Urak Lawoi’ Shan

Phuan
Kaduo

M u l til i n g u a li
Tonga Tai Nüa
Kaco’ Mon Tai Ya Laopang Ilocano
Akeu Yoy Yong Yoy Kang Bo
Nyeu Suoy Kasseng Chepya Inabaknon
Somray Palaung, Pale Tareng Jeng
Kataang Jeh Hanunoo
Kuy Wa, Parauk Maleng Akha Hung Iu Mien

Cre a ti v i t y
Stieng, Bulo Aheu Ibaloi

ality
Talieng Hiligaynon
Tai Laing Nyaw Khlor Hmong Njua Puoc
Kraol Hani The Capiznon

Equ
Wewaw Akeu
Samtao Tai Nüa Sapuan Jehai
Ugong Saek Inonhan Iraya Bikol
Riang Sa’och Pu Ko

er
Rohingya Tavoyan Iu Mien Con
Tai Dam Bisu Tai Pao Agta, Alabat Island Samtao
Taman

d
Nusu Rawang Tampuan Khmu Itawit
Taungyo Kintaq Lahu Shi Cebuano

n
Naga Tai Mène Moken Chut Khua Prai Atta, Faire Agta, Dicamay
Palaung Rakhine Isnag
Pyen Mon Lü Akha Lua’ Alak Phana’

Inclus
Mru Khmu Agutaynen

m
Phu Thai Tai Loi
Lisu Jarai Salang Tay Khang

Ge
Lhao Vo Mal Mlabri Arem O’du Brao Kalinga, Southern

ive
Oy Arta
s

Lashi Shan Prai Lisu Giangan

so
Lahu Chong Khün Khuen Ir Ong Agta, Casiguran Dumagat
Akha Blang Phunoi
Yinbaw Lahu Shi

cie
Kim Mun Sila Alangan Ifugao, Batad Isinai
Chin, Matu Kuy Nung Phuan Laven
Lahu Shi Yinchia Iranun
Blang Sô Tai Dam Pacoh Rien Agta, Dupaninan
Moken Kensiu Lave Sou Ilongot
I-wak
Batuley Chak Kayah Bit Ngeq
Anal Khamti Aheu Tai Long Kiorr Kuan Baybayanon
Basap Hpon Mok
Pear Chin Kayaw Mal Mlabri

iti e s
Drung Khün Khün Lamet Tai Dón Ifugao, AmganadAdasen Ibanag
Phu Thai Sok

Em
tie

Benyadu’ Baras Kanan Jingpho

Wa Intha Nyahkur Saek Lahu Lü Higaonon

Equal Opportun Su
Banda Danu Tai Daeng Hmong Njua Agta, Mt. Iriga Ibatan Cheq Wong
Zaiwa Zo Lamet Sô Kuy Tempasuk
Chakma

po
s

Inakeanon Rejang Iranun Ati

Aputai Lahu Pali Manumanaw Kadu Butuanon Keningau Murut
Lahta

we
Duano Kadazan Jakun

sta
Alor Abun Kalabakan

Mu
Sara Hmong Njua Kayan Dumpas Pu-Xian

rm e ent
Arguni Kayong Kajaman Javanese
Beneraf

in a ble
Kelabit

tua
Blagar Awyi Iu Mien Kimaragang Berawan

nt D e v elo p m
Maleng Bahnar Akha Wahau
Biritai Biga Pu-Xian Katua Khua
Hung

lU
Bakati’ Akeu Mandarin Min Bei Arem
Min Nan Javanese Brao
Ida’an
Monom Hakka Gujarati Min Dong Baba
nd
Bima Bilba Telugu Kuijau Mandarin

Lif e
Cao Lan

lo n g l e a r n i n g
Bentong Auye Awera Lü Madura Sinhala Malayalam Côông Kintaq Dusun Kiput

er
Berik Pa’o Arandai Yue Hindi Sindhi Gana Khmu Laghuu
Bagusa O’du Cham Bukitan Kensiu
Zayein Bintauna Makasae Cua Bookan
Khao Pa Di Chrau Hakka
Andio Asilulu Babar Kucong Laha Tambunan Jehai
Bayono Karen Nung En Belait
Chut Batek Yue Banjar Bidayuh

Coll
Atohwaim Bedoanas Hmong Don Bonggi Jah Hut

st
Diver
Malay Ná-Meo Hmong Dô
Batui Rara Awbono Gelao Giáy Abai Sungai

ab
Adabe Bintulu
Orang Seletar Lahu

sity

an
Bantik Bada Ata Bajau
Chru Bugis Iban

or
Tukudede Kemak Lachi Nguôn Jeh
Banjar Tetun Lü
Habun Haroi Halang Doan

din
Mambae

at
Burmese As Mantsi Mnong Hre
Tetun Dili Waima’a Balau Tamil Halang Kháng

io
Batak Angkola Kairui-Midiki Min Nan
Galolen Muong Hmong Njua

g
n
Bisaya, Brunei Abinomn Makuva Nauete Maa Jarai
Bunak Hani
Diversity
Airoran Nyaheun Pidgin, Timor Fataluku Kim Mun
Betawi Portuguese Koho Mang
Tutong
Bambam Baikeno Hmong Daw
Lun Bawang Tai Loi
Lakalei
Penan, Eastern Iban
Belait Samre Idaté

Kavet Bengali

Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education

Lessons Learned from a Decade of Research and Practice
 What role can language play in
improving education for minority
language communities?
What are language rights?
What place does Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education have in realising
other development goals?

