a specialized manner:
1. Illicit drug underworld is specialized and syndicated.
2. The underworld organization is composed of and
operated by selected and highly proficient members of
the elite.
3. Drug addicts are clannish and they represent a rare
group of individuals.
4. Drug abusers and or addicts have their own lingo and
way of life.
5. The illicit drug trade is completely underworld in
conception and operation capable to espionage or
subversive operations; it is a hidden crime where there is
rarely a complainant.
Considerations in Narcotic and Investigation
The Violation
a) Republic Act No. 9165 (The Comprehensive Dangerous Drug
Act of 2002) - Under this law, the following are punishable:
1. Importation of Dangerous drugs and/or Controlled
Precursors and Essential Chemicals;
2. Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery,
Distribution and transportation of Dangerous Drugs
and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals;
3. Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery,
Distribution and transportation of Dangerous Drugs
and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals;
4. Maintenance of a Den, Dive or Resort where
dangerous drugs are used or sold in any form;
5. Being an employee or visitor of a den, dive or resort;
6. Manufacture of dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled
Precursors and Essential Chemicals;
7. Illegal Chemical Diversion of Controlled Precursors and
Essential Chemicals;
8. Manufacture or Delivery of Equipment, Instrument,
Apparatus and other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs
and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals;
9. Possession of Dangerous Drugs;
10. Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and
other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs; Possession of
dangerous Drugs during Parties, Social Gatherings or
Meetings;
11. Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and
other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs during Parties,
Social Gatherings or Meetings;
12. Use of Dangerous Drugs; Cultivation of Plants
classified as dangerous drugs or are sources thereof;
13. Failure to comply with the maintenance and keeping of
the original records of transaction on any dangerous
drugs and/or controlled precursors and Essential
Chemicals on the part of practioners, manufacturers,
wholesalers, importers, distributors, dealers, or retailers;
 14. Unnecessary Prescription of Dangerous Drugs;
15. Unlawful Prescription of Dangerous Drugs
The Violators – The Persons of Importance
a) The Addict or User - A “user” is one who injects,
intravenously or intramuscularly, or consumes, either by
chewing, smoking, sniffing, eating, swallowing, drinking, or
otherwise introducing into the physiological system of the
body, any of the dangerous drugs. An “addict” is one who
habitually uses dangerous drugs.
1. Determine his history.
2. Has he just used or administered the drug? Get urine
and, if possible, blood samples for analysis within 24
hours after administration.
3. Is he in possession of the drug?
4. Determine the reason for possession. Is it for sale or for
own consumption?
5. If possession is for reason other than personal use, he
must be accordingly charged under RA 6425.
6. Is he suffering from the signs and symptoms of drug
abuse? This will guide the investigator to determine
whether the violator is an addict or not.
b) The Pusher - “Pusher” refers to any person who sells,
administers, delivers, or gives away to another, on any terms
whatsoever, or distributes or dispatches in transit or transport
any dangerous drug or who acts as a broker in any such
transaction.
1. Ordinarily, he is an addict himself.
2. If not an addict, determine the reason for his possession
of the drug. Is it for sale, for giving away, etc.?
3. If he is selling, determine his clientele. Get their names
and other personal circumstance.
4. Determine, if possible, his source of supply, their names,
addresses, etc.
5. Determine the number of times that he had been arrested
and charged for the same offense.
6. If he is a recidivist, state so in the complaint or
information to be filed.
c. The Narcotic Evidence
These include opium and its active components and
derivatives, the coca leaf and beta eucaine, and the hallucinogenic
drugs. It includes all preparations made from any of the foregoing and
other drugs and chemical preparations; whether natural or synthetics,
with the physiological effects of a narcotic or a hallucinogenic drug.
Opium and its derivatives
“Opium” refers to the coagulated juice of the opium poppy
and embraces every kind, character and class of opium, whether
crude of prepared; the ashes or refuse of the same; narcotic
prepared; the ashes or refuse of the same, narcotic preparations
thereof or therefrom; morphine or any alkaloid of opium; preparations
in which opium enters as an ingredient; opium poppy; opium seeds;
opium poppy straw; and leaves or wrapping of opium leaves, whether
prepared for use or not.
Field test: Burn a small quantity of the suspected substance.
The odor or smell is similar to burnt banana leaves or has a sweetish
odor.
Morphine – the drug varies in different forms such as:
 Powder – white, odorless granulated powder with a very
bitter taste. Sometimes however, illicit traffickers add
color to deceive investigators.
Block – with embossed marks like “999” “555” “AAA”
“1A”, etc. with “Lion”, Elephant”, “Tiger/Dragon” brands.
Licit morphine used for medical purposes invariably
comes in powder form, tablets, capsules with the brand
name of the manufacturer.
Heroin (Dimorphine Hydrochloride/ Diacetylmorphine) is a white,
odorless, crystalline powder with a very bitter taste. Heroin is the
hydrochloride of an alkaloid obtainable by the action of acetic
anhydride or morphine. The alkaloid base may be made by treating
morphine with acetyl chloride, washing the product with a dilute
alkaline solution and crystallizing from alcoholic solution.
NOTE: Both heroin and morphine may be sold by pushers in
bundle containing about .03 gram of powder. The price will
depend on supply and demand.
Cocaine (Methyl ecgonine). Cocaine (C12 H 21n O4) is an alkaloid
obtained from the leaves of Erythorxylon coca and the other species
of Erthroxlon Linne, or by synthesis from ecgoine and its derivatives.
Preparation - It may be made by moisturizing ground coca leaves
with a sodium carbonate solution, percolating with benzene or other
solvents such as petroleum benzene, shaking the liquid with diluted
sulfuric acid, and adding to the separated acid solution and excess of
sodium carbonate. The participated alkaloids are removed with ether,
and after drying with sodium carbonate, the solution is filtered and the
ether distilled off. The residue is dissolved in methyl alcohol and the
solution heated with sulfuric acid or with alcoholic hydrogen chloride.
This treatment splits off any acids from the ecgonine and esterifies the
carbozyl group. After dilution with water, the organic that have been
liberated are removed with chloroform. The aqueous solution is then
concentrated, neutralized, and cooled with ice, whereupon methyl
ecgonine sulfate crystallizes. Upon adding water and sodium
hydroxide, methyl benzoyl ecgonine or cocaine is precipitated. The
cocaine is extracted with ether and the solution concentrated to
crystallization. For the purification of cocaine, re-crystallization from a
mixture of acetone and benzene is generally preferred.
Solubility - 1 gm dissolves in about 600 ml of water, 7 ml of alcohol,
1 ml of chloroform, 3.5 ml of ether, and is very soluble in warm
alcohol.
Uses - Cocaine was the first local anaesthetic to be discovered. At
present, it is considered too toxic for any anaesthetic procedure
requiring injection, but is still extensively employed for anesthesia of
the nose and throat. For this purpose, a 10 % solution of the hydro –
chloride is used.
Cocaine is a central stimulant, but is never employed clinically for this
purpose. Addiction and a certain amount of tolerance result from its
use. Because of its properties, the sale of cocaine is prohibited in the
Philippines.
Cocaine also comes in the form of salt crystals, known as
“crack” and usually sold in packets. This is the American counterpart
of the local “shabu” or methamphetamine hydrochloride.
Marijuana (Cannabis Sativa)
Marijuana is a seasonal plant grown from seed. Depending
on soil and weather condition, it grows approximately 20 feet. The
leaves come in clusters of 3,5,7,9 to 13 leaflets. The leaflets are
elongated with the tip pointed and the sides serrated.
Manicured or grounded leaves and flowering tops – Although
dried and grounded, they will retain their greenish color.
 Reefers or cigarettes known as “joints” and other names –
These are hand-rolled in cigarette paper, irregular and slim with both
ends tucked in or twisted.
Hallucinogen Drugs
These are the drugs that are capable of creating
hallucinations in the mind of the taker such as Lysergic acid
diethylamide commonly known as LSD and other drugs falling under
this category are DMT, STP, peyote and morning glory seeds.
Synthetic Drugs
Those having the same physiological action as a narcotic
drug, such as methadone and demerol.
Other Dangerous Drugs
These include self-inducting sedatives, such as seconbarbital,
phenobarbital, pentobarbital, amobarbital, salt or a derivative of a salt
of barbituric acid: and salt, isomer or salt of an isomer, of
amphetamine, such as benzedrine of dexedrine, or any drug which
produces a physiological acting simlar to amphetamine; and hypnotic
drugs, such as methaqualone, nitrzepam or any other compound
producing similar physiological effects.
Barbiturates – Manufactured synthetically as salts of barbituric acid.
All names of these drugs are in al, such as pentobarbital, secobarbital
(seconal), amobarbital, phenobarbital, barbital, etc.
Categories according to Effects
 Long acting barbiturates – take effect with in 30
to 60 minutes and last up to 8 hours, e.i.
Phenobarbital
 Intermediate acting barbiturates – take effect
with in 15 to 30 minutes and last up to 6 hours, e.i.
amobarbital and butabarbital.
 Short acting barbiturates – take effect with in 10
to 20 minutes and last up to 6 hours, e.i.
Pentobarbital and secobarbital.
 Ultra short barbiturates – take effect with in 45
seconds and last up to 30 minutes, e.i. thiopental
sodium.
Note: Slang Terms of Barbiturates
Pentobarbital – “yellow jackets” - Secobarbital – “red devils” -
Amobarbital – “ blue devils/ blue birds”
Amosbarbital – “ rainbow/ double trouble”
Note: Under FDA law, it is illegal to sell these drugs without
prescription. There is no illegal possession charge under the
FDA law, but under RA 6425, there is such a violation.
Amphetamines – Stimulate the central nervous system and have
the ability to combat fatigue and sleepiness. These are also known at
uppers.
Chemical Names
a. Amphetamine Sulfate
b. Dextroamphetamine Sulfate
c. Methamphetamine Hydrochloride
Amphetamines come in varied forms, colors and shapes. Examples of
amphetamines are benzedrine or the “bennies”, dexedrine or the
“dexies”, and the methedrine known as the “meatballs”. Shabu is the
most widely known amphetamine in the country today. The compound
(methamphetamine hydrochloride) is also known as “poor man’s
cocaine”. The latter term, however, is misleading because although
cheaper than that cocaine, shabu is nonetheless expensive as
compared to other drugs such as marijuana or solvents.
The Volatile Substances – also called the Inhalants, Solvents or
Deliriants. This are chemicals which when sniffed can produce
intoxication effects such as gasoline, kerosene, thinner, paint, etc. The
most popular among them is the solvent rugby. These chemical
substances are significant in narcotic investigation because of their
intoxicating symptoms that do not produce alcoholic breath.
HANDLING NARCOTIC EVIDENCE
Evidence handling
Physical evidence of various types can do must to augment
the inevitable oral evidence in a prosecution involving drugs. The
investigator should be constantly on alert to obtain physical evidence
during an inquiry for presentation in court.
Drug seizures - One officer, preferably the officer who made the
seizure, should be detailed to take charge of the drug found. The
following procedure should guide him:
1. Identify the seizure in some permanent way using markings
or non-removable labels or wax-sealed tie on tag.
2. The identification should give detail of the time, date and
place of seizure, and the name of the owner or suspect where
an arrest had been made.
3. The officer should complete the identification of the seizure by
placing his initial or signature on the identifying label.
4. Where a suspect charged demands a sample of the seized
drug for independent analysis, the desired sample should be
place in a suitable container. It should then be sealed in such
a way as to prevent tampering preferably with the signature of
the suspect and the officer appearing on the seal.
5. Where another officer later takes the seizure – as in during
questioning – that drug is shown to suspect during
questioning – that officer should continue the chain of
identification by placing his initials on the label.
6. Few parties as possible should hold the seized drug. A
permanent written record of the movement of the seizure,
noting time, dates and signatures or receiving parties should
be maintained.
7. As soon as after seizure, the drug should be sealed in a
container in such a way as to prevent loss or tampering with.
The seal should be affixed in such a way that it will be
impossible to open the container without breaking the seal.
The seal should bear the same identification as the seizure
itself.
8. The officer in the area designated by his command should
retain the seizure, the security of which will satisfy the
scrutiny of the court.
9. Where the nature of the seizure requires special storage
conditions or facilities, this should be arranged and the
security of the seizure maintained.
10. At the first opportunity, the officer should himself deliver the
seized drug/s to the laboratory for examination.
11. If the commitments of the officer holding the seized drug/s are
such that he cannot travel to the laboratory, he should hand
the same to another officer who should make the delivery
personally.
12. If personal delivery is not possible, the seized drug(s) should
be carefully packed in a parcel, which is then sealed. This
should be adequately addressed and shipped by certified
delivery mail.
Photographs - A permanent written record should be kept relating to
photographs taken in the course of an investigation, noting the time,
date and place of the photograph, its subject the weather condition at
the time it was taken. The technician might also note details of film
and camera operations. Several prints of each photograph should be
obtained, and on one copy, these details should be recorded together
with the name of the officers who can “prove” the photograph. The
other print copies be retained unmarked for possible submission to
court. Photographs of, for instance, a meeting between two offenders
can adduce valuable corroborative evidence.
Documents - Documents that may become evidence in a prosecution
should be retained in their original form. They should be treated in
much the same manner as drug seizures with regard to identification,
and it is suggested that all under whose supervision this is done can
later “prove” the original, particularly incases where returned to a
person for production later in court.
