Grade 8 Japanese Textbook

MATHEMATICS
U (
U <
Contents
*
Calculating with Formulas ••••
1 1<' Calculating with Formulas 4
2' ' Using Algebraic Expressions 17
Simultaneous Equations
2 1' Simultaneous Equations 24
^
2< Using Simultaneous Equations - 36
Linear Functions 46
3 1 o Linear Functions 46
20 Linear Functions and Equations 65
4 Parallel Lines and Congruent Figures

1° Parallel Lines and Angles ~ 80
80
2(l Congruent Figures ^
Alps and mountain

tram (Switzerland)
ml
Properties of Geometrical FiguresSSM
5 1 Triangles 110
•110
2 Parallelograms 124
3 Triangles and Circles 138
Probability
6 1 Probability 152
•152
§
_
Playtime problems 45,79.151

Sassa-tato 45
Equal Shares 79
Rearrangement Puzzles 151
Aooendix 169
Further Topics 170
Independent Research 186

Supplementary Problems 194
Answer 200
<J Index 206
Milachl Kamine leisure land

(Ibaraki prefecture) »
Using this book
Contents of the Chapters

*L
Opening These give an overview ofthe content covered by the section.

pages to
sections O Trigger question
»
$ An exercise for thinking about a problem
_lj A problem connected to the main text
rs
Main text
Trigger question
Practical example for understanding the content

? Thisquestion is a clueto solving the problem.
A problem tocheck if youhave correctly understood

the basic content
A problem for a better understanding of the content
A problem for which a calculator is useful
* * Further description relating to the term in a footnote
Let's try! Extra problems to help you think about the content
At the end ol each chapter...
Write inyour exercise books:
• The useful techniques you have

learned
• What you found interesting
• What you learned and enjoyed
doing
Hems below marked with an asterisk are further topics for you to pursue at your own pace.
Problems Basic problems These cover subject matter you need to master.
This shows where a topic is covered in the main
text.
Chapter summary problems*
These problems review the whole chapter and show
applications of what you have learned. These are
grouped by difficulty into A and B* problems.
Lei's Investigate!* These sections explore topics relating to what you
studied in thechapter, in further depth.
Window on math* Thesesections present topics of interest connected to
what you are studying.
w
Diversions* These are puzzles which the math you have learned will help you tosolve.
Appendix* Furlher Topics Theselook at furtherdevelopments of material you

have covered.
Let's Research These show connections between mathematics and
everyday life, in a way you can investigate yourself.
Supplementary Problems
These arc review problems, testing your
understanding of the subject matter.
The following arefurlher development topics.
Multiplying and Dividing Powers of a 14

Simultaneous Equations of the Form A=B= C 44
Graphs instepform 49
<J Graph ofa;=A 78
Conditions for a rectangle, rhombus, and square 134
Geometrical Figures Maintaining a Constant Angle 147
Probability of an Event NotOccurring 168
Equationswith Three Unknowns 170
Finding theNumber ofCases 74
Making Predictions from Data 178
The sections labeled 'Development'' arenotpart ofthe formal curriculum requirements,

but are provided to widen the scope of study.
Chapter 1Calculating with Formulas
1 Calculating with Formulas
Triggers Let-S p|ay a number guessing game!
Think ol a number.
r\
1 Write the number you first thought of in O

2 Write8in©.
Follow the instructions on the left
3 Write the sum Of O and © in 0. to find a sequence of numbers.
4 Write the quotient of 0 divided by 2in ©.
5 Write the difference when © issubtracted from G in
6 Write the product of 0 multiplied by 2in 0.
7 Write the difference when 0 issubtracted from © in ©.
So the answer in
@ is 16. isn't it?
4 1 — Calculating with Formulas

.*,, Try doing the same calculation using
different numbers to start with.
0 8 8 8 0 8
0 (©-10)
* O (0-r2)
0 (0-0)
0 (0x2)
</b (0-0)
Why is the answer always the same? Write x for the

number you start with, and calculate the values in ©
to © asexpressions in ,X\ and try to seewhy.
Right! How did

you know?
If youchange the number written in 0,

LU
how does the final result change?
Is theresult in © always thesame, just as

when you wrote 8?
1 — Calculating with Formulas 5

Monomials and Polynomials
Let's look at the number of terms and the number of variables In
algebraic expressions.
Monomials and Polynomials
Expressions consisting only of a product of letters and

monomial
numerals such as 2.V and ., ir are called monomials. rs
We also think of a single letter or numeral, such as x or
Zx, -ja2, a'b,
x, -B
- 5, as a monomial.
An expression such as 2.r I 5, 3ffz I '\<ih I 1 v5>
which is the sum of a number of monomials, is called a Polynomials
2x + B,
polynomial. Each of the monomials in the polynomial
3a' + 4ab +1
is called a term.
^H£l) Since we can write .'{.{•* 2x 5as: I Think ofmore examples X
I of monomials and
3.r*+< 2x)H 5) polynomials. J
it is a polynomial, with the following terms:
:?.r, 2x, and 5
r\
3x' +( -2x)-f ( -S)

I '
Terms
I
check -| Name the terms ofthe polynomial 2x'~ <l.r I !{.
Prabliffl 1 Name the terms ofthe following polynomials.

<P •'" ' 3A © 2.r i // 3
6 1—Calculating v/ith Formulas

Degree of an Expression
Trigger* |n the following monomials, how many letters are multiplied?

(!) 3ab (2) -Ax7y
The number of letters multiplied in a monomial is calledthe degree of the monomial.

For example: ^
Two Idlers
Thedegree of 3«A is 2 3ab ~ 3x a x b

Three leUer.s
The degree of -|.r*.»/ is 3 -4x*y - -tfx x x * x y
Check 2 Give the degrees of the following monomials
® -3rr (D .r ® '.rV
The degree of a polynomial is the degree of the term with the highest degree. A
polynomial of degree of one is called linear (degree one). A polynomial with a
degree of two is called a quadratic (degree two). The sequence continues with a cubic
(degree three), quartic (degree four), and quintic (degree five).
(^^^2) The degree of (lie polynomial

h. . • r • .,
X+4.T • 5a' 's three, and
i x3 + 4x2
,
+ (~Bx)
^ therefore this is acubic. Degree 3 Degree 2 Degree I
Degree of x3 I 4x' ~ 5,t is 3
check 3 What isthe degree ofthe polynomial 2X2 3«l' + f>?
Problem 1 Give the degrees of the following polynomials.

T) ~<\x \ ,i ® 3jf"
(3) ,rb al> I la @ s2/3 ' l
1 — Calculatingwith Formulas 7
Calculations with Polynomials
Collecting SimilarTerms
Trigger* j^ the following calculations.

W
CO 2a+3o (2) 4£-2£-6
For example, in 5.r I 7// 3.r T 6//,

Similar terms i
5.rand - 3.r are similar terms. r\
Bx + 7y +( -3x)+ 6y
7//and <*>// are similar terms.
*• Similar terms
Terms with common letters are called similar
terms.
As shown on the right, we can combine similar

a * + b x = (a + b) x
terms into a single term, using thedistributive law.
JHLD 0 !">.!• +7// 3.r I(i.v Rearrange theorder of terms

= 5.r - 3.1-H-7// I 6// :
Combine similar terms
= (5-3).r-t-(7 + 6)//
= 2.J-I13//
•l.r2i2.f-5.f + G/ Remember that l.i-'

and 2.r have different ^
- ix' + Gx2 i-2.tr—5.r degrees, so they are
not similar terms.
= l().i- 3.r
Check "| Collect similar terms inthe following expressions.