These important questions were

addressed by the 4 th International
Conference on Language and
Education. The conference brought
together over 300 practitioners
from 30 countries, reflecting
the incredible diversity of the
Asia-Pacific region and clearly
demonstrating the importance of
Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual
Education (MTB-MLE). This brochure
summarises some of the key
messages from this landmark event.

2
Language and opportunities
Researchers believe that two-thirds of the world’s
children grow up in a context where more than one
language is spoken. Multilingualism is not a problem,
but a reality that can be a resource. Sadly, however,
when many children start school, they are forced to
abandon their first language and try, often unsuccessfully,
to learn in a language they barely understand.

Language is the key to

communication. It can provide
bridges to new opportunities, or
build barriers to equality.
It connects, and disconnects.
It creates unity, and can cause
conflict. Language is many
things, but it is rarely simple.

3
 MTB-MLE: helping to
redress the balance
As progress continues towards many
development goals, it is becoming
increasingly clear that some groups are
being left behind. In many cases these
marginalised communities are isolated,
sometimes physically but more often socially
and politically because of the languages
they speak. MTB-MLE aims to address this
challenge, providing quality education for
all, and through this, engaging the whole
community in their own development.1

What is Mother Tongue-Based

Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE)?

MTB-MLE is about so much more than just changing the

language in the textbook, the test, or that the teacher uses
in the classroom. It’s about re-envisioning learning so that it
centres on the critical thinking and wider social skills needed
in a rapidly changing world. And it’s about challenging power
dynamics in the learning environment so that students can
direct their own learning in ways that are meaningful to them.

MTB-MLE requires the use of the mother tongue as the

language of instruction in the classroom, however, it is
not about restricting access to national and international
languages. Rather, MTB-MLE is about properly preparing
children to learn these languages well. Starting in the language
they know best allows children to build a strong foundation,
which then enables them to make an effective transition into
other national or international languages in due course.

1. http://www.unescobkk.org/resources/e-library/publications/article/why-language-matters-for-the-millennium-development-goals

4
 Evidence
The size of the 4th International Conference on Language
and Education, as compared to the three previous events,
illustrates the growing weight of evidence for MTB-MLE,
both in breadth and depth. There is now a wide variety of
contextualised examples of the impact of successful MTB-MLE
programmes from many different situations around the world.
We also now know better what works and what does not.

Three non-negotiable principles of MTB-MLE include:

• Strong and effective promotion of fluency and literacy in all languages,
• Effective environment for literacy (in its broadest sense),
• Learner empowerment – encouraging students
to create new power relations together.

“So, when we look at what we

know, and what should inform
policy-makers, I think we’ve
reached a tipping point – where
the amount of research that
has accumulated is such that
it’s not possible to credibly deny
the legitimacy of multilingual
education for minority and
marginalised students.”
(Prof. Jim Cummins)

5
 Impact
“Children who do not learn enough are highly likely to
become disgruntled youth, depriving them of the opportunity
to enter the formal economy and generate sustainable
livelihoods. MTB-MLE is critical to help these children learn
better and improve their skills.” (Prof. Kathleen Heugh)

In this increasingly globalised and

interconnected world, MTB-MLE has a
particularly crucial role to play. Not only does
MTB-MLE improve children’s learning of other
more dominant languages, but it has also
been shown to improve children’s cognitive
and affective development. It gives children
the opportunity to embrace their own unique
languages and cultures, critically evaluate
aspects of other cultures, and build respect
and appreciation for diversity and difference.

The growing body of evidence around MTB-MLE has revealed some of

its key benefits...
• For children: they engage more in class, respond to
teachers’ questions, and participate as equals.
• For parents: they are able to be involved in their children’s learning,
support teachers and take part in other school activities.
• For marginalised communities: they can retain their own linguistic and
cultural identities while proactively engaging with dominant wider cultures.
• For learning: better academic results overall, lower
dropout rates, and higher fluency levels in both their
first language and other official language(s).
• For the system: better learning means more efficient use
of resources, resulting in savings in time (teachers and
administrators) and money over the mid/long-term.
• For livelihoods: real learning and better language skills means more
access to job opportunities and more peaceful communities.