Investigative Records - Records in this particular category include:
1. Information on a suspect of drug movement
2. Results of background inquiry on a suspect
3. The log or running sheet kept on investigator and
suspect movement during surveillance or arrest
4. Investigator’s notebooks and diaries
5. Investigator’s notes of conversations, events or
interviews
DRUG INVESTIGATIVE PROCESS
Roles of the PDEA
Drug investigation in the Philippines is under the concern of
the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA) being newly created
and organized. The agency has one among its powers and functions
the initiation of all investigation proceedings concerning drug cases,
absorbing all drug enforcement units of the other governmental
agencies like the National Bureau of Investigation, the Philippine
National Police, the Bureau of Customs and other agencies and
bureaus with drug investigation divisions.
As mandated by law and here quoted, the PDEA shall “create
and maintain an efficient special enforcement unit to conduct an
investigation and file charges and transmit evidence to the proper
court”. Proper handling of drug evidence is necessary to obtain the
maximum possible information upon which scientific examination shall
be based, and to prevent exclusion as evidence in court. Drug
specimens, that truly represent the material found at the scene,
unaltered, unspoiled or otherwise unchanged in handling, will provide
more and better information upon examination. Legal requirements
make it necessary to account for all physical pieces of evidence from
the time it is collected until it is presented in court. With these, the
following principles should be observed in handling all types of
evidence in narcotic investigation:
1. The evidence should reach the laboratory as mush as possible
in same condition as when it is found.
2. The quantity of specimen should be adequate. Even with the
best equipment available, good results cannot be obtained
from insufficient specimens.
3. Submit a known or standard specimen for comparison
purpose.
4. Keep each specimen separate from others so there will be no
intermingling or mixing of known and unknown material. Wrap
and seal in individual packages when necessary.
5. Mark or label each piece of evidence must be maintained.
Account for evidence from the time it is collected until it is
 produced in court. Any break in this chain of custody may
make the material inadmissible as evidence in court.
Generally, the recognition, search, collection, handling,
preservation and documentation of evidence in narcotic investigation
rest upon the quality of people involved in the activity which they
follow certain guidelines for investigative success. Below is an
illustration of a basic procedure in narcotic investigation focused in the
crime scene:
Procedure at the Crime Scene
Upon Arrival at the Crime Scene
1. Record time/date of arrival at the crime scene, location of the
scene, condition of the weather, condition and type of lighting
direction of wind and visibility.
2. Secure the crime scene by installing the crime scene tape or
rope (police line)
3. Before touching or moving any object at the crime scene
determine first the status of the victim, whether he is still alive
or already dead. If the victim is alive the investigator should
exert effort to gather information from the victim himself
regarding the circumstances of the crime, while a member of
the team or someone must call an ambulance from the
nearest hospital. After the victim is remove and brought to the
hospital for medical attention, measure, sketch, and
photograph.
4. Designate a member of the team or summon other policemen
or responsible persons to stand watch and secure the scene,
and permit only those authorized person to enter the same.
5. Identify and retain for questioning the person who firs notified
the police, and other possible witnesses.
Recording
The investigator begins the process of recording pertinent
facts and derails of the investigation the moment he arrives at the
crime scene. (He should record the time when he was initially notified
prior to his arrival). He also writes down the identification of person
involved and what he initially saw. He also draws a basic sketch of the
crime scene and takes the initial photographs. This is to ensure that
an image of the crime scene is recorded before any occurrence that
disturbs the scene. As a rule, do not touch, alter or remove anything at
the crime scene until the evidence has been processed through notes,
sketches and photographs, with proper measurements.
Searching for Evidence
1. Each crime scene is different, according tot he physical
nature of the scene and the crime or offense involved.
Consequently, the scene is processed in accordance with the
prevailing physical characteristics of the scene and with the
need to develop essential evidentiary facts peculiar to the
offense. A general survey of the scene is always made,
however, to not the location of obvious traces of action, the
probable entry and exit points used by the offender(s) and the
size and shape of the area involved.
2. In rooms, buildings, and small outdoor areas, a systematic
search of evidence is initiated, (In the interest of uniformity, it
is recommended that the clockwise movement be used). The
investigator examines each item encountered on the floor,
walls, and ceiling to locate anything that may be of evidentiary
value. He should:
 give particular attention to fragile evidence that may
be destroyed or contaminated if it is not collected
when discovered,
  if any doubt exists as to the value of an item, treat it
as evidence until proven otherwise,
 carefully protect any impression of evidentiary value
in surfaces conducive to making casts or molds,
 note stains, spots and pools of liquid within the scene
and treat them as evidence,
 proceed systematically and uninterruptedly to the
conclusion of the processing of the scene. The
search for evidence is initially completed when, after
a thorough examination of the scene, the rough
sketch, necessary photograph and investigative note
have been completed and the investigator has
returned to the point from which the search began.
3. In large outdoor areas, it is advisable to divide the area into
strips about four (4) feet wide. The policeman may first search
the strip on his left he faces the scene then the adjoining
strips.
4. It may be advisable to make a search beyond the area
considered to be immediate scene of the incident or crime.
For example, evidence may indicate that a weapon or tool
used in the crime was discarded or hidden by the offender
somewhere within a square-mile area near the scene.
5. After completing the search of the scene, the investigator
examined the objects or persons involved.
Methods of Crime Scene Search - As maybe applicable in narcotic
investigation, the following methods of searches maybe used: Strip
Search Method, Double strip or grid method of search, Spiral Search
Method, Zone Search Method.
Collecting Evidence - This is accomplished after the search is
completed, the rough sketch finished and photographs taken. Fragile
evidence should be collected as they are found.
Removal of Evidence - The investigator places his initials, the date
and the time of discovery on each item of evidence and the time
discovery on each item of evidence for proper identification. Items that
could not be marked should be placed in a suitable container and
sealed.
Tagging of Evidence - Any physical evidence obtained must tagged
before its submission to the evidence custodian.
Evaluation of Evidence - Each item of evidence must be evaluated
in relation to all the evidence, individually and collectively.
Preservation of Evidence - It is the investigator’s responsibility to
ensure that every precaution is exercised to preserve physical
evidence in the state in which it was recovered until it is released to
the evidence custodian.
Releasing the Scene - The scene is not released until all
processing has been completed. The release should be effected at
the earliest practicable time, particularly when an activity has been
closed or its operations curtailed.
Pointers to Consider in Sketching the Crime Scene
1. To establish admissibility, the investigator must have
had personal observation o the data in question. In other
words, the sketch must be sponsored or verified.
2. Sketches are not a substitute for notes or photos;
they are but a supplement to them.
3. Write down all measurements.
4. Fill in all the detail on your rough sketch at the scene.
Final sketch may be prepared at the office.
 5. Keep the rough sketch even when you have
completed the final sketch.
6. Indicate ht North direction with an arrow.
7. Draw the final sketch to scale.
8. Indicate the palce in the sketch as well as the person
who drew it. Use the KEY – capital letters of the alphabet for
listing down more or less normal parts of accessories of the
place, and numbers for items of evidence
9. Indicate the position, location and relationship of
objects.
10. Methods or systems of locating points (objects) on
sketch
11. Critical measurements, such as skid marks, should
be checked by two (2) investigators.
12. Measurements should be harmony; or in centimeters,
inches, yards, meters, mixed in one sketch.
13. Use standard symbols in the sketch.
14. Show which way doors swing,
15. Show with arrow the direction of stairways.
16. Recheck the sketch for clarity, accuracy, scale, and
title key.
The Role of SOCO in Narcotic Investigation
A number of crime incident committed in the country are
unsolved and/or dismissed by trial courts because of insufficiency of
evidence. In cases of narcotic investigation, it is important that pieces
of drug evidence that will provide clue on the suspects/offenders
identities can be found in the crime scene. However, those vital
evidence in the crime scene are either left in the crime scene are
critical in the prosecution on the case in court with the advent of new
technologies, they could be analyzed scientifically for these purpose.
The recovery of physical evidence during investigation of crime
scene is the most important task of current law enforcement. In most
cases, the material items of evidence and descriptive information
collected from the scene of the crime make a big difference in the
success and failure of cases in court. The capability of the Crime
Laboratory to provide scientific interpretation and information depends
on the recognition, recovery and documentation of the evidence in the
crime scene.
Field investigators work as part of the forensic team as that of
laboratory technician. If evidence collected in the crime scene is not
properly accomplished, the work of the crime laboratory is impeded
and even negated. The recovery of physical evidence during
investigation of crime scene is the most important task of current law
enforcement. In most cases, the material items of evidence and
descriptive information collected from the scene of the crime make a
big difference in the success and failure of cases in court. Past
experience shows that a well-trained team, coordinated and properly
equipped, can be of great advantage in effectively and efficiently
recovering evidences. Personal knowledge and instinctive actions or
institutions are of great help in the solution of the criminal and drug
related cases. However there is no substitute for the adoption and
practice of scientific investigation.
The idea of enhancing SOCO in narcotic investigation is to assist
drug investigators in terms of scientific approach in investigating
criminal cases, specifically heinous ones.
DRUG TESTING
Field Test - The test describes in the following pages are
designed to give investigators emergency means of making on-the-
spot tentative identification of samples seized or purchased during the
course of investigations. Results obtained should not be regarded as
final identification since a number of such drugs are marketed in NOTE: The value of this test lies in the fact that a positive
combination with other chemicals from which they must be separated reaction indicates the presence of an opium derivative. A
(by laboratory methods) before true results can be attained. negative result does not rule out the possiblity of the
Care of Apparatus and Reagents - Reagents should be sample being a prohibited drug since cocaine,
protected from excessive heat and light. Acid reagents should be methadone, demerol, dromoran, etc. do not give positive
stored in glass bottles. Reagent stability should be tested from time to results with this reagent. A suspected sample that gives a
time with drugs of known identify. All apparatus used in making test negative result should be submitted to the laboratory for
should be thoroughly cleaned before reusing. Marquis test is used for examination.
morphine, codeine, heroin and other opium derivatives. General Drug Tests
When brought into contact with morphine, heroin or other Drugs Test Used Color Reaction
opium derivatives, the reagent develops brilliant colors ranging from
blue to reddish purple. There are some other substances, which also Opium Marquis test Purple/Violet
produce colors with this reagent. No confusion, however, should arise Heroin Nitric Acid Yellow-Green
Morphin Nitric Acid Red Orange
once the operator is familiar with the specific colors given by the Cocaine Cobalt Thiocyanate Blue
opium alkaloids. It is therefore essential that the test be observed with Barbiturates Dille-Kopanyi test Violet
known samples before any unknown is tested. Or the Zwikker test Blue color
Making the Test – In making drug tests, the following are Amphetamines Marquis test Red/Orange -Brown
considered: LSD Para Amino BenZoic Acid(PABA) Purple
Marijuana Duquenois-Levine test or KN Test Red Bottom layer
1. Allow the reagent to drain to one end of the ampul Shabu Symone’s test Purple
2. Break the ampul between the fingers along the scored line.
3. Introduce a small bit of sample into the open end of one-half
of the sample by scraping a cube or pinch of powder held FIELD DRUG TESTING
between the fingers with a sharp edge. Tap the closed end so
as to shake the sample further into the tube and thus bring it Field Tests for Methadone
into contact with the reagent.
4. After the test, the ampul should be rinsed with water before This narcotic drug, known also as Amidone, Dolophine and di-
discarding. 6 dimethylamide-4, 4- diphenyl-3-heptanone hydrochloride, can be
detected in the presence of some other drugs by employing the
*** DO NOT THROW AMPUL IN WASH BAIN OR reagent and technique as set forth below. After solution is effected,
SINK. filtration of the sample is desirable but not essential to the success of
the method, since insoluble substance such as starch, talc, etc. are
not blue in color.
Reagent: Dissolve 1 gm of cobalt acetate, nitrate or chloride and 1/5
gm of potassium thiocyanate in 90 ml of water and 10ml of glacial
acetic acid.
Test: Dissolve the sample in a minimum amount of water, Filter. Add
2 or 3 drops of the reagent to the filtrate. Shake for about 1 minute. A
blue precipitate indicates the presence of methadone.
Field Test for Cocaine, Demerol and Methadone
This field test for cocaine, demerol and methadone was
developed by the U.S. Customs Laboratory, in Baltimore, Maryland in
1961 and has been successful use since then.
The field test is based on a modification of the well-known
cobalt thiocyanate color test that produces a blue color in the
presence of cocaine. The customs field test is a stable single-solution
version of the thiocyanate test and is the most specific cocaine color
test available at this time.
The field test is not intended to replace more specific
laboratory determination and should be used only as a preliminary
test. Some non-narcotic substances, such as certain antihistamines,
are known to give a color with cobalt thiocyanate.
The test is simple to perform. The ampul should be broken at
the point where the glass is scored and the powdered sample
introduced into the open end of the half of the ampul should NOT BE
SHAKEN. A blue color is indicative of cocaine, demerol or methadone
give stronger blues than that demerol. For each of the three narcotics,
the strength of their blue in the ampuls is proportionate to their active
content. The ampul contains a dilute acid and should be discarded in
a place where water can be used to delute the acid.