CO 4.r I 8// -t 2.1- 3// (2) 5.r2 + 2.r-3,v2-4.r
Problem "\ Collect similar terms in thefollowing expressions.
CO 8« 76-3// i .r)/> (2) x2 r>.r x 3.ra
(3) \ab to nb I 2a (4) -Jx + ;> // - 2x +-y//
8 1 — Calculatingwith Formulas
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials
To add polynomials, all we need to do is to add all of the terms. To do this, wcstart by
collecting similar terms.
We subtract polynomials in the same way, but first changethe sign of each term in the
polynomial being taken away.
{^fl^2) Adding polynomials

(3.r+ 4//)•!• (2.i- -5//) ^
= 3,-H//l2.r :>// *****
+ )2x-BV
= 3.r-1-2.1- -I !//-!")//
6x- V
u = 5a? - //
Subtracting polynomials
(3.r LI//) (2.r 5//)
3x + 4y
= 3.r l -I// 2.r 15//
-)Zx-BV
= 3.r 2x i 4//-IT>// x-t-^y
= .»• i <)//
check 2 Calculate the following:

(1) (.r+ //)-» (3.r I 2y) (|) (3.r-2//)-(.r + r)//)
Problem 2 Calculate the following:
CO U-4//)<(5.r- 3//)
<J (2) (--5.I-- 5) 3//) I (fi I 5.1' 8//)
(3) (2r?2- 3« I 4) (ir l-5-ff)
(4) ff+26 3
) a - b I2
Problem 3 Forthese two polynomials, answer the following questions:

a I I/). Ir/ 2A
(1) Find the sum of the two polynomials.
(2) Find the difference when the polynomial on the right is subtracted from
the polynomial on the left.
1 —Calculating with Formulas 9
Multiplication and Division of Polynomials by Numbers
Trigger^ Let's calculate A (x + 2)

x t-2
X 2
To multiply a polynomial by a number, we use the distributive law.
(^MTjj) —5(3.r - // I- 2) r^
= - 15.1-1 f)// Id -6 (3x -y + 2)
check 3 Calculate 3(.r I ."{// - <|)

CO 3(rH4/>) ® K 2x I 3//)
© G(|
,-/ a
-|)
b
® (6a- 8// 4)x( J)
To divide a polynomial by a number, we can convert the calculation to a multiplication.
(52J4) (ii" 5i/,)-f:{ n

((u/-!)/»)x ; V
3
(H/
3
<)/>
3 !f-3£.»za-te
i i
= 2 it :\b
check 4 Calculated 2.r 2(1//) -r4

(0 ( 9/1 I 12/0 : 3 C2) (15a2 5.1-4 30) t( r>)
10 1 —Calculating with Formulas

More Calculations
dgjlffi 4(2a- //) 3(2.»- 5y)

Remove the parentheses
= 8a- - 4 // - G.r I 15//
- 2.r I 11// ) Collect similar terms

(0 2(.T I 4//) I 3(.r 5//) @ 4(3*7- 2/;)l <>( a I 3/>)
(3) 3(8*- //) 5(2a- I //) C4) 3(.r2 + 4.r-2)- 2(6.r- 1)
J <
problem 7 ( Find the result ofsubtracting .| times .1' I 3// from [\ times 2a- - 4//.
•fflHTf)) Calculate. 3a-2- a _ a- -Ay

•\
3 a- // a- I// 3.r~ .v _ a- I//

2 I 2 4
f MAcj common denomiiutor Cwncil lo die lorn (fraction) \
(|xM)iiuiii:jl)
_ 2(3a:-^) x-Jjl
V
4 4
Combine imo a tingle rtaclion
=-|-(3a- //) J, (a— Ay)
9 Rcnrmc llic piienllirwi
2(3J- //) (.r-4,v)
4
• Remove llic pamMheKl
= jx- fM-Tx + 9
* Cullrtl lliiilinf Irinu
().r- 2 ii x I 4//
U l
4
A Collect similar Icrim
5.1' 12//
(T)
7a- I// , .r + 2jf
10 5
(8) **f* i te+M
®
2« l /»
3
r/
(i
2b (4) a-.// •«'/y/
1 —Calculating with Formulas 11
Multiplication and Division of Monomials
Multiplication
Trigger| Consider the area ofarectangle of height3a cm

andwidth Ab cm: what multiple isthisofthearea :\u
ofa rectangle ofheight a cm and width b cm?

b
To find the product of monomials, such as \\a x 4 b• we can
r\
multiply the product ofthe coefficients bythe product ofthe letters.
3 a x // b
3 x a x tf x b
t^Jl) 8a- x( -I //) = 8x( -I) xa- x//
3 x 4 x a x b
= 32 a-//
II ab
check "J Calculate 3a-x ( (>//)
Problem "j Calculate the following:

CO 5a-x.|;/ (2) (- 3«)x( 2m)
C3) ( 2r//Ox4r (4) âxOx
^ffl^2) (0 2r/X3fl2 C?) ( 4m)2

r>
2 x ;{ x a x a x a = (- 4m)x( 4w)
= (-4)x( 4)xwx/«
( \yx,,r
16 m2
Check 2 Calculatethe following:
(0 5c-/ x ( - (i1) @ ( 2x)2
Problem 2 ) Calculatethe following:
CO ab x\ab:' ® ( <iY-2b

Division
Trigger| /\ rectangle has width Abcm and Ab
area 12a6cm2: what is its height \2ab
in cm?
We can carry out a division of monomials,

IZab
12a b ! 4 b as shown on the right. IZab-i-Hb =
fib
3 t
V/e can cancel letters in the \
( numerator anddenominator, ]a^^n. >*x&
w
|ust like numbers. C^SRS^ ; i
w = 3a
(J5B3) © H.r//-f (-2a-) 1 •-, 2

2" h
8a-//
. a'b . 2a
2 a-
2 3
- __«£// 3
2a-
2 X2 a
i l
l
H x a; x i,
>( x a x /) x:',
27x* 2 x 2 x ><
l I
l
4//
- = ,,3 ab;
check 3 Calculate the following:
<1) iuib r3« <D (-I0.1-//H la-
CO $A'V • ( 3,r//) 8.r2-M 6.r)
(3) ( 4a-y')-5 \ xii g) |/-

., I)' C . 77:> be
I)
/.-
1 — Calculating with Formulas 13

Calculations Combining Multiplication and Division
ahxb / /
4) (iby- b-r irb -- i?b frxftxZ.
Hxaxft a
b / /
a
check 4 Calculate/* x b f 3«/-
Probiem 4 ) Calculate the following:

n
CO a*b : ab~'x:\ 8a-a-( 4.r)-r.
- x
(3) (-2a-)»x.r-r( 2a-)

$
Multiplying and Divklinrj Powers o\a f
Triggers wnat number goes iin the following equations?
CO a'xa' = a" (2) a*-7-a* = a<]
In"^>C0.
i7s x a* = (/•* x a x «) x (a x « x « x a) <r
and we can find the index of a1 from.'{ 1 4.
r\
Problem "\ ) Evaluating (a9)3yields what power ofal And how can wc find this
index?
In "jw$ ^2), we can find the index 3 of the

Three remaining
quotient a3 from5 2- / /
frxfrxg Xfl Xfl
Problem2 Calculate a1 : a\ and see if you can rZXU
/ /
see what value we should consider a" to

have.
I V
14 1—Calculating with Formulas ) ' —• p.203
Evaluating Expressions
• Let's find the value of expressions including two ormore letters.
(jjj^l) When x = 2and // 4, find the value of 3a 5y.