6
 Practices
“Since MTB-MLE came to our
community, most of the children in
Grade 1 are now very participative
in the class. They now easily
understand the words they read
because it’s all written in our
language. … They are not afraid
of being called on by their teacher
because they are so confident that
they can give the correct answer by
using our language.” (A Filipino parent)

The growing evidence has highlighted some key areas of focus for
successful MTB-MLE:
Appropriate curriculum… In the Chittagong Hill Tracts of
Bangladesh, the enrolment rate in primary school is less
than 60%, with a high dropout rate. One of the most critical
contributing factors is that children do not understand the
language of instruction (Bangla) and the curriculum does
not relate to their culture. To address this issue a MTB-MLE
programme was set up to provide relevant learning materials
in five indigenous languages. The success of this programme,
along with others, has resulted in the Bangladesh government
acknowledging MTB-MLE in their national education policy.
Community ownership… Writing systems need to be acceptable
to the language speakers and other stakeholders, and a
participatory process centring around the language community
is crucial to ensuring appreciation, acceptability, accuracy and

7
ownership. In the Autonomous Region of Muslim
Mindanao in the Philippines, participatory orthography
development has been initiated among several
non‑dominant language communities, which in
turn has encouraged participation, consultation and
motivation for MTB-MLE within the communities.
Inter-agency partnerships… In Sarawak in Malaysia, good
inter-agency collaboration supported the creation of
community-owned MTB-MLE pre-schools. Despite this,
the schools have continued to face competition from
government-run pre-schools, indicating that wherever
possible non-government organisations must collaborate
with academic and government actors to ensure
programmes can be institutionalised appropriately.
Similarly, NGOs must also develop partnerships with
community organisations and local government units
in order that high quality research on language and
education can continue to impact teaching methods.
Teachers… In Southern Odisha in India, research shows
that MTB-MLE teachers from the Saora community
were able to use their cultural knowledge and tools
to build strong bonds with the Saora children. This
facilitated the children’s active engagement in class,
in direct contrast to the passive learning patterns
exhibited in non MTB-MLE classrooms where
teachers relied heavily on the black board and rote
memorization of texts. In this way MTB-MLE has major
potential, not only to improve class results but also
to improve both teachers’ and students’ morale.

8
 Policies
“MTB-MLE is a good investment
choice, and in the long run MLE
can provide savings over inefficient
dominant language-based systems
of education. Currently many
education systems are very
inefficient, but only a few studies
exist showing how much is wasted
on unsuccessful models of education
in dominant languages that many
learners may not even understand.”
(Dr. Kimmo Kosonen)

In light of all this positive evidence, what is holding us back? National

policy choices around language in education, often closely linked to
misinformed budgetary decisions, continue to be the primary constraint
for MTB-MLE. Many education officials remain unaware of the linguistic
diversity in their own countries and prioritise the promotion of national
and international languages. Building these officials’ understanding of the
reality in the classroom and communicating about the improved learning
outcomes and the lower long-term costs associated with MTB-MLE is a
major hurdle in convincing policy-makers to support such programmes.
Working with officials in this way has seen major successes over
recent years in parts of Asia, with pro-MLE policies being enacted
or strengthened. Changes in the Philippines provide the clearest
example, where long-term advocacy and evidence from longstanding
pilot projects contributed to the enactment of law securing MTB‑MLE
for early years education. In Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam and
Nepal, MTB-MLE-related policies have been strengthened based
on the success of pilot projects. In Pakistan and Afghanistan,
opportunities continue to grow as officials acknowledge the necessity
of integrating ethnic languages into educational planning.

9
MTB-MLE and rights

“There would appear to

be an evolving recognition
that, when reasonable and
practical, state authorities
should make every effort
to provide education in
the mother tongue to
the degree and extent
possible…”
(Prof. Fernand de Varennes)

From the very beginning, education for all has been

acknowledged as a human right. Article 26 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the
right to education that is free, available and accessible.
Where education is not provided in a child’s first language
this is increasingly seen as a form of discrimination,
limiting the application of this right. MTB-MLE provides
a clear way for education to be available to all.

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 The Future
“We should embrace policy-
making as a priority activity for
language educators, and link
research to formal and informal
talking with policy-makers.
This will also mean translating
research evidence into new
language. We have to focus on
demystifying the policy process.”
(Prof. Joseph Lo Bianco)

Despite such progress, further research is still needed to confirm the

extent of the needs in many marginalised communities. Classroom
mapping projects, such as those conducted in Viet Nam, can provide
essential data that enables governments to better understand
the language situation in classrooms and act appropriately.
Finding suitable solutions to the complex challenges faced by
many marginalised communities can only be achieved by working
together. Looking for ways to dialogue with policy‑makers
and across organisational and disciplinary boundaries is also
central to any future advances. It is our hope that the 4th
International Conference on Language and Education, and
this publication, has played a small part in that process.

11
© UNICEF/NYHQ2008-0559/Naing

This information is based on presentations and

discussions at the 4th International Conference on
Language and Education, ‘Multilingual Education for All
in Asia and the Pacific: Policies, Practices and Processes’,
held in Bangkok, Thailand in November 2013.
For more information and original presentations please visit:

www.lc.mahidol.ac.th/mleconf2013
Edited by: Matt Wisbey

Drafting committee: Kimmo Kosonen,

Kirk Person, Vilasa Phongsathorn,
Catherine Young, Min Bista and
Kyungah Kristy Bang

To find out more about the Asia-Pacific Multilingual

Education Working Group (MLE WG) visit:

www.asiapacificmle.net