Field Tests for Marijuana
NOTE: Do not rely on chemical tests alone. Always examine
the material with a microscope or hand lens. Cannabis Sativa , or
marijuana, can be quickly and positively identified by subjecting the
sample to the following tests:
Microscopic - Using a magnification of approximately 30
diameters, the leaves, small twigs, seed hulls and flowering tops
exhibit a characteristics warty appearance due to the presence of
non-glandular hairs which contain at their base called spheriodal
cystolith of calcium carbonate. Adding a drop of diluted hydrochloric
acid to the slide and noting the effervescence may show the presence
of carbonate. Many of the cystolithic hairs appear in the shape of bear
claws. The seed or fruit, deprived of its hull, under the same
magnification, presents a mottled effect and gives the viewer the
impression he is looking at a hulled coconut or nutmeg. A comparison
with an authentic sample is most desirable.
Chemical - The Duquenois-Levine Test has been found to be
the only satisfactory chemical test for the identification of marijuana.
The chloroform soluble color developed in this test is due to the
presence of tetrahydrocannbinol (THC) which is the active principal of
the marijuana plant.
Reagents - Duquenois Reagent – Dissolve 5 drops of
acetaldehyde and 0.4 gm. of vanillin in 20 ml of 95% ethyl alcohol.
(This reagent may be kept for some time in glass-stoppered bottles in
a cool dark place. It should be discarded after it assumes a deep
yellow color).
 - Add a pinch of suspected marijuana to a test tube
containing about 2 ml (one teaspoon) Duquenois reagent.
- Add an equal amount (2ml) of concentrated
hydrochloric acid. Stir with a glass rod or shake the test
tube in a circular motion to mix its contents. CAUTION –
Do not splash acid contents on body or clothing. Allow the
test tube to stand for 10 minutes, or until a color
develops.
- Decant the liquid into a second test tube. Add 2ml of
chloroform. Stopper and shake. If marijuana is present, a
violet or indigo-violet color will be transferred to the
bottom (chloroform) layer.
Seeds – When a sample consists entirely of seeds, their
identity alone is not sufficient to bring them within the purview of the
law, which requires them to be fertile. To establish their fertility a
number of the seeds should be placed in a suitable container with
moist paper pulp or wet vermiculite, and place in a warm dark place
until germination takes place. When reporting a sample containing
marijuana seeds alone, their fertility should always be stated.
Field Test for Amphetamines
This field test for identifying amphetamines is useful in
screening out caffeine, vitamins, or other substitutes proffered as
amphetamines.
Test Material – The test material consists of 2 or 3 drops of
Marquis reagent (2 drops of 37% formaldehyde in 3 ml of
concentrated sulfuric acid) in a small glass ampul.
Test Procedure – Break the ampul at the scored center and
place 1 or 2 drops of the reagent on the sample. This should be done
on a glass ashtray, inverted tumbler, etc. Amphetamines react with the
reagent to give a red-orange color, turning to reddish and then dark
brown within 1 or 2 minutes. The reagent gives this characteristics
color reaction when applied to white, pink, yellow, peach or green
amphetamine tablets.
The speed within which the color is formed appears to
depend upon the hardness of the tablet. The red-orange color forms
immediately of some tablets while with others it appears in 10 to 20
second. Therefore, the critical period of color differentiation for
amphetamines is within the first 20 seconds. The peach-colored
caffeine tablet gives a color, which might cause some confusion. The
difference between the color formed by this tablet by this tablet and
that formed by a peach-colored amphetamine tablet are crushed
before the reagent is applied. Once the difference is seen, there
should be no trouble in distinguishing one from the other.
Amphetamine powder and tablets – Red-orange onset to
reddish brown to dark brown within a couple of minutes, Caffeine
powder and tablets - no color reaction, Methamphetamine and tablets
– Red-orange onset to reddish brown to dark brown in 1 to 2 minutes,
Phenyl tertiary butylamine HCI – Same color change as
amphetamines, Wyamine sulfate – Same color change as
amphetamines.
Field Test for Barbiturates
For the tentative identification of the barbiturates, the Zwikker
test is used. Zwikker Test – An anhydrous methanol solution of the
barbiturate upon several drops of cobalt chloride in methanol solution
gives a bluish color, which changes to dark blue upon being alkalized
with a 5% isopropylamine in methanol. The Atkinson Laboratory,
33031 Fierro Street, Los Angeles, California, manufactures a compact
kit that utilized the Zwikker Test.
 Test Material – The Zwikker Test Kit consists of a small
plastic bag containing three solutions in plastics dropping bottles and
small porcelain spot plate. Solution # 1 – Anhydours methanol,
Solution # 2 – Cobalt chloride dissolved in methanol, Solution # 3 –
5% isopropylamine in methanol. CAUTION: The above solutions are
volatile and inflammable. They should be kept sealed.
Test Procedure – The following shall be considered:
1. Place part of sample into spot-tester, (enough to cover
letter “O” on a typewriter key).
2. Put two drops of solution # 1 on sample in spot-tester.
(Sample should dissolve.)
3. Add two drops of solution # 2 (This may produce a violet
or a blue color.)
4. Add tow drops of solution # 3. (If color deepens to a
darker violet of blue, this indicates presumption presence
of barbiturate.) The solution will become contaminated.
Wash and dry spot-test plat after use.
NARCOTIC DEATH INVESTIGATION
A common occurrence in the drug culture is the death of a
user. Investigation of a narcotic death is divided into three (3) phases:
the SCENE investigation, the MEDICAL investigation, and the
TOXICOLOGICAL investigation. An officer involved in such a case
should determine the manner of death, that is, whether homicide,
suicide or accidental. All of the factors and elements of the scene
must be accurately and completely recorded. This will assist the
medical examiner in determining the cause of death.
Physiological Effect of Narcotic Ingestion
The ingestion of narcotics or dangerous drugs poisons the
body. This is poisoning effect will leads to a paralysis of the respiratory
center or cause heart failure. This, the, will deny the body a sufficient
amount of oxygen. Evident or visible signs, which remain after death,
often accompany the effects of a particular drug on the human body
for the trained observe. These signs are result of symptoms
experienced by the victim prior to death. Following is a partial listing of
the more dangerous drugs, the minimum lethal dose, symptoms and
cause of death:
Poison Symptoms/Cause of Death
Codeine Nausea, dizziness, Constipation, Respiratory failure
Heroin & Morphine Sweating, loss of appetite, nausea (Vomiting),
Constipation, itching, thirst, cyanosis, respiratory failure
Barbiturates lower body temperature, cyanosis, cold extremities skin
rash, constipation, respiratory arrest of pneumonia
Cocaine nausea, vomiting, chills, sweating, thirst, convulsions,
circulatory and respiratory failure
Amphetamine Chills, sweating, diarrhea, constipation, nausea,
vomiting, cramps, thirst, convulsions, petechial hemorrhages
The Scene of Death
During investigation of the scene, you should recognize and relate
seemingly insignificant items or material, which would justify a
conclusion of narcotic involvement. The following are just some of
such items:
1. Paraphernalia (or “works”) – Tools or implements used in
administering narcotics. These may include the obvious
syringe and needle, tourniquet, spoon or bottle top “cookies”
 and tinfoil packet. Also included are small balls of cotton,
capsules and envelopes, and a book of matches.
2. Narcotic Medication – Laudanum, paregoric, codeine cough
syrup, all utilized as “carryovers” until the next fix.
3. Maalox –Milk of Magnesia – Medication used to relieve
nausea, vomiting, constipation, cramps or diarrhea.
4. Absence of Nutritional Food – Loss of appetite is a symptom
of poisoning. Presence of candy or soft drinks indicates low
insulin count.
5. Body Fluids – Presence of urine, feces, mucus or vomitus on
the scene may be evidence of the body attempting to rid itself
of poisoned substance.
6. Clothing or Bed Linens – which may be sweat-stained or
soaking wet from the victim having hot and cold flashes,
should be collected and analyzed.
7. Lack of Ordinary Cleanliness – Dependent user is not
concerned in most cases with the environment or health, and
this is shown by a neglect of both.
8. Wet Body – Evidence of body being immersed in tub or
shower, or having ice cubes placed in underclothes or in
private parts. It is a common mistake uses make in thinking
this helps in overdose cases. Salt water may also be injected
into the victim. Hospitals use Narcan as antidote.
9. Nylon Stoking – Stretched over a hanger used as sieve.
10. Playing Card – with the powder, may have been used to
“smack” (cut) heroin. The card is usually on top of a record
album or similar.
11. Merchandise – Small items which are easily carried and
disposed of after, being stolen-radios, watches, portable TVs,
radios, etc.
The Body Signs
1. Cyanosis – bluish discoloration of the face and /or fingernails
due to insufficient oxygenation of the blood caused by
increase in carbon dioxide in the body.
2. Petechial Hemorrhages – Pinpoint spots of discoloration
resulting from capability ruptures due to pressure and
generally observed in the eyes, eyelids, behind the ears and
internally.
3. Form or Froth – Observed in mouth and nose, may be white
or pinkish and caused by fluids entering the air passages.
4. Hematoma – A localized swelling on any par to the body
caused by bleeding beneath the surface of the skin. This is
caused by “skin popping” rather that vein injections.
5. Needle marks/tracks – Visual evidence of repeated
intravenous injections. The tracks will follow a vein (exception
“skin popping”) and result in a dark discoloration and eventual
collapse of the vein.
6. Scar – Skin imperfection caused by the victim in removing
needle mark scabs, added to uncleanness of the victim.
7. Rash/scratched Skin – External body signs of morphine or
heroin poisoning.
8. Asphyxia- When it is the cause the death, it is often
accompanied by external body changes. These changes,
visible to the naked eye, are not restricted to narcotic-related
deaths and may be found in other asphyxia deaths, such as
hearth attack, drowning, hanging, etc. They must be noted,
photographed and reported to the pathologist during the pre-
autopsy interview.
Victim’s History
 Historical date on the victim would include his criminal record
(local, national and international and international); medical record (of
a private doctor, hospitals, clinics, etc. and any mental treatment or
attempts at suicide); social (relatives, friends, neighbors, co-workers);
marital (past or present); and financial records.
When interviewing users or person possibly involved in
narcotics traffic, you should use straight language rather than attempt
street talk because slang constantly changes. You must determine the
extent of decedent’s addiction, his familiarity with other drugs, whether
he had a steady source of the drugs or continuously shopped around,
and other matters relative to his personal history.
Medical Phase
This is the most important stage of the narcotics death
investigation. Since the pathologist will rarely be able to examine the
body at the death scene, you should note every detail, which may be
of medico-legal importance and make a complete report on this.
You should attend the autopsy yourself. Make sure that the
following specimens are submitted for narcotics, alcohol or other
foreign matter. Heroin is quickly changed to morphine after entering
the body, and clears the blood in approximately ½ hour remains in the
urine about 24 hours and in the bile for ¾ days.
ORGANIZED CRIME
Organized crime or criminal organizations is a transnational
grouping of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals for
the purpose of engaging in illegal activity, most commonly for
monetary profit. Define also is any crime committed by a
person occupying, in an established division labor, a position
designed for the commission of crimes providing that such
division of labor includes at least one position for a corrupter,
one position for a corruptee, and one position for an enforcer.
White-collar crime has been defined by Edwin Sutherland as
"a crime committed by a person of respectability and high
social status in the course of his occupation" (1939).
Explaining Organized Crime through Theories
1. Strain theory-Durkheim's theory of anomie is the basis
for strain theory, at least in so far as "anomie" is
translated as "deregulation." It should be noted that
control theorists also trace their inspiration to
Durkheim, and have translated "anomie" as
"normlessness." Durkheim's influence has been
extremely broad in criminology and sociology. His view
that social forces caused crime was extremely radical
at the time.
Strain (structural strain) refers generally to the
processes by which inadequate regulation at the
societal level filters down to how the individual
perceives his or her needs. Strain (individual strain)
refers to the frictions and pains experienced by the
individual as they look for ways to meet their needs
(the motivational mechanism that causes crime).
The theory assumes fairly uniform economic success
aspirations across social class and the theory attempts to
explain why crime is concentrated among the lower classes
that have the least legitimate opportunities for achievement.
Conformity Merton recognized conformity as the most
common type of the five modes. During this
 mode, people strive to obtain success by the
most pure conventional means available.
During innovation, Merton identified a
miniscule, but substantial change in the
perspective of the people whose mode is still
in conformity and that of whom has shifted to
innovation. The people continue to seek
Innovation
success; however by innovation they strive to
obtain the success by taking advantage of
illegal goals available to them in place of less
Ritualism
promising conventional means in order to
attain success.
Merton suggested that by the time people
reach the mode of rebellion, they have
completely rejected the story that everybody
in society can achieve success and have
loomed into a rebellious state. They neither
Rebellion
trust the valued cultural ends nor the
legitimate societal means used to reach
success. Instead, these people replace such
ideas with irrational objectives to include the
violent overthrow of the system altogether.
Retreatism Identified by Merton as the escapist response
of the five modes, retreatism occurs when
people become practically dropouts of
society. They give up all goals and efforts to
achieve success because they view it as an
impractical, impossible, almost imaginary, and
irrational possibility. Merton attributes this
mode as the one to which drug addicts,
alcoholics, vagrants, and the severely mental
ill function because their reactions to not
being able to obtain success by legitimate
means represses them from society.
During ritualism, the final mode, people
realize that they have no real opportunity to
advance in society and accept the little
relevance that they have. It is in this mode
that people concentrate on retaining what little
they possibly gained or still have in place of
concentrating on a higher yield of success.
They return to adhering to conventional
norms in hopes of maintaining the few
possessions or possible gains that they have
attained. For many members of the urban
lower socioeconomic populous and
disadvantaged minorities this period of short-
lived and slightly increased gains takes nearly
a lifetime to obtain and to recognize its worth
in a modern industrial society.