IINIHHNMMi
3x--*V -6M-4) 3 x -B y
= 3X2 -5x( -4)
Answer 26
••1 1
^^^^___
- «
check -| When a- = 3 and // = 2, find the values of the following expressions.
(0 3a- :">// @ a-)3//'-'
Trigger^ When a = 5 and b = - 3, let's find the value ofthe following expression.
?A3o-Ab)-A(.a-3b) (I)
We can evaluate expression (1) by substituting a f> and b = - 3, to obtain:
2X(3x5-4x(- 3)} 4X{5-3X(-3)J

But let's see if there is a simpler way.
When evaluating an expression, before making the substitutions it may help to
w
simplify first.
Problem! Answer the following problems about the '^ / Is the answer the same as
\ by direct substitution?
CO Simplify the expression (1).
@ Substitute a •- 5 and b = 3 into the expression
you obtained in (1), to evaluatethe expression.
^ .-"
Problem 2 When a 2 and b = ., , evaluate the following expressions.
(0 4(<H 2b) \(a 5b) (2) &a2b •-: Aa
1—Calculating with Formulas 15

2%
Basic Exercises §
• Terms and degrees of polynomials p.6 Lxmytlo I <;
p./Exnmpfo?
/ For the polynomial 2x2 5a: I 9, answer the following questions.
® Name the terms.
Cf) What is the degree ofthis polynomial?
Addition and subtraction of polynomials p.BBowplo l

p.0Ennfite2
J Calculate the following: r\
CO 2« 3/H 4,-h 7/> ® 3a-2-4a--2x*-I-6a-

(D (2a rM>) \ (it (>b) ® (4a- I//)- (3a- -By)
® (-2«7 + 5/j)-(-2ff I 7/))
Calculating with linear polynomials and numbers /» tO t'x.in>t>U: 3 -
/>. f0 VxAmfio -t
cj Calculate the following:
CO 3(2.r I //) (D (28«- 4/»-H
(3") 2(a I />) i 5(2« b)
® 3(.r-2//) 2(2a--5//)
Multiplication and division of monomials p.t2Lxanip'.o I

p i? txxnp'a 2 n
// Calculate the following: P 131 xm'p'a 3
p. M Ijwrplo •<
0.) ( 4r/)xf)/i (2) 3/;r/-x2/>
(3) ( WaY (4) Bab : ;!() <v

(5) 3a-2//-r 6.17/ (6) <ib'ljrb*\a
Evaluating expressions p 15 LXMipto .p

5 When ,7 2 and b 3, find the value of I a 5 b-
16 1 — Calculating with Formulas

2 Using Algebraic Expressions
Using Algebra for Explanation
Triggerh Consider the sum of five consecutive integers:

3 -|- 4 -|- 5 + 6 + 7
what properties doesthis sum have?
14+ 15+16-1-17-1-18
Try investigating some examples. 21 -1-22-1-23-1-24-1-25
S
Let's try to represent the properties we investigated above by using algebra.
In a pair ofconsecutive integers, such as 5and ^

, „ 1I 1I 1I
6, the second number is one more than the first
B, 6, 7, 8,
number. Thus if the first number is n, the following
number is ;/ -t-1.
1) The sum of five consecutive integers is amultiple of 5.

Explain this, using algebra.
Answer Of the five consecutive integers, let the smallest be n. Then the five
consecutive integers are:
>s /., 11 \ l, 11 \ 2, W+ 3, n \ 4
Their sum is therefore:
m+ («+1)4-(« + 2)+(/i + 3) I (w + 4)- r>» i l(>

= 5(« + 2)
Since;/ I 2 is an integer,.">(// I 2) is a multiple of 5.
v Therefore the sum of five consecutive integers is a multiple of 5.
Problem "J In Example l,make the same explanation, but selling 11 as the value ofthe middle number.
2 —Using Algebraic Expressions 17

Trigger^ Consider the integer of the same numeral *
'•^mr , 53 + 35 = 88 - 11x8
where ones and ten places are reversed.
<?2 -t- 29
Check with different examples that the
8'/ -I- -78
sum of these two integers is always a
multiple of 11.
Let's now show why this properly holds for any two-digit integer, using algebra.
If the tens digit is .r and the units digit is //. we

can represent any two-digit integer as 10x I //. ... y .
fflffi'2) The sum of atwo-digit integer and the same integer with the units and tens
digits reversed is always a multiple of 11.
Show this, by using algebra.
Answer Suppose the tens digitof the original integer is x and the units digit is //, then:
The first number is Ida- I //
The reversed number is 1(1// I x '•
Thus the sum is:
(10a- I //) I (10// I x) = 11a- -1 11//

= H(al//)
Since a- I //is an integer, 11 (a- I //) is a multiple of 11.
Therefore, the sum of a two-digit integer and the same integer with the units
and tens digits reversed is always a multiple of 11.
Problem 9 I F°r trie pair of integers weconsidered in ,- ~ ~-x

/ 53-35
the T,i»^, consider their difference. What ( 92-29
/ '>
can you say about it? \ 84—48
Explain this, using algebra.
,%i
18 1 — Calculatingwith Formulas
1 Using algebraic calculations, let's look atsomegraphical problems.
(^MTgj If the arc length of asector is (\ and the

radius is r, thearea S is given by:
S-ftr
Prove this.
Answer If the central angle of the sector is a degrees, then:

a
^
f = 2nrx-£ (1)
360
a
(2)
*-",x*
If we divide both sides of equation (1) by 2 n r< we can
express the .,7.,. that is common to both equations, in
terms of ( and r thus:
3(50 2,7 r
Substituting this into (2) gives:
CThis looks rather like the

S = nr2x .,lt:
Lit)
= k-Cr
I. formula for the area of a
triangle.
Therefore the area S of the sector is given by:
-
S= bfr
11
Problem 3 A sector has a radius of 5 cmand an arc length of 2n cm.

Find the area of this sector.
Problem 4 Acircle has a radius ofr. Ifwc double the radius ofthis circle, to what multiple
does the area increase? If we halve the radius, what happens to the area?
2 —UsingAlgebraic Expressions 19
Transforming Equations
Trigger| jo buy 30 tennis balls, Idecide to buy acombination of cans holding two
balls and cans holding three balls.
What combinations can I buy?
Ci) If the number of cans holding two balls isa-,
and the number of cans holding three balls
is //, write the relation between a- and //. ft, H
® If Ibuy six of the cans holding two '°yij ^ )
balls, how many three-ball cans must
I buy?
When considering cases such as theT'^ @, it is helpful to make an equation giving y

in terms of a'.
(>"":•]:: \ , From the following equation (I), derive an expression for//in terms of x.
2a- I 'Ay - 30 (1)
Move 2x tothe other side: 3// = 2x I 30

2
Divide both sides by 3: //= ja-110 (2)
Transforming the equation (1) relating x and // into an equation like (2) giving // in
terms of X is called solving equation (1) for //.
Problem *] i Using the equation we derived in Example 1, find all combinations of
both can sizes with which we can buy 30 tennis balls.
check "J Solve the following equations for the letters in brackets.
(i) a-+ 2// = 5 (a-) (2) 2xy = A in)

Problem 2 i Solvethe following equations for the letters in brackets.
© /- 2(7/ I/O Ul 1' = ! a'b tii)
-€\
O
Basic Exercises •
Using algebra for explanation
For any two-digit integer, p.r/BurrytiS I f
subtracting the sum of the 85 - (8 + B) = 11 p. IHBonvta ?
digits from the number gives

9x8
a multiple of 9. Explain this
using algebra.
Cylinder A has a base radius i -*

2 A pl<jnob'em4 4^
of rein and a height of /rem,
while cylinder B has a base

u * //cm
radius twice that of A and
height one-half that of A.
What is the ratio of the rem
volumes of cylinders A and B?
• Transforming Equations p20lxamp-Q I +•"
,) Solve the following equations for the letters in brackets.
CD 3a- 2ii I (//) (2) t 2m {>)
2 — Using Algebraic Expressions 21

u
Chapter Summary Problems A f

7 Calculate the following:
(J) Aa Zb + Bb-Ba ® 7a-I 2// 4a- 3//

(3) (4a-- 7//) -I (3a-- 5//) (4) (5a-2-4.r)-(a-2-4a-)
2 Calculate the following: -,

CO 3(2«- 3/>) (2) (<H 46) X(- 2)
© (2<?-6*) + 2 (4) (10a-2- ISa«) + (-S)
(
(5) 3(2<H-6) + 4(ff-2/>) ® 2(a-*+6.t-)-3(4ar-l)
3 Calculate the following:

© ().f x ( - 3a-) (D ( - (if X4«
(§) 4<•//> + (-86) © 9a*2+ ( a-)
© f)./-'// vI (6) «2x(i/,T4ab
A When x —3and // = - ~, find the values ofthe following expressions.
0) (a- I 2//) (3a—Ay) (?) 24a//:,v (()//) ^

(
Q Solve the following equations for the letters inbrackets. ,•
vl) 3a- 4// I 2-0 (//) (2) ill = -t [a]
f) The sum of2,4, and 6is 12, which is a multiple , N

w / A multiple ol 2 is called an
of 6. In fact, the sum of any three consecutive I even number.
even number isa multiple of6. Show that this is C=«&» *%
•
true for any even numbers using algebra. >
22 1—Calculating with Formulas J ' =-• p.POO Answer p I9'i

-
Chapter Summary Problems B
"J Calculate the following:
(i) ^'"i v C2) a-2 I a--{3.r- (a-2l I) t 5)
^ If A —x I // and I! 2x —3//. calculate the values of the following expressions.

© 4/1 3// (2) A (li- 2/1)
3 In the diagram on the right, find the area of the A 46cm p 1)
shaded part. 3r/cm
^\
-
5<7cm
Q
B lOAr.m c:
4 In the monthlycalendar on the right, the sum Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
of the three vertically adjacent numbers is 1 2 3

4 5 6 7 0 9 10
equal to three times the central number. This II 12 13 14 IS 16 17
holds for any three such numbers. Explain this 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

25 26 27 28 29 30 31
using algebra.
In thenumber guessing gameon pages 4 and5, if What algebraic expressions

should we use for the numbers
we changethe number in step ©, whatshouldwe tobe entered into 0 to ©. '
w do to get the final answer? Tiy making x the first
number thought of,and// thenumber instep 0.
Let's investigate!
For the arrangement of numbers in a montly calendar, sec if youcan find other
relationships likethat in Problem // above, which always hold.
..j
Explain any ruleyou find, usingalgebra.
) I -• p,200 Answer Chapter Summary Problems 23

Chapter 2 Simultaneous Equations
] Simultaneous Equations
Kita Junior High School newspaper
Congratulations on winning! i
Girls basketball team
Thanks to the efforts of all members, the girls basketball team achieved first
r\
place in the area tournament for the fourth year running. The captain, HayashI,
played a big role with a series ofshoots, scoring 24 points, excluding free throws.
Scoring record (excluding free throws)

Number of
Player Points
successful shots
Hayashi 24 10
Ishikawa 15 6
Yamaguchi 11
24 2 —Simultaneous Equations
Trigger^ In basketball, aside from free throws, there are three-point shots, and two-
point shots. How many successful shots, two- and three-point did Captain
Hayashi make?
I Let x be the number of Hayashi's successful three-point shots, and // be the

number of successful two-point shots. Then for the total of 24 points, write
an equation showing the relation between x and If.
u (
~ I
Number of
three-point shots
Number of
two-point shots
1 — Simultaneous Equations 25
Simultaneous Equations and Their Solutions
Hayashi says:
"I scored a total often shots, including both three-point and two-point shots."
Let's add this condition, and look at the '1^ question on the previous page.
The above condition can be written as follows:
The equations you
a--I// = 10 (I) learned about in year 1
are linear equations in
An equation such as the one you created on the previous page '- as,n9 e un nown- r\
or (1) above is called a linear equation in two unknowns.
Problem "J i p\n(\ t|iecombinations ofx and // values that satisfy

equation (1),and enter then in the following table.
M
Oil 2 3 j 4 6 ! 7 j 8 j 9 10
1 1 i i 1 1 1 1
problem 2 ) Using the table on the previous page and the table in Problem I, find the
common pairs of x and // values.
Consider:
3a- -t 2y - 24
a- I // = 10
Two or more equations such as this are called simultaneous equations. A

combination of values for the letters such that all of the equations hold is called a
solution. Finding the solution iscalled solving the simultaneous equations.

The solution to the simultaneousequation in problem 2 is x = 4 and y = (i.
check "J Which of the following combinations of values fora- and //

2a- I y = II
are solutions to the simultaneous equations:
a- 2.// - 3
(a) a- - (>, // - 1 (b) a- = 7. // = 2 (c) x f>, // = I
Solving Simultaneous Equations
Trigger! In a certain fruit store, the cost of two

apples and five oranges is a total of 600
yen, while the cost of two apples and
three oranges is 480 yen. The illustration
below shows how to find the cost of a
singleorange using diagrams.
Fill in the blue boxes with the correct
numbers.
* yen 2#+5y = 600
oo ••• |yen 2x + 3y = AQ0

Subt racting the lower equation
Comparing above two lines
from the upper equation gives
•• - |yen 2y = \20
Therefore Therefore
• > yen y = GO
Writing the relations shown on the left in algebraic form using a and y gives the
equations on the right. By transforming the simultaneous equations in this way you
obtain an equation having one unknown. This becomes a linear equation with one
unknown which you learned to solve in year 1.
u
Method of Addition and Subtraction
2 a- If)// = ()()()
Consider the following system of equations:
. 2 a- 13// -480
The coefficient of x is the same in both equations.

A « 8
Therefore if we take the difference of the left sides and
-) C - D
the difference of the right sides, we eliminate the term
A-C-B-D
in a*, leaving a linear equation in y only.
( 2a- If)// 60(1
Given the simultaneous equations < The following summarizes how to solvethem.
I 2x + 'iy -480
Answer
II &'/>'.:Hk'lc </,'(lIl)
I Zx + 3V° 180 ...•.,.••••........•1.11<•.••»••••*.,
Subtract each side of-.(2) from thecorrespondlngslde of:(/|to give:

Zx + 6V~6Q0
, Zx + 3f>=il80
r\
Substitute® into (f) tbflnd the value of X

Zx + &*60~600
Zx = 300
x ~ 750 Answer: x « 150, V •» 60
Substitute these values of a-and // into the original simultaneous equations to check.
In (1): LHS = 2 x 150 I S X 60 = 600 RHS = 600
In (2): LHS - 2 X 150 I 3 X 60 = 480 RHS - 480

r\
Problem "| ) As a way of solving thesimultaneous / if we substitute into a

different equation, will the
equations above, substitute (3) into (I) \ resuU be ,he same?
to find the value of a-, and compare the
result with the above solution.
On line 6 of the answer, the equation 2// = 120 does not include a\ and is an
equation in the single unknown //. The variable x waseliminated using the two given
equations.
28 2 — Simultaneous Equations
Consider a pairof simultaneous equations where the coefficients
of one variable are opposite in sign but with equal absolute
values. Let'slook fora way how to eliminate this variable.
1) Solve the following simultaneous equations.
I 2a- I 3.1/ A (1
I 2a- I-By = 12 (21
Hint In the above simultaneous equations, if

A=B
we add them together wc can eliminate
+) C-D
one letter.
A+C"B+D
<J ' Answer Add each side of(I) to tlie corresponding side of(21 to give:
2a i 'Ay I
i ) 2a- I By - 12
8// - 16
11 = 2 (3)
Now substitute (3) into (2> to find the value of a1:
2.r I 5 X 2 = 12
2 a- 2
X — Answer: X 1, // — 2
cinek "| Solve the following simultaneousequations.

*J Wx I 2y 18 / I wonder it we should add the
<D equations? Or subtract them?

a- I 2 y = 14
la- 17// 2
(2)
4 a- 0// 2
problem 2 Solve the following simultaneous equations.
X I // .'{ 2x I // 2
CO (2)
a- // 7 It I 5r 9
Trigger"!
In a fruit store, the total cost of three OOO 350 yen
apples and one orange is 350 yen, , )C)C)0 550 yen
whilethe cost of four apples and
three oranges is 550 yen.
Find the cost of a single apple and a single orange.
® If the absolute values of the coefficients are different, how can we
eliminate one variable?
O
mBi'{ 2.) Solve the following simultaneous equations.
J 3a- i // = 350 (1)
I 4a- I3//= 550 (2)
Answer (1)X3 J).j--I Wy = 1050
(2) -) 4 a-+ .3//= 550

5 a- = 500
x = 100 (3)
(3) into (I) to find the value of//.
3x 100-1//= 350
// = 50 Answer X 100. // 50
r>
check 2 Solve the following simultaneous equations.
f We have tomake the
Ax I 3//= 1
/T\ ( coefficients ofoneletter
a- I 2y = 4 equal in absolute value, OK?
M
2 a- // = A
f< >J
[">..- 13//= -1
problem 3 Solvethefollowing simultaneous equations.