2. Sutherlands Differential Association Theory suggests
that people commit crime by learning in a social
context through their interactions with others and
communication with them. He believed criminal
behaviour is learned by interaction with others, and this
includes learning the techniques of committing the
crime, and the motives, drives, rationalizations, and
attitudes for committing it.
3. SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORIES OF CRIME-
It basically refers to the failure of social institutions or
social organizations (e.g., schools, business, policing,
real estate, group networking) in certain communities
 and/or neighborhoods (although nothing prohibits such
theories from being couched at the "macro" level to talk
about all of society). It has its origins in the study of
ecology, which is the examination of relations between
an organism and its environment.
4. Cultural deviance theory: The major tenet of cultural
deviance theory is that conformity to the prevailing
cultural norms of lower class society causes crime.
Lower class subculture has a unique set of values and
beliefs, which are invariably in conflict with
conventional social norms. Criminality is an expression
of conformity to lower class subcultural values.
Members of the working class commit crimes as they
respond to the cultural norms of their own class in an
effort to deal with problems of social –middle class-
adjustment.
5. Labeling theory: people become criminals when
significant members of society label them as such and
they accept those labels as a personal identity.
Throughout their lives people are given a variety of
symbolic labels in their interactions with others. These
labels imply a variety of behaviors and attitudes; labels
thus help define not just one trait but the whole person.
If a devalued status is conferred by a significant other,
the negative label may cause permanent harm to the
target. Being perceived as a social deviant may affect
their treatment at home, at work, at school and in the
other social situations. Labeled persons may find
themselves turning to others similarly stigmatized for
support and companionship. Law is differentially
applied, benefiting those who hold economic and social
power and penalizing the powerless. Labeling theory is
not concerned with why people originally engage in act
that result in their being labeled. Its concern is with
criminal career formation and not the origin of criminal
acts. A person is deviant primarily because of the
social distance between the labeler and the labeled.
6. Social Control Theory as represented in the work of
Travis Hirschi- It proposes that exploiting the process
of socialization and social learning builds self-control
and reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior
recognized as antisocial. Refers also as to those
processes by which the community influences its
members toward conformance with established norm
of behavior.
7. Differential-opportunity theory- observations that
legitimate opportunities to pursue culturally approved
goals are socially structured and unevenly distributed—
especially by class. Differential-opportunity theory
extends this notion of socially structured unequal
access to delinquency and criminality.
Mafia is a term used to describe a number of criminal
organizations around the world. The first organization to bear
the label was the Sicilian Mafia based in Italy, known to its
members as Cosa Nostra
In the United States, "the Mafia" generally refers to the
American Mafia. Other powerful organizations described as
mafias include the Russian Mafia, the Irish Mob, the Chinese
Triads, the Albanian Mafia, Bosnian mafia, the Japanese
Yakuza, the Neapolitan Camorra, the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta,
the Indian Mafia, the Unione Corse, Serbian Mafia, and the
Bulgarian mafia. There are also a number of localized mafia
organizations around the world bearing no link to any specific
racial background.
Sicilian Mafia (based in Sicily)
The Sicilian Mafia formed in the mid-1800s to unify the Sicilian
peasants against their enemies. In Sicily, the word Mafia tends
to mean “manly.” The Sicilian Mafia changed from a group of
honorable Sicilian men to an organized criminal group in the
1920s.
Camorra or Neapolitan Mafia (based in Naples)
The word “Camorra” means gang. The Camorra first appeared
in the mid-1800s in Naples, Italy, as a prison gang. Once
released, members formed clans in the cities and continued to
grow in power. The Camorra has more than 100 clans and
approximately 7,000 members, making it the largest of the
Italian organized crime groups.
’Ndrangheta or Calabrian Mafia (based in Calabria)
The word “’Ndrangheta” comes from the Greek meaning
courage or loyalty. The ’Ndrangheta formed in the 1860s when
a group of Sicilians was banished from the island by the Italian
government. They settled in Calabria and formed small
criminal groups.
Sacra Corona Unita or United Sacred Crown (based in the
Puglia region)
Law enforcement became aware of the Sacra Corona Unita in
the late 1980s. Like other groups, it started as a prison gang.
As its members were released, they settled in the Puglia
region in Italy and continued to grow and form links with other
Mafia groups. The Sacra Corona Unita is headquartered in
Brindisi, located in the southeastern region of Puglia.
Organized crime groups, whether traditional mob families or
street gangs, have a number of common
characteristics:Organized crime thrives on supplying illegal
goods and services for which a large number of people are
willing to pay. For example, in 1999 an estimated fifteen million
Americans used illegal drugs, 75 percent of whom used
marijuana. The goal of organized crime groups is to make
money; members also gain a sense of pride, power, and
protection. Groups have what is called a pyramid power
structure like legal businesses. In legitimate businesses, there
is a boss called the chief executive officer (CEO), under the
CEO are vice presidents, treasurers, advisors,
accountants, lawyers, technical staff, and so on. Organized
crime has a boss, advisors who work closely with the boss and
assign tasks to different crews, captains who run the different
crews, soldiers who carry out the physical work and act out
tasks from collecting money to killing people, and men with
special skills.
Members are extremely loyal and committed; they go through
initiation rituals, take oaths, and swear to secrecy.
Punishment for members who stray might be demotion to a
lower rank or, depending on their offense, death.
Omerta is the code of the OC which have two major principle
the following are;
1. Follow your superior
2. Keep silent
 Any violation of the code, death is the consequence
Asian Criminal Enterprises
Asian criminal enterprises have been operating in the U.S.
since the early 1900s. The first of these groups evolved from
Chinese tongs—social organizations formed by early Chinese-
American immigrants.
There are two categories of Asian criminal enterprises.
Traditional criminal enterprises include the Chinese triads (or
underground societies) based in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and
Macau as well as the Japanese Yakuza or Boryokudan. Non-
traditional criminal enterprises include groups such as
Chinese criminally influenced tongs, triad affiliates, and other
ethnic Asian street gangs found in several countries with
sizeable Asian communities.
Transnational crime refers to crime that takes place across
national borders
The word "transnational" describes crimes that are not only
international (that is, crimes that cross borders between
countries), but crimes that by their nature involve border
crossings as an essential part of the criminal activity.
Transnational crimes also include crimes that take place in one
country, but their consequences significantly affect another
country. Examples of transnational crimes include the human
trafficking, people smuggling, smuggling/trafficking of goods
(such as arms trafficking and drug trafficking), sex slavery,
pedophilia and (non-domestic) terrorism.
The crime of unlawfully seizing and carrying away a person by
force or Fraud, or seizing and detaining a person against his or
her will with an intent to carry that person away at a later time.
The Philippine jurisprudence defines kidnapping for ransom as
“the unlawful taking and carrying away of a person by force or
fraud or against his will, or in any manner depriving him of his
liberty for the purpose of extorting ransom as payment for
his/her release.”
How We Combat Asian Criminal Enterprises (FBI)
The FBI participates in different working groups and initiatives
to combat Asian organized crime on an international level:
 The FBI/National Police Agency of Japan Working
Group meets annually to discuss ongoing
investigations and policy matters for sharing
intelligence, interagency investigative support, and FBI
extraterritorial operations in Japan.
 Project Bridge is a working group under Interpol to
help member countries coordinate investigations and
information sharing between police agencies to fight
Asian-alien smuggling syndicates.
 The Interagency Working Group on Alien
Smuggling coordinates policy discussions and
examines investigative issues relating to alien
smuggling and the trafficking of women and children. It
is sponsored by the National Security Council’s Special
Coordination Group on International Crime.
 The International Asian Organized Crime
Conference meets annually, bringing together law
enforcement agencies from around the world to
discuss new trends and exchange ideas on combating
Asian organized crime.
 The Canadian/United States Cross-Border Crime
Forum addresses cross-border crime issues and
effective coordination between the U.S. and Canadian
law enforcement.
 The International Law Enforcement Academy in
Bangkok, Thailand, is run with assistance from the FBI
and Australian federal law enforcement agencies. The
 academy provides training to law enforcement agents
from several Southeast Asian countries.
Crimes committed by the organized criminal.
1. Kidnapping- However, most cases of kidnapping
particularly those undertaken by criminal groups, revealed the
following stages:
Spotting . The first step in planning a kidnapping operation is
to come up with a shopping list of three to four possible targets
that are capable of paying a huge amount of ransom. Targets
are usually businessmen of Chinese descent.
Surveillance . Targets are then subjected to a thorough
surveillance and investigation. The investigation focused on
the financial capability, home address and place of work,
phone numbers, complete description of the vehicle being
used, travel routes, identities of household helpers, drivers and
employees, and personal security of potential targets.
Risk analysis and target selection . After a thorough
investigation, the group selects one of the targets, which
present a lower risk and difficulty in ransom negotiation. In
some cases, the group selects the one whom the group had
gathered the information first. In order to enhance precision in
their operation, some group send out members of the
syndicate to apply as drivers, employees, and household helps
to gain further access on the target.
Seizing of victim . The time allotted for forcibly taking the
victim is usually two to three hours. The victim is usually
forcibly taken on his/her way to place of work or while going
home after work. Most of the victims are successfully
intercepted while crossing road intersections or traveling along
highly traveled streets.
Negotiation . Ransom demand may range from PhP1 million
to PhP100 million, depending on the paying capacity of the
victim and the operational capability of the group. The weakest
member of the victim's family is usually selected by the
syndicate to act as negotiator, warning the latter not to report
the incident to the concerned police authorities.
Collection of Ransom. After the ransom has been
negotiated, the group will design a pay-off procedure. The
ransom is usually brought to a predesignated site. In some
pay-off situations however, the ransom courier is usually
instructed to bring along a cellular phone for ease of
communication during the actual pay-off. There were instances
where couriers were given a round-the-bush before reaching
the final pay-off venue.
2. Terrorism in the Philippines are conflicts based on political
issues conducted by rebel organizations against the Philippine
government, its citizens and supporters. Most terrorism in the
country are conducted by Islamic terrorist groups. The most
active terrorist groups in the Philippines are the Moro Islamic
Liberation Front, Moro National Liberation Front, Abu Sayaf,
Rajah Sulaiman Movement and Jemaah Islamiyah.
Computer crime refers to any crime that involves a
computer and a network, where the computers may or
may not have played an instrumental part in the
commission of the crime (Moore 2000). Netcrime
refers, more precisely, to criminal exploitation of the
Internet.
Law in the Philippines is R.A 9372
About the laws
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9372
AN ACT TO SECURE THE STATE AND PROTECT OUR
PEOPLE FROM TERRORISM
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representative of
the Philippines in Congress Assembled:
Section 1. Short Title. - This Act shall henceforth be known as
the "Human Security Act of 2007.”
Sec. 3. Terrorism. - Any person who commits an act
punishable under any of the following provisions of the
Revised Penal Code:
a. Article 122, (Piracy in General and Mutiny in the High Seas
or in the Philippine Waters);
b. Article 134, (Rebellion or Insurrection);
c. Article 134-a, (Coup d' Etat), including acts committed by
private persons;
d. Article 248, (Murder);
e. Article 267, (Kidnapping and Serious Illegal Detention);
f. Article 324, (Crimes Involving Destruction), or under:
1. Presidential Decree No. 1613, (The Law on Arson);
2. Republic Act No. 6969, (Toxic Substances and Hazardous
and Nuclear Waste Control Act of 1990);
3. Republic Act No. 5207, (Atomic Energy Regulatory and
Liability Act of 1968);
4. Republic Act No. 6235, (Anti-Hijacking Law);
5. Presidential Decree No. 532, (Anti-Piracy and Anti-Highway
Robbery Law of 1974); and
6. Presidential Decree No. 1866, as amended (Decree
Codifying the Laws on Illegal and Unlawful Possession,
Manufacture, Dealing in, Acquisition or Disposition of
Firearms, Ammunitions or Explosives)
Thereby sowing and creating a condition of widespread and
extraordinary fear and panic among the populace, in order to
coerce the government to give in to an unlawful demand shall
be guilty of the crime of terrorism and shall suffer the penalty
of forty (40) years of imprisonment, without the benefit of
parole as provided for under Act No. 4103, otherwise known
as the Indeterminate Sentence Law, as amended.
Sec. 7. Surveillance of Suspects and Interception and
Recording of Communications. -The provisions of Republic Act
No. 4200, (Anti-Wire Tapping Law) to the contrary
notwithstanding, a police or law enforcement official and the
members of his team may, upon a written order of the Court of
Appeals, listen to, intercept and record, with the use of any
mode, form, kind or type of electronic or other surveillance
equipment or intercepting and tracking devices, or with the use
of any other suitable ways and means for that purpose, any
communication, message, conversation, discussion, or spoken
or written words between members of a judicially declared and
outlawed terrorist organization, association, or group of
persons or of any person charged with or suspected of the
crime of terrorism or conspiracy to commit terrorism.
Provided, That surveillance, interception and recording of
communications between lawyers and clients, doctors and
patients, journalists and their sources and confidential
business correspondence shall not be authorized.