6a- lu -•- 12 2 .r 3//
(T) (2)
3 a-+ 2// -- 3 Ax + 5//
(^^£3) Solve the following simultaneous equations.
3 a- I// - 15
2 a- 4 3// - 7
Hint If we multiply each equation by an appropriate number, wc can make the

coefficients of one of a-and y equal in absolute value.
Answer
Zx + 3V - '
VX2 6x-8y - -30

U i
)x3 -) 6X + 9V
Substitute (3) Into (D-to-glve

3X-4X3- -16
3x - -3
Problem 4 Solve the following simultaneous equations ofExample 3 byeliminating //
Making thecoefficients of one letter equal inabsolute value, and adding or subtracting the left and
<j
rightsides together to eliminate the letter, iscalledthe method of addition and subtraction.
check 3 Solve the following simultaneous equations.

5 a- I 3// = 2 4 a- 1 7// = -13
<D
9.r - 2// 11 Bx I 2 a - 4
Problem 5 Solve the following simultaneous equations.

3a- I In 1 Ax-By = 21
®
;")./• 4// = 6 3a-2// =21
Substitution Method
Trigger In a fruit store, the total cost of two apples and five oranges is 650 yen,
-v
and we are told that the cost of an apple is ten yen more than the cost of
two oranges. Find the cost of a single apple and a single orange.
We can use the following method to eliminate an unknown.
4} Solve the following simultaneous equations.

r^
2a- -1-6.// = 650 (|)
a- : 2// I 10 (2)
Hint Note that in (2) the expression ^

., , ,„ X •= zy + w — (2)
iy + 10 is equal to x. We can
substitute this expression for x in (1). 2 x +By -650 - (I)
This way we can eliminate a-from (1). 2 ( 2y + /0 ) -tSy - 650
Answer
;x+By - 660
, ~ = 2y+/o
Substitute (2) Into•(•/•) to give

•ZiZV+10) +&V "650 r>
4V + 20+ By - 650
ty - 630
Substitute
2X70+/0 •> IB0
This method of eliminating an unknown by substituting one equation into the other is
called the substitution method.
check 4 Solve the following simultaneous equations, using the substitution method.
y — 2x 2a-3// = -8
<D ®
x I y = 6 I x = 4//I 1
Problem 6 ; Solve the following simultaneous equations, using the substitution method.
// = -2a:+11 ( 4a--13// = 7
(0 (2)
7a- -9//- 1 I 3//= -7.r-I 10
Both the method of addition and subtraction, and the substitution mctliodcan be used to solve a
set of simultaneous equations, butin both caseswcsolveby first eliminating one unknown.
o
Problem J Solve the following simultaneous equations, using any suitable method.
- 3.r + 4 y = 6 y = 3.r - 1
CO @
9.r 8// ; 18 a- 2// = 12
// - a- -1 1 3.r 2// = 12
(3) ®
// 2 a- 1 13 2// = a- 8
L_ Window on math — What balances with a bunch of bananas?
I
A bunch of bananas and three
_
persimmons balance with 10
mandarin oranges.
The bunch of bananas also balances with
sixmandarin orangesand one persimmon.
Inthis case, howmanymandarin oranges

©•••?
does the bunch of bananas balance with?
-a-
More Simultaneous Equations
® Let's try solvingsimultaneous equations including parentheses, and
simultaneous equations with cofficients that are not integers.
(^^^1^) Solve the following simultaneous equations.
4 a- I // = 10
5a- 2(3.r //) = -7

Hint Multiply out and simplifyas follows beforesolving.
I 4.r I // = 10
r\
I - a- I 2ii - 7
Problem "\ Solve the simultaneous equations of Example 1.
For simultaneous equations including This is the same technique

we used for solving linear
fractions or decimals, we can convert all \ equations.
coefficients to integers beforesolving.
>>
(^^^2) Solve the following simultaneous equations.
4a- 4-3//= - I (1)
.,1 a- 1
., II
3* I«• (2)
Hint Multiply both sides of ;2) tocancel the denominator, giving as follows, r\
(i-a- ,'//)x(i 2x6

3 a- 2// 12
Problem 2 ) Solve the simultaneous equations ofExample 2.
Problem 3 I Solve the following simultaneous equations.

5 a- I 2// = I 3a- I 2 u (i
CD (?) I . 2
3a- 4(a- I //) = 7
4 •' ' 3 "
(^^^3) Solve the following simultaneous equations.
I 0.6a- I 1.1//= 7 (1)
I 2a- a=14 (2)
Hint Multiply both sides of (1) by 10 to make all thecoefficients into integers.
Problem 4 ) Solve the simultaneous equations of Example 3.
Problem 5 ) Solve the following simultaneous equations.
x , y „
0.2a- I 0.3// 0.2
(2) 3 ' 2 "
G)
U < 5a- I 2//= 17
0.6a- I 0.7// = 2
t%
Basic Exercises *
Solutions ol simultaneous oquatkjns pFtiCntckl \4r>
Which of the following pairsof values forx and 3.r 2 // II
// is the solution to the simultaneous equations: x I // 3
© a-= I. // = 7 ® a- -2. //= -I
© x = 1. // = 4 © a- = 2, y 1
Solving simultaneous equations

U (
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
2,r //= 1 2 a- 3// 4 p'AH 'Vlip'C 1 •P

(1) (2) • (>3r)l > ,i !•'•:'
3 a- // = 0 7 a- 6// 5
®
I // - 9
3// r»
(4) j 3 a- 2 ii
l.r 1 3// 13
20
/i HI . unji'ii.'l
^
// = a--2 Bx 1 // 9
(5) (6) ;i.'»,'/ ..ci-/]'f. •;
P
3 a- // 14 a- 3// 1 1
I v
( ' -* See /).44 Simultaneous equations of 1—Simultaneous Equations 35
the form A = B = C (development)
Using Simultaneous Equations
Trigger
Albert is taking part in a school cleaning
project. He collected aluminum and
steel cans.
All in all he collected 25 cans with a
total weighs of 760 g. An aluminum can
weighs 16 g. r>
Asteel can weighs 52 g. How many
each of the aluminum and steel can did
he collect?
Let's solve the above problem, using simultaneous equations.
Let the number ofaluminum cans be./-, and the number ofsteel cans be //.
Thereare a total of 25 cans,so
x+y 25 (I)
And the total weight is760 g,so
16.r+ 52// 760 (2)
r\
Problem 1 Solve (|) and (2) as simultaneous equations, to find the solution to the "w$ question.
check 1 Ibought roses at 200 yen each and carnations at 150 yen each, for atotal cost of
1350 yen. I bought a total ofeight flowers.
How many roses and how many carnations did I buy?
Approach the above problem in the following way.

111 Assign variables for the unknown quantities.
12 ]Create equations to represent the relation between the numbers of (lowers, and the prices.
13] Solve the equations you created in step [21 lo answer the original problem.
ifi^l) The entrance to an art gallery costs 2800
yen for three junior high school students
and five adults. It costs 1700 yen for two
junior high school students and three adults.

What are the admission charges per junior
high school student and peradult?
Hint The relations between quantities in the problem are as follows.

(junior high school student admission) x 3 + (adult admission) x 5 = 2800
(junior high school student admission) x 2 + (adult admission) x 3 = 1700
-
Answer
adult admission be Vyen, then:
',»"" !!""!
te (3) Into (/.)to x + BX.500 "2800
3x " 300
Answer Junior high school studentadmission Is 100yen,

and adult admission Is 500 yen.
-
problem2 The total cost of five buns and
four doughnuts is 890 yen, while

the total cost of six buns and three
doughnuts is 870 yen.
Find how much a bun costs and
how much a doughnut costs.
2 —Using Simultaneous Equations 37

32,2) Ichiro walked 14 km from town Ato town Bfor 4hours. He walked uphill
from Town A at 3 km/h. He then walked downhill to Town B at 5 km/li.
a) Find thedistance from Town A to the top of thehill.
b) Find thedistance from the topof the hill toTown B.
Hint > Let the distance from Ato the top be x km, and the distance from the top to
Bbe // km. Then we can represent the situation in example 2 using the figure
below.
r\
Distance 14 km
x km
Town A Hilltop j/kni TownB
3 km/hour—»• ..--'' \. 5km/hour—»-
hours hours
hours 4hours
Problem 3 ] From the figure above, create simultaneous

Time= distance
equations, and answer thequestion of Example 2. speed
N
Problem 4 ) In Example 2, let the time taken from A to the
pass be x hours, and the time taken from the
pass to B be // hours, then solve the problem.

IT r>
Problem 5 | Arthur leaves the houseat 10 o'clock, and sets y<*» "3/V I
off for the station, 1200 m away. At first he
walks at 50 m/minute, but fearing that he will
miss the train, al some point he starts running
at 200 m/minute, arriving at the station at
10:18. r
Find how far he walked, and how far he ran.
• Let's look at some proportion problems.
•5B5.3) In a certain Junior High School, there

are 130 second year students. Of these,
15% of the boys and 10% of the girls

take part in a volunteer activity: a total
of 16 students.
Find how many boys and girls there are

in the second year.
o Hint If the number of second year boys is ./•, and the number of girls is //, then the
relations among thequantities areas shown inthe following table.
Boys Girls Total
Total number ( ) X y 130
Number taking part in «XA lb

volunteer activity ( ) x 100 ' 100
From the above table, we obtain the following equations.
For the total number of students X I // 130 (I)
Forthenumber taking part . "... .r I ,,,,,!/— 16 (2)
<J
Problem 6 Solve (I) and (2) as simultaneous equations, to find the solution to Example 3.
Problem 7 I bought a volleyball and a soccer ball. The
total retail price was 5500 yen, but since the
volleyball was on sale at 90% of the standard
price, and the soccer ball at 80%, the total cost
came to 4600 yen. Find the original prices for a
volleyball and a soccer ball.
♦» p.43 Density of brine 2 — UsingSimultaneous Equations 39

.*«
Basic Exercises i
Using simultaneous equations pJXChock 1 |4»'
There arc cans of soft drink that cost 120
yeneach and 130yen each. Buying a total

of eleven of these cans, the cost is 1360
yen. Find how many of each type of can
were in the purchase.

r\
Use the following approach.
111 Assign variables to the unknown quantities.

121 Create equations torepresent therelation between the numbers ofcans, and the cost.
[3] Solve the equations you created instep 121 toanswer the original problem.
Window on math — Cranes and turtles
The following problem is from the
third century Chinese classic bySun Zi, HI IJ l\U I 111

sieUu,
M4 HI ft I'll
11 £d'iiiii ;-11 N o'r i a « n i l i>
When itappeared inthe following form. •1 • -•:* * I !•**• 1,I'll T
1 ««xi • » o'» 1, »
», I I'J'J ; fl • [Hill ft
I I 11,11 I An
> a n'l'l II
6
A basket contains pheasants and Si* MM hi 1 * - /.! -
Tn.11 5
* it.-. . ti n mm
rabbits. There are a total ot 35 11 hi»n.= KZA-. .;
I I " I'
II »n
heads and 94 legs. How many each A II I }, * 1 *
II n i
* i» m
ot pheasants and rabbits are there?
This problem was later brought toJapan, where the pheasants and rabbits became cranes and
turtles, and then problems like this became known inJapan as "Cranes and turtles problems".
1 Solve the above problem.
I V
40 2—Simultaneous Equations j ' •*/)./ 70Equations with three unknowns
(development)
Chapter Summary Problems A
I Solvethe following simultaneous equations.
:i.r i 2// = r> 6.r-// = 1

(0 (2)
X- 2y = 7 Zx- 2y= -7
\x~7y = -6 y = 6 I a-
©
6.r 12//= -9 5.r-2// = 2
// = -l.r-2 7a--5//= 17
(5) (6)
<J ( y = x + A 8 a- I 3//= 63
era; by — - 13
^ Ifthe solutions ofthe .simultaneous equations arc
bx \-ay = 1
x = — 1 and y = 2 find the values of a and b.
ij I bought a combination of 50-yen and 80-yen postage stamps, a total of 15

stamps. I gave a 1000-yen bill, and received 40 yen change. How many 50-yen
and 80-yen stamps did I buy?
Zf. I have a two-digit natural number. Subtracting twice the units digit from
O
three times the tens digit gives a difference of 1. The number formed by
interchanging the digits is 9 larger than the original number.
Find the original number.
In aclass, I of the boys and ^ of the girls wear glasses... of the 36 students
wear glasses.
Find how many boys and how many girls wear glasses.
*» /).200 Answer p.195 Chapter Summary Problems AI

j Solve the following simultaneous equations.

(Ma- 0.1// 1.3
2x By = 20
CD © = a
- .'{(a- //) I-// = 2 la-
3
2 In the athletics club in a school, there were a total of 35 members last year.
This year the girls have increased by 20%, while the boys have decreased by
r>
20%, leading to a reduction in the members by just one.
Find how many girls and how many boys there are in (he club this year.
Q A lake has a circumference of 8 km. Ami and Brian

start from the same point, Ami ona bicycle, and Brian
walking, inopposite directions around the lake. IfAmi
and Brian set out at the same time, Ihey meet after 30
minutes. If Ami sets out 20 minutes after Brian, she
meets Brian 25 minutes after setting out.
Find the speeds of Ami and Brian, in kilometers per
hour.
rs
Let's investigate I
Try to create a
problem to be solved .\y^J tff**, .^.

f Draw \
using simultaneous I illustrations |
V too! /
equations, in which
'" V'
one ofthe equations is ^ 4 A}
42 2 — Simultaneous Equations ) V p.200 Answer

Window on math — Concentration of salt solution
IIwe mix 100 g ol 8% sail solution

with 100 g ol 3% salt solution, You think II will be more
what Is ii-.o concentration In Die concenliated than the solution
resulting mlxluro? we started with?

8l3.sotl%
u < An 0% salt solution, means for every 100 g of the solution there are 8
g of salt in the mixture.
How many grams of salt are present in 300 g of an 8% salt solution?

1
Let's look at a problem involving mixing salt solutions of different
concentrations.
We mix x g of 8%brine solution with y 0%^ ~ 3%

g of 6% brine solution to make 500 g of
6% brine solution. Find how many grams
of each of the solutions were mixed.
Use the following approach.

u ( 1 Write expressions in the blanks in the following table.
Concentration 8% 3% 6%
Weight of solution (c) X y 500
Weight ot salt (g) ",o°o

2 The totalweight of solution and the totalweightof salt remain the
same before and after mixing. Use this fact to create equations.
3 Solve the equations you created in step 2 toanswer the problem.
Window on math 43
V
Simultaneous Equations of the Form
A = B = C
f
The total entrance fee to a
certain museum is the same
at 250 yen, for two adults and ft.
one child or for one adult and
three children.
Find the admission fee to the
museum for an adult and for a
child.
r~\
,r!52fl In the trigger question, ifwe let the cost for an adult be x yen, and the cost for
a child be // yen, then we have:
Total admission cost for twoadultsand one child (2.1" I //) yen
Total admission cost foroneadultand threechildren (a- I .'{//) yen
Since both of these arc 250 yen, we can write equationsas follows:
2.r I u x I 3// 25(1
When we havesimultaneous equations in the form A li C as in 11),

| A li | A li A = C ^
1 A= C I li =C li = C
we can solve any of the combinations:
Probitm "J For the simultaneous equations given by (1), try solving various different
combinations, and check that you get the same answer in all cases.
Problem 2 Solve the following simultaneous equations.