Sec. 8. Formal Application for Judicial Authorization. - The
written order of the authorizing division of the Court of Appeals
to track down, tap, listen to, intercept, and record
communications, messages, conversations, discussions, or
spoken or written words of any person suspected of the crime
of terrorism or the crime of conspiracy to commit terrorism
shall only be granted by the authorizing division of the Court of
Appeals upon an ex-parte written application of a police or of a
law enforcement official who has been duly authorized in
writing by the Anti-Terrorism Council created in Section 53 of
this Act to file such ex parte application, and upon examination
under oath or affirmation of the applicant and the witnesses he
may produce to establish:
(a) that there is probable cause to believe based on personal
knowledge of facts or circumstances that the said crime of
terrorism or conspiracy to commit terrorism has been
committed, or is being committed, or is about to be committed;
(b) that there is probable cause to believe based on personal
knowledge of facts or circumstances that evidence, which is
essential to the conviction of any charged or suspected person
for, or to the solution or prevention of, any such crimes, will be
obtained; and
(c) that there is no other effective means readily available for
acquiring such evidence.
Sec. 9. Classification and Contents of the Order of the Court. -
The written order granted by the authorizing division of the
Court of Appeals as well as its order, if any, to extend or renew
the same, the original application of the applicant, including his
application to extend or renew, if any, and the written
authorizations of the Anti-Terrorism Council shall be deemed
and are hereby declared as classified information: Provided,
That the person being surveilled or whose communications,
letters, papers, messages, conversations, discussions, spoken
or written words and effects have been monitored, listened to,
bugged or recorded by law enforcement authorities has the
right to be informed of the acts done by the law enforcement
authorities in the premises or to challenge, if he or she intends
to do so, the legality of the interference before the Court of
Appeals which issued the written order. The written order of
the authorizing division of the Court of Appeals shall specify
the following:
(a) the identity, such as name and address, if known, of the
charged or suspected person whose communications,
messages, conversations, discussions, or spoken or written
words are to be tracked down, tapped, listened to, intercepted,
and recorded and, in the case of radio, electronic, or
telephonic (whether wireless or otherwise) communications,
messages, conversations, discussions, or spoken or written
words, the electronic transmission systems or the telephone
numbers to be tracked down, tapped, listened to, intercepted,
and recorded and their locations or if the person suspected of
the crime of terrorism or conspiracy to commit terrorism is not
fully known, such person shall be subject to continuous
surveillance provided there is a reasonable ground to do so;
(b) the identity (name, address, and the police or law
enforcement organization) of the police or of the law
enforcement official, including the individual identity (names,
addresses, and the police or law enforcement organization) of
the members of his team, judicially authorized to track down,
tap, listen to, intercept, and record the communications,
messages, conversations, discussions, or spoken or written
words;
(c) the offense or offenses committed, or being committed, or
sought to be prevented; and
(d) the length of time within which the authorization shall be
used or carried out.
Sec. 11. Custody of Intercepted and Recorded
Communications. - All tapes, discs, and recordings made
pursuant to the authorization of the authorizing division of the
Court of Appeals, including all excerpts and summaries thereof
as well as all written notes or memoranda made in connection
therewith, shall, within forty-eight (48) hours after the
expiration of the period fixed in the written order of the
authorizing division of the Court of Appeals or within forty-eight
(48) hours after the expiration of any extension or renewal
granted by the authorizing division of the Court of Appeals, be
deposited with the authorizing Division of the Court of Appeals
in a sealed envelope or sealed package, as the case may be,
and shall be accompanied by a joint affidavit of the applicant
police or law enforcement official and the members of his
team.
In case of death of the applicant or in case he is physically
disabled to execute the required affidavit, the one next in rank
to the applicant among the members of the team named in the
written order of the authorizing division of the Court of Appeals
shall execute with the members of the team that required
affidavit.
It shall be unlawful for any person, police officer or any
custodian of the tapes, discs and recording, and their excerpts
and summaries, written notes or memoranda to copy in
whatever form, to remove, delete, expunge, incinerate, shred
or destroy in any manner the items enumerated above in
whole or in part under any pretext whatsoever.
Any person who removes, deletes, expunges, incinerates,
shreds or destroys the items enumerated above shall suffer a
penalty of not less than six years and one day to twelve (12)
years of imprisonment.
Sec. 17. Proscription of Terrorist Organizations, Association, or
Group of Persons. - Any organization, association, or group of
persons organized for the purpose of engaging in terrorism, or
which, although not organized for that purpose, actually uses
the acts to terrorize mentioned in this Act or to sow and create
a condition of widespread and extraordinary fear and panic
among the populace in order to coerce the government to give
in to an unlawful demand shall, upon application of the
Department of Justice before a competent Regional Trial
Court, with due notice and opportunity to be heard given to the
organization, association, or group of persons concerned, be
declared as a terrorist and outlawed organization, association,
or group of persons by the said Regional Trial Court.
3. MONEY LAUNDERING
Nature –
The term "money laundering" does not derive, as is
often said, from Al Capone having used laundromats to
hide ill-gotten gains. It is more likely to mean that dirty
money is made clean. At some point in the process
there must be a switch between the two; necessarily
the art is to keep that switch hidden.
Law on the PhilippinesREPUBLIC ACT NO. 9194
AN ACT AMENDING REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9160,
OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE "ANTI-MONEY LAUNDERING
ACT OF 2001"
Section 1. Sec. 3, paragraph (b), of Republic Act No. 9160 is
hereby amended as follows:
"(b) 'Covered transaction' is a transaction in cash or other
equivalent monetary instrument involving a total amount in
excess of Five hundred thousand pesos (P500,000.00) within
one (1) banking day."
Sec. 2. Sec. 3 of the same Act is further amended by
inserting between paragraphs (b) and (c) a new paragraph
designated as (b-1) to read as follows:
"(b-1) 'Suspicious transaction' are transactions with covered
institutions, regardless of the amounts involved, where any of
the following circumstances exist:
"1. there is no underlying legal or trade obligation, purpose
or economic justification;
"2. the client is not properly identified;
"3. the amount involved is not commensurate with the
business or financial capacity of the client;
"4. taking into account all known circumstances, it may be
perceived that the client's transaction is structured in order to
avoid being the subject of reporting requirements under the
Act;
"5. any circumstance relating to the transaction which is
observed to deviate from the profile of the client and/or the
client's past transactions with the covered institution;
"6. the transaction is in any way related to an unlawful
activity or offense under this Act that is about to be, is being or
has been committed; or
"7. any transaction that is similar or analogous to any of the
foregoing."
"SEC. 4. Money Laundering Offense. — Money laundering is
a crime whereby the proceeds of an unlawful activity as herein
defined are transacted, thereby making them appear to have
originated from legitimate sources. It is committed by the
following
"(a) Any person knowing that any monetary instrument or
property represents, involves, or relates to, the proceeds of
any unlawful activity, transacts or attempts to transact said
monetary instrument or property.
"(b) Any person knowing that any monetary instrument or
property involves the proceeds of any unlawful activity,
performs or fails to perform any act as a result of which he
facilitates the offense of money laundering referred to in
paragraph (a) above.
"(c) Any person knowing that any monetary instrument or
property is required under this Act to be disclosed and filed
with the Anti-Money Laundering Council (AMLC), fails to do
so."
Sec. 5. Sec. 7 of the same Act is hereby amended as
follows:
"SEC. 7. Creation of Anti-Money Laundering Council
(AMLC). — The Anti-Money Laundering Council is hereby
created and shall be composed of the Governor of the Bangko
Sentral ng Pilipinas as chairman, the Commissioner of the
Insurance Commission and the Chairman of the Securities and
Exchange Commission as members. The AMLC shall act
unanimously in the discharge of its functions as defined
hereunder:
"(1) to require and receive covered or suspicious transaction
reports from covered institutions;
"(2) to issue orders addressed to the appropriate Supervising
Authority or the covered institution to determine the true
identity of the owner of any monetary instrument or property
subject of a covered transaction or suspicious transaction
report or request for assistance from a foreign State, or
believed by the Council, on the basis of substantial evidence,
to be, in whole or in part, wherever located, representing,
involving, or related to, directly or indirectly, in any manner or
by any means, the proceeds of an unlawful activity.
"(3) to institute civil forfeiture proceedings and all other
remedial proceedings through the Office of the Solicitor
General;
"(4) to cause the filing of complaints with the Department of
Justice or the Ombudsman for the prosecution of money
laundering offenses;
"(5) to investigate suspicious transactions and covered
transactions deemed suspicious after an investigation by
AMLC, money laundering activities, and other violations of this
Act;
"(6) to apply before the Court of Appeals, ex parte, for the
freezing of any monetary instrument or property alleged to be
the proceeds of any unlawful activity as defined in Sec. 3(i)
hereof;
"(7) to implement such measures as may be necessary and
justified under this Act to counteract money laundering;
"(8) to receive and take action in respect of, any request
from foreign states for assistance in their own anti-money
laundering operations provided in this Act;
"(9) to develop educational programs on the pernicious
effects of money laundering, the methods and techniques
used in money laundering, the viable means of preventing
money laundering and the effective ways of prosecuting and
punishing offenders;
"(10) to enlist the assistance of any branch, department,
bureau, office, agency or instrumentality of the government,
including government-owned and -controlled corporations, in
undertaking any and all anti-money laundering operations,
which may include the use of its personnel, facilities and
resources for the more resolute prevention, detection and
investigation of money laundering offenses and prosecution of
offenders; and
"(11) to impose administrative sanctions for the violation of
laws, rules, regulations and orders and resolutions issued
pursuant thereto."
SEC. 10. Freezing of Monetary Instrument or Property. —
The Court of Appeals, upon application ex parte by the AMLC
and after determination that probable cause exists that any
monetary instrument or property is in any way related to an
unlawful activity as defined in Sec. 3(i) hereof, may issue a
freeze order which shall be effective immediately. The freeze
order shall be for a period of twenty (20) days unless extended
by the court."
4. Human Trafficking in person
refers to the recruitment, transportation, transfer or
harboring, or receipt of arsons with or without the
victim's consent or knowledge, within or across national
borders by means of threat or use of force, or other
forms of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse
of power or of position, taking advantage of the
vulnerability of the persons, or, the giving or receiving
of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a
person having control over another person for the
purpose of exploitation which includes at a minimum,
the exploitation or the prostitution of others or other
forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services,
slavery, servitude or the removal or sale of organs.
Law in the Philippines
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9208
AN ACT TO INSTITUTE POLICIES TO ELIMINATE
TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS ESPECIALLY WOMEN AND
CHILDREN, ESTABLISHING THE NECESSARY
INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS FOR THE PROTECTION
AND SUPPORT OF TRAFFICKED PERSONS, PROVIDING
PENALTIES FOR ITS VIOLATIONS, AND FOR OTHER
PURPOSES.
Sec. 4. Acts of Trafficking in Persons. — It shall be
unlawful for any person, natural or judicial, to commit any of
the following acts.
(a) To recruit, transport, transfer, harbor, provide, or
receive a person by any means, including those done under
the pretext of domestic or overseas employment or training
or apprenticeship, for the purpose of prostitution,
pornography, sexual exploitation, forced labor, slavery,
involuntary servitude or debt bondage;
(b) To introduce or match for money, profit, or material,
economic or other consideration, any person or, as
provided for under Republic Act No. 6955, any Filipino
women to a foreign national, for marriage for the purpose of
acquiring, buying, offering, selling or trading him/her to
engage in prostitution, pornography, sexual exploitation,
forced labor, slavery, involuntary servitude or debt bondage;
(c) To offer or contract marriage, real or simulated, for the
purpose of acquiring, buying, offering, selling, or trading
them to engage in prostitution, pornography, sexual
exploitation, forced labor or slavery, involuntary servitude or
debt bondage;
(d) To undertake or organize tours and travel plans
consisting of tourism packages or activities for the purpose
of utilizing and offering persons for prostitution,
pornography or sexual exploitation;
(e) To maintain or hire a person to engage in prostitution
or pornography;
(f) To adopt or facilitate the adoption of persons for the
purpose of prostitution, pornography, sexual exploitation,
forced labor, slavery, involuntary servitude or debt bondage;
(g) To recruit, hire, adopt, transport or abduct a person, by
means of threat or use of force, fraud deceit, violence,
coercion, or intimidation for the purpose of removal or sale
of organs of said person; and
(h) To recruit, transport or adopt a child to engage in
armed activities in the Philippines or abroad.
5. Illegal Accessed of Devices
Republic Act No. 8484 February 11, 1998
AN ACT REGULATING THE ISSUANCE AND USE OF
ACCESS DEVICES, PROHIBITING FRAUDULENT ACTS
COMMITTED RELATIVE THERETO, PROVIDING
PENALTIES AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
Section 3. Definition of terms. – For purposes of this Act, the
terms:
(a) Access Device – means any card, plate, code,
account number, electronic serial number, personal
identification number, or other telecommunications
service, equipment, or instrumental identifier, or other
means of account access that can be used to obtain
money, good, services, or any other thing of value or to
initiate a transfer of funds (other than a transfer
originated solely by paper instrument);
(b) Counterfeit Access Device – means any access
device that is counterfeit, fictitious, altered, or forged,
or an identifiable component of an access device or
counterfeit access device;
(c) Unauthorized Access Device – means any access
device that is stolen, lost, expired, revoked, canceled,
suspended, or obtained with intent to defraud;
(d) Access Device Fraudulently Applied for – means
any access device that was applied for or issued on
account of the use of falsified document, false
 information, fictitious identities and addresses, or any
form of false pretense or misrepresentation;
(e) Consumer – means a natural person;
(f) Credit Card – means any card, plate, coupon book,
or other credit device existing for the purpose of
obtaining money, goods, property, labor or services or
anything of value on credit;
(g) Device Making or Altering Equipment – means any
equipment, mechanism or impression designed or
primarily used for making or altering or reencoding an
access device or a counterfeit access device;
(h) Finance Charges – represent the amount to be paid
by the debtor incident to the extension of credit such as
interest or discounts, collection fees, credit
investigation fees, and other service charges;
(i) Open-end-credit plan – means a consumer credit
extended on an account pursuant to a plan under
which:
1) the creditor may permit the person to make purchase or
obtain loans, from time to time, directly from the creditor or
indirectly by use of credit card, or other service;
2) the person has the privilege of paying the balance; or
3) a finance charge may be computed by the creditor from
time to time on an unpaid balance.
(j) Penalty Charges – means such amount, in addition to
interest, imposed on the credit card holder for non-payment of
an account within a prescribed period;
(k) Produce – includes design, alter, authenticate, duplicate or
assemble; and
(l) Trafficking – means transferring, or otherwise disposing of,
to another, or obtaining control of, with intent to transfer or
dispose of.
Section 9. Prohibited Acts. – The following acts shall constitute
access device fraud and are hereby declared to be unlawful:
(a) producing, using, trafficking in one or more counterfeit
access devices;
(b) trafficking in one or more unauthorized access devices or
access devices fraudulently applied for;
(c) using, with intent to defraud, an unauthorized access
device;
(d) using an access device fraudulently applied for;
(e) possessing one or more counterfeit access devices or
access devices fraudulently applied for;
(f) producing, trafficking in, having control or custody of, or
possessing device-making or altering equipment without being
in the business or employment, which lawfully deals with the
manufacture, issuance, or distribution of such equipment;
(g) inducing, enticing, permitting or in any manner allowing
another, for consideration or otherwise to produce, use, traffic
in counterfeit access devices, unauthorized access devices or
access devices fraudulently applied for;
(h) multiple imprinting on more than one transaction record,
sales slip or similar document, thereby making it appear that
the device holder has entered into a transaction other than
those which said device holder had lawfully contracted for, or
submitting, without being an affiliated merchant, an order to
collect from the issuer of the access device, such extra sales
slip through an affiliated merchant who connives therewith, or,
under false pretenses of being an affiliated merchant, present
for collection such sales slips, and similar documents;
(i) disclosing any information imprinted on the access device,
such as, but not limited to, the account number or name or
address of the device holder, without the latter's authority or
permission;
(j) obtaining money or anything of value through the use of an
access device, with intent to defraud or with intent to gain and
fleeing thereafter;
(k) having in one's possession, without authority from the
owner of the access device or the access device company, an
access device, or any material, such as slips, carbon paper, or
any other medium, on which the access device is written,
printed, embossed, or otherwise indicated;
(l) writing or causing to be written on sales slips, approval
numbers from the issuer of the access device of the fact of
approval, where in fact no such approval was given, or where,
if given, what is written is deliberately different from the
approval actually given;
(m) making any alteration, without the access device holder's
authority, of any amount or other information written on the
sales slip;
(n) effecting transaction, with one or more access devices
issued to another person or persons, to receive payment or
any other thing of value;
(o) without the authorization of the issuer of the access device,
soliciting a person for the purpose of:
1) offering an access device; or
2) selling information regarding or an application to obtain an
access device; or
(p) without the authorization of the credit card system member
or its agent, causing or arranging for another person to present
to the member or its agent, for payment, one or more evidence
or records of transactions made by credit card.
6. Smuggling
is the clandestine transportation of goods or persons
past a point where prohibited, such as out of a building,
into a prison, or across an international border, in
violation of applicable laws or other regulations.
There are various motivations to smuggle. These
include the participation in illegal trade, such as drugs,
illegal immigration or emigration, tax evasion, providing
contraband to a prison inmate, or the theft of the items
being smuggled. Examples of non-financial motivations
include bringing banned items past a security
checkpoint (such as airline security) or the removal of
classified documents from a government or corporate
office.
7. Drug Trafficking
The illegal drug trade is a global black market in the
cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of those
substances which are subject to drug prohibition laws.
Law in the Philippine
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9165 June 7, 2002
AN ACT INSTITUTING THE COMPREHENSIVE
DANGEROUS DRUGS ACT OF 2002, REPEALING
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 6425, OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE
DANGEROUS DRUGS ACT OF 1972, AS AMENDED,
PROVIDING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER
PURPOSES
Illegal acts
Section 4. Importation of Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled
Precursors and Essential Chemicals.
Section 6. Maintenance of a Den, Dive or Resort. –
Section 7. Employees and Visitors of a Den, Dive or Resort
Section 8. Manufacture of Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled
Precursors and Essential Chemicals
Section 9. Illegal Chemical Diversion of Controlled Precursors
and Essential Chemicals.
9. PROSTITUTION
Section 10. Manufacture or Delivery of Equipment, Instrument,
Apparatus, and Other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs
and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals.
Section 11. Possession of Dangerous Drugs.
Section 16. Cultivation or Culture of Plants Classified as
Dangerous Drugs or are Sources Thereof.
8. Gambling
Title Six of the RPC
CRIMES AGAINST PUBLIC MORALS
Gambling is the wagering of money or something of material
value (referred to as "the stakes") on an event with an
uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning additional
money and/or material goods. Typically, the outcome of the
wager is evident within a short period.
Chapter One
GAMBLING AND BETTING
• Presidential Decree No. 449 Cockfighting Law of 1974.
This law took effect on May 9, 1974. It governs the
establishment, operations, maintenance and ownership
of cockpits.
• Presidential Decree No. 483 Penalizes betting, game-
fixing or point shaving and machinations in sports
contests. It took effect on June 13,1974.
• Presidential Decree No. 519 Outlaws pinball and slot
machines and other similar devices and nullifies all
existing permits and/or licenses to operate the same. It
took effect on July 23, 1974.
Prostitution is the act or practice of providing sexual
services with another person in return for payment.
Persons who execute such activity are called
prostitutes. Prostitution is one of the branches of the
sex industry. Estimates place the annual revenue
generated from the global prostitution industry to be
over $100 billion.
TYPES OF PROSTITUTES
• CALL GIRL
• HUSTLER
• DOOR KNOCKER
• FACTORY GIRL
• Art. 202. Vagrants and prostitutes; penalty. — The
following are vagrants:
• 1. Any person having no apparent means of
subsistence, who has the physical ability to work and
who neglects to apply himself or herself to some lawful
calling;
• 2. Any person found loitering about public or semi-
public buildings or places or trampling or wandering
about the country or the streets without visible means
of support;
• 3. Any idle or dissolute person who ledges in houses of
ill fame; ruffians or pimps and those who habitually
associate with prostitutes;
• 4. Any person who, not being included in the provisions
of other articles of this Code, shall be found loitering in
any inhabited or uninhabited place belonging to
another without any lawful or justifiable purpose;
• 5. Prostitutes.
• For the purposes of this article, women who, for money
or profit, habitually indulge in sexual intercourse or
lascivious conduct, are deemed to be prostitutes.
• Any person found guilty of any of the offenses covered
by this articles shall be punished by arresto menor or a
fine not exceeding 200 pesos, and in case of
recidivism, by arresto mayor in its medium period to
prision correctional in its minimum period or a fine
ranging from 200 to 2,000 pesos, or both, in the
discretion of the court.
Computer crime, or cybercrime
refers to any crime that involves a computer and a
network, where the computers may or may not have
played an instrumental part in the commission of a
crime.[1] Netcrime refers, more precisely, to criminal
exploitation of the Internet.[2] Issues surrounding this
type of crime have become high-profile, particularly
those surrounding hacking, copyright infringement,
child pornography, and child grooming. There are also
problems of privacy when confidential information is
lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise.
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8792 June 14, 2000
AN ACT PROVIDING AND USE OF ELECTRONIC
COMMERCIAL AND NON-COMMERCIAL
TRANSACTIONS, PENALTIES FOR UNLAWFUL
USE THEREOF, AND OTHER PURPOSES
Section 4. Sphere of Application- This Act shall apply
to any kind of electronic document used in the context
of commercial and non-commercial activities to include
domestic and international dealings, transactions,
arrangements, agreements contracts and exchanges
and storage of information.
Carnapping
Most of the vehicles were carnapped in parking lots,
residential areas and middle class subdivisions. Car
theft usually occurred between 2 o'clock and 4 o'clock
in the morning due to following reasons: inadequate
police visibility, street parking opportunity, natural
advantage during nighttime for criminal elements, and
lack of appropriate security measures in residential
areas. These vehicles were later either sold after
acquiring falsified documents or dismantled and sold
as used parts. Some stolen vehicles were forcibly
taken, usually by OCGs who would eventually abandon
them after completing one criminal operation.
REPUBLIC ACT No. 6539
AN ACT PREVENTING AND PENALIZING
CARNAPPING
Section 1. This Act shall be known and may be cited
as the "Anti-Carnapping Act of 1972."
Section 2. Definition of terms. The terms "carnapping",
"motor vehicle", "defacing or tampering with",
"repainting", "body-building", "remodeling",
"dismantling", and "overhauling", as used in this Act,
shall be understood, respectively, to mean
 "Carnapping" is the taking, with intent to gain, of a
motor vehicle belonging to another without the latter's
consent, or by means of violence against or
intimidation of persons, or by using force upon things.
ORGANIZED CRIME IN THE PHILIPPINES"
• Francisco Group which is formerly the Dragon or the
Kuratong Baleleng Group, now led by Manuel Francisco, with
66 members armed with assorted type of high powered
firearms and operates in the cities of Cagayan De Oro,
Pagadian and Dipolog, and other neighboring cities and
municipalities in the Mindanao (in southern Philippines), Cebu
in Visayas (in Central Philippines), and Metro Manila in Luzon
(in northern Philippines). The group is engaged in
robbery/hold-up, carnapping, illegal drugs trafficking, and
smuggling of rice and sugar.
• Pentagon Group headed by Tahir Alonto with around 168
armed members, engaged primarily in KFR and operates in
Mindanao. This group is a creation of the Moro Islamic
Liberation Front (MILF). It was organized not only to generate
funds for the latter through illegal means but also insulate the
MILF from accusations that its members are involved in purely
criminal acts. Its leader, Tahir Alonto is the former planning and
operations office of the BIAF and the nephew of MILF's
Chairman Al Haj Murad. Relatedly, there are other members of
the group who are listed as members of the MILF.
• Lexus Group , a carnapping group with around 37 members
operating in NCR, and Regions 3 and 4, all in Luzon.
• Rex “Wacky” Salud Group with 30 members operating in
Cebu, engaged in illegal gambling and the Vicviv Yu Group
with 16 members operating in Central Visayas and also
engaged in illegal gambling.
Robbery/hold-up
As of October 2003, there are 45 bank robbery incidents
recorded nationwide, or one (1) incident per week, with the
perpetrators carting a total loot of around PhP44.8 million.
Compared to similar period in 2002, bank robbery incidents
increased by 13 percent. Metro Manila or NCR registered the
highest with 20 recorded incidents. Operations conducted
against these groups resulted in the arrest of 18 persons, to
include 12 members of the Kuratong Baleleng Group who
were responsible in the series of bank robberies in Metro
Manila.
Bank robbery groups are considered as the most organized
among the crime groups. They are usually composed of
hardened criminals and/or personalities of tested daring
capabilities. Members are trained to follow and executed
minute details of a well-planned operation. Usually, all
members are heavily armed and ready to forcibly douse any
opposition.
The robbery group initially places the target bank under a
thorough casing and surveillance, week or even months in
advance. The peak and lean hours in the bank; the time of
relief of security personnel; expected resistance; individual
characteristic, traits and weaknesses of every personnel;
estimated cash in teller's booth and inside the safe; and
detailed sketch of the whole bank premises are observed and
studied. In case of armored vans, the group closely observes
the time and route of movements of the vehicle.
Usually, the bank robbers stage the heist wearing bonnets and
usually utilize Asian utility vehicles during their operation. The
group in most cases uses two sets of vehicles, one being used
on their way to the bank while another will be used as their
get-away vehicle.
Interpol role is OC
Interpol acts as a central repository for professional and
technical expertise on transnational organized crime and as a
clearinghouse for the collection, collation, analysis and
dissemination of information relating to organized crime and
criminal organizations. It also monitors the organized crime
situation on a global basis and co-ordinates international
investigations.
INTERPOL currently has projects targeting
organized/specialized crime in five areas of high activity:
 Project Millennium – targeting Eurasian criminal
organizations
 Project AOC – targeting Asian criminal organizations
 Project Scream – targeting serial murders and rapists
 Project Bada – targeting maritime piracy
 Project Pink Panthers - Armed Jewellery Robberies
committed by nationals of former Yugoslavia
ASEAN Plan Of Action To Combat Transnational Crime
The general objective of the Action Plan is to encourage
ASEAN Member Countries to expand their efforts in combating
transnational crime at the national and bilateral levels to the
regional level. As espoused in the ASEAN Declaration on
Transnational Crime, the overall focus of ASEAN collaboration
will be to strengthen regional commitment and capacity to
combat transnational crimes which include terrorism, drug
trafficking, arms smuggling, money laundering, trafficking in
persons and piracy. This is in recognition of the fact that
tackling transnational crime requires a concerted regional
effort in view of its global dimension and pervasive nature.
Besides, such efforts will assist in complementing and
contributing to the national and bilateral efforts undertaken by
Member Countries in combating such crime.