(1) Ax I ll 3.V // - 7
Think carefully about
which combinations to
m
choose.
® x I y I8 5.1" t y -• :\x y
AA 2—Simultaneous Equations "J y p.203 Answer

Sassa-tate
sa-tatc
The following problem is a game using go stones found in an old Japanese text.
Try it with your friends.
Then think about how to obtain the solution, as below.
Take 30 go stones. Saying "Sah" each time, take either two or three stones from the 30.
Place them on the left if you took two, on the right if you took three. After you have
finished dividing the go stones, you can tell how many are on the left and how many on
- < the right from the number of times you said "Sah".
If you said "Sah" eleven times, how many stones are there, left and right?
U (
Deducing the answer
Number on left: 2 x (count of "Sah" calls x 3 initial number of stones)
Number on right: 3 x (initial number of stones - count of 'Sah* calls x 2 )
Playtime Problems 45
Chapter 3 Linear Functions
Trigger! |n the following examples © to (A), we will investigate how one quantity
varies when another quantity varies.
.€ Draw a table of conesponding values of .r andy in the different situations

below. Try to see how the values of y change as the values of x change.
r>
(T) The time isX minutes from starting to fill a tank with water, and the depth ofwater isy cm
The width X(cm) and height y (cm) ofa rectangle ofarea 18 cm2 <"">
46 3 — Linear Functions
(3) The weight X (g) and the length of the spring y (cm),when aweight is hung from a
spring.
r 0
r MO
2
s*
> 10g > H > 20
/
(4) Tlie time elapsed X(minutes) from How longwill itlake lorthe
\ Incense slick lo bum completely?
lighting an incense stick, and the remaining
nn-nn
length of theincense slick, y cm
r r-nn in
:m
ic-nn
LI-LI LI j D-LILI I LI • LI LI 13 • LI LI cm
20
^
w
10
I 10
> > >
X
1 — Linear Functions 47
Functions
Inexample (j) on page 46, we take the time

the faucet was on to be x minutes, and the
depth of water to be.'/ cm.
Then for a certain value of a' there is a
.vein
corresponding value of.'/.
Similarly inexamples (2) to (A), fixing the After a-minutes
value of a- determines a value for.'/. r\
Given two quantities represented by variably x and.'/. If fixing X determines a single

corresponding value of //, we say that // is a function of x.
In example (l), the depth ofthe water is afunction ofthe time from starting to fill the tank.
problem "\ Following the expression above, describe the situations in examples <2) to
(4)i using "... is a function of...".
(J|5Sj) 1" me following examples 1 and 2,

show that.'/ is a function of a-. r>
(1) If I walk at 60meters per minute for X
minutes, I will have traveled.'/ meters. ,yvr>v<vv
(2) It takes.'/ hours to walk a distance of6 [
km at a speed of a- km/h.
Forcases (11 and (2)in Example 1 we can write the following expressions:
(i
CD .'/ = 00a- (2) y =
x
Case 11) isa direct proportionality, and case (2) is an inverse proportionality. The direct
proportionality and inverse proportionality that you learned about inyear 1arealso functions.
(2HT2) 1send astandard parcel within the same prefecture. If the sum of the length, width,
and height of the parcel is Xcm, andthis determines thecost as // yen, then fixing
the value of x determines a single valueof //. Therefore // is a functionof x.
Sum of Cost Sum of Cost

dimensions dimensions
up to 60cm 600 yen up to M0 cm 1.100 yen
up to 80 cm 800 yen up to 160cm 1600 yen
up to I(It) cm 1000 yen up to 170 cm 1700 yen
up to 120cm 1200yen
"Sum of dimensions of n standard parcel and cost"
ij ( Problem 2 | The sum of the dimensions of two parcels arc given below. What is the
sending cost for each parcel?

(D 70cm (2) MO cm
In example (1)on page46, if we let the time the faucet was turned on to be x minutes,
and the depth of water to be// cm, then the relation // = 2a- holds. This means that if we
know the timewe can find the depth of water in the tank. Thus, if we know the function
that relates two variables X and //, we can find the value of// from the value of a*.
Graphs in slop form

k> <
For some functions, such as the one in Example 2
above, the value of//changes in steps. When wc
plot the graph of such a function, we get a step

graph as shown on the right.
Problem "\ Find otherexamples in everyday life of

200
functions with step graphs. (cm)
)V p.203 t — Linear Functions 49

Linear Functions
Let's look atproperties ofthe functions (1) to(A) given on pages 46 and 47.
Trigger)
^ i )n examp|e 3, on page 47p consider the following.
(i) For each increase by 1g in the weight, by how many centimeters does the
spring extend?
C2J If we attach aweight ofXg, how many centimeters is the extension of the spring?
f~\
In example (3;, the length of the spring with no
weight attached is 9 cm, and for each 1 g increase
in the weight, the spring stretches by 0.2 cm. If the //cm
length of thespring is // cm when a weight of x g is

attached, we can write // in terms of X as follows:
// =-- 0.2a- I <)
For two variables X and //, if// can be written as a linear
expression in x, we say that u is a linear function of x.

In general, we can write <*> £>
y a 0.x b
a linear function as follows:
Part proportional to x Constant n

II = ux A b
(^^^1) Acylindrical water tank contains water to adepth of 5cm.

Water is added tothis tank soas to raise the water level by
2 cm every minute. Ifthe depth ofwater in.r minutes is// 2rcn .'/cm
acn
cm, then we can write // in terms of X as follows:
After.''minutes
// 2x I 5
Since this is of the form // itx I b, y is a linear
function of X.
(JJ2) In example 4on page 47, the length ofthe incense stick is originally 14 cm.Then
when it is lit it becomes 0.4 cm shorter every minute. Ifthe length ofthe incense stick
inx minutes after being lit is// cm, then we can write // interms ofa-asfollows.
II = II (Ma
in other words, 0.4.IXU1
// = -0.4.f4 I'I li<m

.vein
So again this is of the form // - ax + />,

•
and // is a linear function of a1.

After .1"minutes
* Problem 2 IIn Example 2, find how long it takes for the incense stick to be completely
consumed after lighting.
cheek 1 Acertain car consumes 1liter ofgasoline for
every 10 km. This car is filled with 50 / of
gasoline. Answer the following if after ,r km

the remaining gasoline is // in liters.
(T) How many liters ofgasoline are needed to travel 1km?

(2) Write an expression for // in term ofx.
(3) After traveling 180 km, how many liters ofgasoline are left?
Let's ask whether // is a linear function of a1 inexamples 1 and 2 on page 46.
In 1!, y 2x, and // is proportional to x. This is a special case of a linear function

written in the form// ax \ b, in which the constant b is zero.
The equation // ax, indicating proportionality, is a special case of a linearfunction.
In 2 , we have ,/ = -, and // is in versely proportional to x. In this case, // is not

represented by a linear expression, and therefore is not a linear function.
♦ If /> 192 t — Linear Functions 51

Changes in the Value of a Linear Function
Let's investigate changes in the value of a linear function.
(JH£l) For the linear function // 2x ! 3, let's investigate the changes in the
values of a- and // as x is increased from 1 to 6.
The increase in the value of .r is: 1
X
... 1 .. (i •••
6 1 S
... s .. If) -
The increase in the value of// is: 1.1 r>
Id
(2X6 + 3) (2xl+3)= 10
Here the increase in // is twice the increase in x.
(increase in//)
2
(increase in a)
check -| For the linear function // 2x l .'{, as a-is increased from 3 to 7, find:
(increase in //)
(increase in ,v)
problem "\ For the linear function // — 'ix 2, find:

(increase in II) .. . . „
.. . > as a- is increased in the following cases.
(increase in a)
(i) From I to | (2) From (i lo 2
We call the ratio of the increase in the value of// to the increase in the value ofX the
rate of change.
increase inil)
(rateof change)
(increase in a)
problem 2 For the linear function // = 2x I .'1, choose for yourselfthc values from
and to which X is increased, and find the rate of change in this case.
Comparethe rate of changeyou find with the results of Example 1 and Check 1.
• Rate ol change of a linear Junction •
For the linear function // = ax + b, the rate of changeIsequal to a.