Organized Crimes
Questions have been raised as to the difference of
organized crimes groups and syndicated crime groups since the
two have been interchangeably used in a number of our laws.
Actually there is none-probably only misuse of words.
Clarifications may be achieved however, it we look into the
definition of each critical term;
ORGANIZATION – is a complex set of people and functions
interrelated in hierarchical structure specifically for the purpose
of attaining goals.
SYNDICATE – is a body of persons associated for some
design and undertaking which is usually a bold and difficult
one.
By its descriptive definition alone, one can safely
deduce that a group maybe a syndicate but may not always be
an organization. During World Ministerial Conference on
Organized, Transnational Crime held in Naples in 1994, the
following definition of ORGANIZED CRIME was adopted:
ORGANIZED CRIMES – Systemically planned and
prepared criminal acts committed through distributing
responsibilities among members of a criminal organization,
through a long term activities using intimidation, violence or
corruption regardless of national borders, for he purpose of
financial profit or social power. Therefore, based on the above
definitions, crime group may sometimes be referred to as
syndicate.
Organized Crime – is a criminal activity by an
enduring structure or organization developed and
devoted primarily to the pursuit of profits through
illegal means. It is sometimes referred to as the
“MOB”, “MAFIA”, “SYNDICATE” or the “COSA
NOSTRA”, which are known as “the enemy with in”,
“the 2nd government”, “the 5th estate” or the “Crime
confederation”. The term Cosa Nostra (literally means
“one thing”) or mafia is use to signify organized
crimes, and one of the varieties names for either mob
or syndicate. A strict code of conduct governs their
behavior called the “OMERTA” – the mafia code of
secrecy, and informal, unwritten code of organized
crime, which demand silence and loyalty, among other
thing, of family members. (Abandisky, 1991).
Whatever be the name, the organization is
known to be formal, with division of labor, with
coordination of activities through rules and codes and
with allocation of task in order to achieve illegitimate
goals. The organization seeks profit from crimes and
tries to prevent itself from threats, prosecution, and
even punishment from legal authorities.
Organized Crime – refers to unlawful
activities of the members of a highly organized,
disciplined organization engaged in supplying illegal
goods and services, including but not limited to
gambling, prostitution, loan sharking, narcotics, labor
racketeering, and other illegal operations of the
organization.
The groups may be characterized as persons of
decent character, with formal education, having its
own social classes from gangsterism to racketeering.
However, organized crime, based on its international
definition, is not exactly synonymous with crime groups or
syndicates – although they may compose organized crime.
Crime groups or syndicates may not only be classified
as ORGANIZED if it satisfies the following criteria.
1. It is composed of hundred of members
2. Its structure is complex as those of any large
corporation
3. It is subject to laws more rigidly enforced than
those of legitimate governments.
Its organizations are usually structured along
hierarchical line – a chieftain supported by close
advisors, and then lower echelon members; Its action
are not impulsive, but rather the result of intricate
conspiracies; Responsibilities are distributed through
long term activities; and has highly sophisticated
technology.
Our laws, specifically Executive Order Nr. 3 and
Executive Order Nr. 8, define Organized/Syndicated Crime
Group as;
A group composed of two (2) or more persons
collaborating, confederating or mutually helping one another
in the commission of any crime and sometimes enjoying the
protection of people in the government or public service.
In the Philippines, the presence of organized crime as
defined in the US and other countries is very minimal if not
nil. Highly structured criminal conspiracy with well-
entrenched contacts in the police, prosecution, judiciary, and in
other influential positions of the government exist only in the
areas of illegal gambling and to some extent, illegal trafficking.
However, crime groups do exist and are engaged in
various illegal activities. These groups are loosely organized
and are more entrepreneurial and opportunistic in nature than
organized in the structured, hierarchical and disciplined manner
employed by such group as the US Cosa Nostra, he Japanese
Boryokudan and the Columbian Cali and Medellin Cartels
among others.
The propensity with which we affixed ORGANIZED or
SYNDICATED when we refer to all crime groups or
syndicates is not only misplaced but may unnecessarily create a
picture of unmanageable crime situation in the country. Not to
mention our lack of understanding of the nature, attributes, and
extent of organized crime.
Therefore, for purposes of accurate monitoring and
investigation, it is recommended that the meaning of
ORGANIZED/SYNDICATED CRIME GROUPS should
fall only in the context of a crime group or syndicate.
Adjectives such as syndicated or organized should therefore be
omitted when referring to these criminal elements.
This should not however constrain us from the
awareness that organized crime in criminal activities such
illegal gambling, drug trafficking and others are continuously
evolving in our country.
ORGANIZED CRIME IN THE UNITED STATES
Organized Crime – define as any crime committed by a
person occupying in an established division of labor, a position
designed for the commission of crime providing that such
division of labor includes at least one position for a corrupter,
one position for a corruptee, and one position for an enforcer.
1970 US Department of Justice defined the term as “
All illegal activities engaged in by member of Criminal
Syndicates Operative throughout the United States and all
illegal activities engaged in by known associates and
confederates of such members”.
- they provide illegal goods and services.
- Ex.; - gambling, loan sharking, and narcotics or illegal
drugs.
Approaches used by the OCG:
1. Nonideological – it is not motivated by social
doctrine, political beliefs, or ideological concerns;
its goals are money and power.
2. Hierarchical – it has a vertical power structure with
at least three permanent ranks – not just a leader and
followers – each with authority over the level
beneath.
3. Limited or exclusive membership – it limits
membership;
- based on ethnic background, kinship, race,
criminal record, or similar consideration.
4. Perpetuates itself – its constitutes an ongoing
criminal conspiracy designed to persist through time
– that is , beyond the life of the current membership.
 Permanence – is assumed by the members, and this
provides an important basis for attracting qualified
person to the group, thus perpetuating the groups
existence.
5. Willingness to use Illegal Violence and Bribery –
violence is readily available and routinely accepted
resource. Access to private violence is an important
dimension that allows the group to actively pursue
its goals.
6. Specialization/Division of Labor – will have certain
functional position filled by qualified members. The
position of the enforcer is often crucial. It carries
out difficult assignments involving the use of
violence, including murder, in a rational manner.
Example: fixer and a money mover.
Fixer – developing contacts with
criminal justice and or political officials – or
arranges for corruption.
Money Mover – expert at “laundering”
illicitly obtained money, disguising its origin
through a string of transaction and investing it in
legitimate enterprises..
7. Monopolistic – the group eschews competition.
- They monopolize the area, and usually it
will resorts to violence and corruption of
law enforcement.
8. Governed by rules and regulations – it likes a
legitimate organization, has a set rules and
regulations that members are expected to follow.
2 Organizational Models of Organized Crimes
1. Bureaucratic/ Corporate Model
- the mode of organization essential for
efficiently carrying out large – scale task.
a. a complicated hierarchy
b. an extensive division of labor
c. positions assigned on the basis of skill
d. responsibilities carried out in an impersonal
manner
e. extensive written rules and regulation
f. communication from the top of the hierarchy
to persons on the bottom, usually in written
form.
2. Patrimonial/Patron-client Network – is a
characteristic of traditional societies that “centers
around families, patrons and their clients, and other
personalistics networks. The emphasis is on
traditional rituals that demonstrate the emotional
bonds among men”.
Example: Lucchess Crime Family (Vittorio –little
Vic-) Amuso of New York)
The Gambino Crime Family
American Mafia – a network consists of a
collection of connected points or junction.
a. At the center of each organized
crime unit (Familia: Family) is the
boss (Capo). He is assisted by an
under boss (sottocapo) and a
councilor (consigliere).
b. Surrounding the boss are his
clients, the captains (capiregime)
 c. Orbiting around each captain are
his clients, the lowest-ranking
members, who have been formally
initiated into the Family (soldati:
“made guys”). The member acts as
patrons to non members clients.
Each unit is tied to other Families
throughout the country by the
Capo, whose sovereignty is
recognized by the other bosses.
How the Organized Crime Group Works?
For the organization to work there must be:
1. An enforcer – one who make
arrangements foe killing and injuring
(physically, economically, and
psychologically) the members or
non-members.
2. A Corrupter – one who bribes, buys,
intimidates, threatens, negotiates,
and “sweet talks” into a relationship
with the police, public officials or
any else who might help the
members security and maintain
immunity from arrest, prosecution
and punishment.
3. A Corruptee – a public official,
usually not a member of the
organization family, who can wield
influence on behalf of the
organization’s interest.
Sources of Illegal Profit
The organization gains from goods and services
that are of great demand by the society but are
prohibited by law. It includes but not limited to most
victimless crimes such as illegal drugs, alcohol,
gambling, pornography, and including bank fraud,
extortion or racketeering and others.
Characteristics of Organized Crimes
1. It is a conspiracy activity involving
coordination of members.
2. Economic gain is the primary goal.
3. Economic gain is achieved through illegal
means.
Criminological Types of Organized Crimes
1. Traditional Crime Syndicates.
2. Non-traditional Crime Syndicates
3. Semi-Organized Crime
4. Politically Controlled Organized Crime
Controlling Organized Crimes
Organized Crimes can be controlled through:
1. Law Enforcement effort
2. Organization of Anti-Organized Crime
measures
3. Community Awareness and Cooperation
RUSSIANS ORGANIZED CRIME
In contrast to other criminal organization the emergence
of the Russian organized crime in the United States is simple
and unnoticeable. Unlike the farmers and unskilled laborers
who composed the majority of earlier immigration to the
United States, Russian emirgres are generally urban in origin,
well-educated, and industrially and technologically skilled”.
Despite a language barrier, they have marketable skills and
have not been closed off from the legitimate ladders of upward
mobility” Thus Russian-emirgre crime in this country did not
grow out of the same cultural alienation and economic
disparity experience by other immigrant groups. Furthermore,
Russian criminals did not begin their criminal careers as
members of adolescent street gangs in ethnic ghettos, like other
criminal groups of Cubans, Mexicans, Jews, Italians and
others. The Russian organized crime groups encompasses any
ethnic group-e.g., Armenian, Chechen, Georgian, Jewish,
Latvian, Lithuanian, Tatar, or Ukrainian - from the territory of
the former Soviet Union. Parliamentary bodies are riddled with
the de facto criminal syndicate representatives, who diligently
block or water down any significant anti-crime legislation.
While in Italy the word Mafia signifies discreet criminal
organizations with strict hierarchical structures, “in Russia it
has come to mean much more. Here it embraces the noxious
blend of crime, politics and business that has engulf Russia
since lifting of Communist control”.
In Russian law, Organized Crime distinguished in three
(3) Levels.
1. Gruppirovki _ mainly gangs of
extortionist, thieves, swindlers, and
narcotics traffickers who exhibit a
rudimentary and episodic structure.
2. Prestupnaia organizatsiia – this
middle level involves relatively large
formations with connections to
authorities at the regional level.
3. Soobshchestvo – the highest level
has influence extending to multiple
regions of the country, often with
international ties.
The breeding and training ground for ROC was established
during the communist era, and it is against this background that
we must understand the variety of Russian organized crime.
Citizens of the former Soviet Unions were deprived of a work
ethic – “We pretend to work; they pretend to pay us” – ans
scheme to survive. For the average Russian, the consequence
of honesty was deprivation. “In Russia government both of
Tzars and that of the Communist state represented
totalitarianism in one form or another where individual
freedom was suppressed. As such, like invading foreigners of
Sicily, the internal government system of Russia has made the
Russian, like the Sicilian, distrustful of government”.
PROCEDURE AND TECHNIQUES
Intelligence Build-up
Validation of Intelligence
1. Summary
2. Order of Battle
3. Agent’s Reports
Record Exploitation
1. Investigation Reports
2. Rogues Gallery
3. Modus Operandi File
4. Transmittal to Prosecutor’s office
5. Booking sheets
6. Sworn Statements
7. Coordination with Government and
Non-governmental offices
Identification of Target Personalities
1. Identification/Determination of the
individual target personalities;
2. Identification of the organizational
Profile of the OCG
3. Identification of all residences, safe
houses, havens and possible rest
recreation areas.
Case-Build-Up
1. Documentation of targets with
derogatory info/record and/or
pending cases;
2. Documentation of targets with
warrants/order of arrest;
3. Documentation of all cases
committed by Targets with the end-
in-view of filing cases before the
proper forum.
Negation Phase
1. Prioritizing targets;
2. Arrest/search before filing the case
3. Arrest/Search after filing the case;
and
4. counter-action
a. Simultaneous
b. Maximum paralyzing effects
against the OCG
5. Where police operations result to
injuries or death of suspect;
a. Immediate evacuation of
injured suspect should be
made to the nearest hospital
b. The Team Leader should
designate the investigator he
assistance of the SOCO
preparatory to the conduct of
the Inquest by the Duty
Inquest Prosecutor
c. In the absence 0of the Inquest
Prosecutor, the investigator
should prepare the
investigation report,
supported by affidavits and
pieces of evidence and
transmit the same to the
Office of the Prosecutor
having jurisdiction of the
place of the incident for
appropriate action.
THE BUSINESSES OF ORGANIZED CRIME
Goods and Services or Extortion
The business of organized crime has been described as
providing as providing goods and services that happen to be
illegal. According to the Task Force on Organized Crime
(1967) “the core of organized crime activity is the supplying
of goods and service – gambling, loan sharking, narcotics,
and other forms of vice – to countless number of citizen
customers.”
Organized crime has a relationship with the purveyors
of illegal goods and services that is extortionate: the business
of organized crime is extortion, and those criminals who
provide goods and services are its victims. (Thomas Schelling).
A bookmaker operating in an area dominated by an OC unit
will be required to pay for “privilege” of doing business – or
suffer from violence (or perhaps a raid by corrupt police). The
OC unit merely “licenses” the business, and the bookmaker or
other criminal purchases a “license” through the payment of
“street taxes” to avoid beaten or killed (or subjected to police
harassment).
Gambling
Gambling includes a wide array of games of chance and
sporting events on which wagers are made. Some of these are
legal-for example, state-licensed horse-and dog-racing tracks
and government-operated off-track betting parlors. Most state
operate lotteries, and dozens license casino gambling. State,
county, and municipal governments earn a great deal of money
from these authorized gambling activities. At the same time,
there are unauthorized (illegal) gambling operations whose
control is the responsibility of the same governments.
Bookmaking
Bookmakers “books” bets on two types of events – horse
sometimes dog races and sporting events such as football,
basketball, baseball, and boxing. In earlier days, “horse
parlors” or “wire rooms” neighborhood outlets, were often set
up in the back of a legitimate business. Results coming in over
the wire service were posted on a large chalkboard for waiting
bettors. Today, most bets are place by telephone directly or
through a roving “handbook,” “runner”, or “sheet writer” who
transmit the bet to the bookmaker. To maintain security, some
bookmakers change locations frequently, often monthly, and/or
they may use cellular telephones. Many use a “call-back”
system. The bettor calls an answering service or answering
machine and leaves his or her number. The bookmaker returns
the call from a variety of locations, and the bet is placed.
Horse-Race Wagering – is the oldest of the major
bookmaking activities, illegal horse-race wagering ranks
behind sports wagering. This discrepancy has increased with
the advent of legalized off-track betting in places such as New
York, Connecticut, and Illinois.
Sports Wagering – is the king of bookmaking, although the
net profit for the bookmaker is typically less than 5 percent. As
in other forms of bookmaking, the sports bookmaker seeks to
act as a broker, not a gambler.
Organized Crime and Bookmaking – in an earlier period,
bookmaking was an important source of income for organized
crime. OC units ran the operation directly
7
or “l icensed” syndicate bookmakers, and the wire service that
provided instant race results was an important source of
organized crime control over bookmaking. However, most
illegal wagering today involves sports, as opposed to horse
racing, and bets are made by telephone or over the Internet.
Payoffs are made the day after the event, so prompt results
provided by the wire service are no longer relevant.
Lotteries/Numbers – e method of raising money by the sale of
large number of ticket s and subsequent chance selection of
certain ones entitling the bearers of these to a prize. In 1612,
King James 1 authorized a lottery to promote the colony of
Virginia. The lottery was used to help finance the
Revolutionary War. Many of America’s outstanding institutions
of higher learning were supported through the use of
lotteries.Policy is based on drawing numbers from 1 to 78 by
spinning a wheel. Twelve to fifteen numbers are drawn, and
players bet that from one to four numbers in various sequences
will be among those drawn. Bets are typically small, but when
a policy operation is controlled by a syndicate, the total profits
can be quite large.
Casino Gambling and Related Activities – this requires a
great deal of planning, space, personnel, equipment, and
financing (with a wide array of games of chance, including
roulette, chuck-a-luck, blackjack, and craps). In the past,
casino, gambling was available in wide “wide-open towns”
such as Newport, Kentucky, and Phoenix City, Alabama, and
on a more discreet level in Saratoga springs, New York, and
Hot springs, Arkansas. Some cities have a tradition of holding
“Las Vegas Nights,” events often run under the auspices of, or
with the approval and protection of an organized crime unit,
using the legitimate front of a religious or charitable
organization. The operators provide gambling devices,
personnel, and financing, and they share some of the profits
with the sponsoring organization.
OC operatives may also organize or sponsor card or dice
games, taking a cut out of every pot for their services. These
may be in a permanent location such as a social club or
veterans’ hall, or, for security reasons, may “float” from place
to place. The games may be operated in the home of a person
in debt to a loan shark as a form of paying off the loan.
Las Vegas and New Jersey – in 1931 the state of Nevada,
desperate for tax revenue during the Great Depression,
legalized gambling and established licensing procedures for
those wishing to wishing to operate gambling establishments.
Las Vegas “served principally as a comfort station for tourists
fleeing the desert heat”. Then came Bugsy Siegel, the first
important criminal to recognize the potential from legalized
gambling in Nevada. Operating out of California, “ from about
1942 until the time of his death, Siegel controlled the wire-
service in Las Vegas through Moe Sedway, an ex-convict,
gambler, and long time associate of many New York mobsters,
who Siegel brought to Las Vegas. Through control of the wire
service, Siegel controlled the operations of all handbooks
operating in Las Vegas. He refused wire service to any book
unless he or his agents operated and managed it” (Kefauver
1951 a:91)
Miscellaneous Gambling
Bingo – is one of the miscellaneous gambling; this is played
purportedly to raise funds for charitable causes, bingo is also a
source of profits for organized crime.
Video poker machines are very popular, often a staple in
many bars or taverns. This operates like slot machines but is
legal because they do not dispense money. Payoffs are
provided by the proprietor (or bar tender) surreptitiously.
Loan sharking (Usury) – derives by the word “Shylock” as
depicted in Shakespeare’s writing that there were no Jewish
moneylenders in England – all Jews had been expelled from
that country by Edward I in 1290, and they did not return until
1650’s. The name “Shylock” reportedly became slurred by
illiterate criminals into “shark”, and the word loan shark was
born.
Neshek – was Hebrew term for interet, to bite, something for
which sharks are noted.
Between 1880 and 1915, a practice known as “salary lending”
thrived in the United States. This quasi-legal business provided
loans to salaried workers at usurious rates. The collection of
debts was ensured by having the borrower sign a variety of
complicated legal documents that subjected him or her to the
possibility of being sued and losing employment.
Loan sharking embodies two central features; the assessment
of exorbitant interest rates in extending credit; and the use
of threats and violence in collecting debts.
Payday loans – salary lending; takes advantage of people who
are willing to pay high interest rates to get small , short-term
loans, which many banks no longer offer.
Theft and Fencing
Stolen Securities – in the late 1960s and early 1970s saw a
dramatic increase in the volume of securities being traded,
which provided a lucrative source of income for organized
crime. Because of the large volume of trade, security grew lax.
Paperwork’s began to back up. And brokerage houses and
banks were frequently totally unaware that hundreds of
thousands of dollars worth of securities were being taken from
their vaults. Thus, the securities were not even reported as
missing for several months. Employees with gambling or loan
shark debts or those merely seeking to supplement their
incomes found a ready market for such “papers”. All that was
needed was an OC connection. In some cases, armed robbery
or “give ups” (faked robberies) of messengers were used.
Fencing – it provides a readily available outlet for marketing
stolen (hot) merchandise. He thus provides an incentive for
thieves and may also organize, finance, and direct their
operations.
CRIMES IN THE MODERN WORLD
The crimes in the modern world represent the
latest and the most dangerous manifestations of the something-
for-nothing-complex problems of society. This includes
Organized Crimes, White-Collar Crimes, Conventional
Crimes, and the victimless Crimes.
WHITE-COLLAR CRIMES
Erwin Sutherland defines white-collar crime – as
criminal acts committed by a person of respectability and high
social status in the course of his or her occupation.
Forms of White-Collar Crimes
1. Corporate crimes – the violation of a criminal
statute either by a corporate entity or by its
executives, employees or agents, acting on behalf of
and for the benefit of the corporation, partnership or
other business entity.
2. Environmental Crimes – violation of criminal law
which, although typically committed by businesses
or by business officials, may also be committed by
other persons or organizational entities, and which
damage some protected or otherwise significant
aspect of the natural environment.
3. Occupational crimes – any act punishable by law,
which is committed through opportunity created in
the course of an occupation that is legal.
Classification of Occupational Crime:
1. Organizational Occupational Crime – crimes
committed for benefit of the entire organization in
such instance only the organization of the employer,
not individual employees.
2. State Authority Occupational Crime – crimes by
officials through the exercise of their state-based
authority. Such crime is occupation specific, and
can only be committed by person in public office or
by working for such persons.
3. Professional Occupational Crime – crimes by
professionals in their capacity as professionals. The
crimes of physicians, attorneys, psychologists, and
the like are included here.
4. Individual Occupational Crime – crimes by
individuals as individuals which include income tax
evasion, theft of goods and services by employees,
the filing of false expense report, and the like.
Occupational crimes also refer to:
a. White-collar crime (Sutherland)
b. A vocational crime – committed by one who does
not think for himself as criminal and whose major
source of income is something other than crime.
c. Corporate crime – committed by corporate officials
for their corporations and the offenses of the
corporation itself.
d. Economic crime – illegal activity that principally
involves deceit, misrepresentation, concealment,
manipulation, breach of trust and illegal
circumvention.
e. Organizational crime – illegal actions taken in
accordance with operative organizational goals that
seriously harm employees or the general public.
f. Upper-world crime – law-breaking acts, committed
by those who, due to their positions in the structure,
have obtained specialized kinds of occupational
slots essential for the commission of these offenses.
Dealing with White-Collar Crimes
Gary Green pointed out that professional criminals
would probably continue to enjoy immunity from
prosecution. Hence, they are unlikely to be deterred by
sanction or threat and are unlikely to be formally disqualified
by their professional organizations. They will therefore feel
free and be free to continue or begin their activities.
James W. Coleman suggests four areas of reform,
which white-collar crime might be effectively addressed:
1. Ethical Reforms – reform include such things as
working to establish stronger and more persuasive
codes of business ethics. Courses in ethical
businesses might be offered in universities, and
corporations could school their employees in right
livelihood.
2. Enforcement Reforms – reform center on the
belief that white-collar criminals must be severely
published, but also include such things as better
funding for enforcement agencies dealing with
white-collar crime, and insulation of enforcement
personnel from undue political violations.
3. Structural Reforms – involves basic changes in
corporate structure to make white-collar crime more
 difficult to commit such as selective nationalization
of firms that have long records of criminal
violations.
4. Political Reforms – focus on eliminating campaign
contributions from corporations and businesses, but
also include the level of fairness in determining
government grants and contracts, the government
must serve as a police itself. This includes the
enforcement of laws and regulation of the activities
of elected officials and administrative personnel.
THE CONVENTIONAL CRIMES
Conventional crimes are groups of crimes categorized
as violent crimes (index crimes) and property crimes.
Violent crimes are criminal acts, which in the threat of
or actual physical harm by an offender to a victim. It presents
not only index offenses that every one recognizes as violent
(murder, rape, robbery) or other acts involving force and
intimidation but also “violent crimes” that are commonly
categorized as “social problem” such as domestic violence,
child abuse, elder abuse, etc.
Violent acts are in the forms of:
1. Interpersonal Violence
- Forcible Rape
- Serious Assault, Family Violence, Robbery
2. Political Violence
- Terrorism
3. Collective Violence
- Riots, Mobs, Crowds
- Urban Violence
Property Crimes – are crimes of economic interest. It includes
those crimes that would most commonly be categorized as theft
in ordinary language. It also includes but not limited to
offenses such as unlawful entry to commit theft, shoplifting,
vandalism, and arson.
Property crimes are also in the forms of:
1. Occasional Property Crimes
- Shoplifting, Vandalism
- Motor vehicle theft, Check Forgery
2. Conventional Property Crimes
- Burglary/unlawful entry to commit theft
- Fence
- Larceny/Theft
3. Destructive Property Crimes
- Arson
Violent Crimes (Index Crimes)
`A. Murder
Murder - is the unlawful killing of human being
with malice and with the “act of violence).
Types of Murder:
1. Serial Murder – an act of involving killing of
several victims in three or more separate incidents
over a week, a month or a year.
2. Mass Murder – it is the killing of four or more
victims at one location with one event.
3. Spree Murder – the killing of in two or more
locations with almost no time break between
murders.
B. Homicide and Assault
Homicide – is also unlawful killing without the
qualifying circumstances of murder. It is generally
regarded as the most commonly committed of all the
index crimes (based on the UCR offenses).
Assault – is called “unlawful attack” to another
person purposely to harm or inflict physical injuries. It
is a crime that involves offering to give bodily harm to
a person or placing the person or placing the person in
fear.
C. Robbery
INTERPOL defined robbery as “violent theft”.
It is the taking of property belonging to another with
intent to gain by means of force upon things, violence
of intimidation against the person.
Kinds of Robbery
1. Robbery of Person – “hold up cases”
2. Robbery in open place following sudden
attack – “snatching Cases”
3. Robbery in private premises – “forcible
entry”
4. Robbery after preliminary association of
short duration between victims and offender
5. Robbery in case of previous association
between victim and offender
Types of Robbers
1. The Professional Robber – robber who has
long-term commitment to the crime of
robbery as a major source of livelihood.
2. The opportunist – the commonly known as
“bandits”, one who has little commitment to
or specialization in robbery and one who is
all purpose property offender.
3. The Addict Robber – one who can commit
the crime of robbery to support their drug
habit? (Unplanned)
4. The Alcoholic Robber – like the addict
robber who engages to robbery occasionally
in order to support his habit. (Unplanned)
5. The Muggers – they are the most feared
robbers. They are semi-professional robbers
who are sometimes called “strong armed
robbers” – the street robbers who commit
everything from snatching to the
brutalization of the victim.