/ . , . n
(rate of change ) = 77
(Increase in // )
, »= a
(Increase in X)
From the above equation, wc derive the following equation:
(increase in I/) —a X (increase inx)

Thus the increase in // is proportional to the increase in x.
o
Moreover, the constant value a is the increase in the // for an increase of 1 in x.
check 2 Forthe following linearfunctions, find the rate of change.

If the increase in ,r is r|, find the increase in //.
(D .'/ = Zx + 5 V= gX
Problem 3 When the temperature on the ground is
15 Tj , up to about 10 kmaltitude, the

te^
temperature // *C at an altitudeof ,r km
is given by:
SJ
y = - (ia- I 15 ISm
CO What docs the rate ofchange - 6 mean?
(2) How many degrees does tlie temperature fall going from analtitude of
1 km to an altitude of 4 km?
em 4 jn l)ie inveise proportion // = , find the rate of change when ,r is

increased in thc following cases.
(T) From 2 to 6 (2) From 4 to 8
As you found in Problem 4, for inverse proportionality the rate of change is not constant.
Graphs of Linear Functions
Based on the linear function // = 2a- + 3, let's trydrawing a graph.
X -.1 .'! -2 1 0 l 2 .'{
-5 -3 -1 I :t 5 7 ()
.'/
.'/
8
Trigger^ vve'll draw points on the graph on the
leftwith the coordinates corresponding
1 to the pairs of a- and // values in the
(i I r\
table above.
1 •1
Then we'll add some more points to thegraph on thc left.
•
2
Problem^ For // —2.i" I- 3, take each value of x
-4 0 2 < .»' from | to,'{at intervals of 0.5, and
-2 find the correspondingvalue of//. Then
add a point to the graph on thc left at the

•
-4
coordinates for the pairof a' and // values.
By adding more points, the graph becomes a

straight line as shown in the diagram on the left.
This graph is the collection of all points having
(x, //) coordinates such that// 2.1' I 3 holds.
Problem 2 Each of the following points lies on the graph of thc linear function
// 2.r ) 3. Fill in the blue box with the missing value.
A((i. ) U( 5, ) C( . 17)
Next we'll compare the graphs of the two following linear functions.
// = 2a- (1)
y = 2.r -1 3 (2)
We can combine the x and // values for both (1) and (2) in a single table, as follows.
a- -4 -3 -2 1 (1 1 2 :t ...
2 a- -8 -li -1 2 0 2 •i 6 ...
2 a- 1 :t ...
-S -3 -1 1 :t 7 si "•
^y
y
8
As you will see from thc above table, whatever tlie
7
value of a-, the value for // in (2) is just 3 more than ' !
6
\\j
the value for // in (1). 4
:/ i 1
Therefore, the points on the graph of (2) are the y±2\i-\-'V '
i •Jy=2x
points on thegraph of (1) shifted up byexactly 3.
Ax
-4 -:
V0 2
i
-2
!-4
r6 •
w Problem 3 ) Draw the following pairs ofgraphs of 1 .'/ '
1 (i i . i
linear functions. In each case, for the Oj)

A
graph, say how much it is shifted up or
l
down from the (a) function. 2
CO
i® // 2a-
-A -2 0 i.2-1
i' 1 X
® y 2x I 5
2
r© // = \ x 1 -4
® ' ; !
I
l® y ,}x i
G
' ' Relation with proportionality 11
Thc graph of the linear function u = ax+ b

is the straight line made by shifting the graph
of // = a X up parallel by the amount b in the
positive //•direction.
Note | If l> is negative, for example if /> - :">, then

n
shifting the graph parallel by 5 in tliepositive
//-direction means thesameas shifting the graph
parallel by r» in the negative//-direction.
\v= -.I.- Check 1 The straightline in the diagram on

4
•
the left is the graph of// a\

•
2
•
Based on this graph, draw the graph of

-4 -2 0 ,|.! V= - x 2.
\ ?
-2
-4
r\
Theconstant part b of the linear function// ux I b is the value of// when x = 0.

and the // coordinate of the point ((I. h) wherethe graph intersects the // axis.
This hiscalled the y-intercept of the linear function // ax I /».
check 2 Give thc y-intcrcept ofthe linear function

// - 2 a- l I.
Thcgraph of // ax I b is a straight line passing

through the point (0, b), and parallel to thegraph
of// ax,
The Slope
We'll investigate what Ismeantby "rate of change" fora graph.
Forthe linear function y = 2x I 3. the rateofchange

is 2, and therefore: 1 i
(increase in//)
(increase in a)
ft
In terms of the graph, moving to the right by 1 means
moving up by 2.
<J problem 4 For thegraph of// = 2a- I 3, whatis the / \

7 C" J ""*
movement upfor a movement to theright of 3?
Inthe same way, the rate ofchange ofthe linear function

\ V|
// = - 2x A- 5 is - 2, and therefore, for amovement to the right 2
4
1
of I onthe graph there isnmovement down of 2. Inother words, for a
movement to the right ofI on the graph there is amovement up of—2.

2 \\ 12
0
\ 1 .
Problem 5 For the graph of // = —2.1' + 5, for a
*\
,>V '•'
movement to the right of 4, what is tlie
-2
1\
movement down? 4
_ As you will sec from what we have learned already, the inclination at whichthe graph
ofthelinear function // = itx I b lies isdetermined byn. We call a the slope of the
graph.
i >Graph of a linear (unction <>
For thc graph of the linear function /; = «.r + I),

thc slope is a and thc y-intcrcept is l>.
The slope n is tlie amount by which// increases foran increase of x by 1.
When a •0 When a • (I
r\
^^^T"\ ) For the graph of thc linear function // -I x 5,
thc slope is 4 and the y-intercept is fj.
check 3 For the following linear functions, give the slope and//-intercept of the graph.
(1) ll - 3.r II (2) // = 2x - 1
Problem Q \ For the following linear functions, give the slope and //-intercept of the graph.
(!) .'/ = •<• 2 // - -la- (3) // =!•*• <)

Taking// 2 a- I it as an example, wc can show the relations among the table, equation, and graph asfollows.
r\
Table Equation , Graph s
Value of // when « = 0 y-int(:rccpt

y /
1 1 1 1 A
f\ z
.!' 2 10 1 2 - I \
// 2 x i :t
•1
2
13
2 2
5
2
7 ••
;/° X
lucre asc in // ft ir an increase in X of 1 R ite of chanj e Slope

L,
Let's try drawing the graph ofalinearfunction, based on the y-intercept andslope.
Let's draw the graph of the linear function // ——4 x 1'A

Since thc y-intcrcept is 3, the graph intersects the y-axis at (0,3). And since the
slope is L, if we move right by 4units, from the point (0,3), for example,
we must move down by 2units to thc point (4, 1), which lies on the graph.
Therefore all we need to do is U
todraw a straight line through ^\ 4

the points (0, 3)and (4,1). (0,3)
U ( 2 2
^"Nw r
I
<
(•uir^^ X
.
I - 0 i 't i • 5 6"
Choosing points further apart

makes it easier to draw the
graph accurately.
Check 4 Draw the graph ofthe linear function 'J

• • •
// = 2a- 1 .
A •
~ (
2
Problem 7 Draw the graphs of the following •
'
linear functions. 1
—
1 -t 0 2 4 x
© // - a- M
-2 •
(2) // - - 2a- - 2 •
-4
® // - .j a- I 2
Problem 8 Of the graphs you drew in Problem 7, say which are straight lines sloping up
to the right.
" Increasing and decreasing linear (unctions, and their graphs 11
For the linear function // = ax + b, we can say the follow

//
111 When a > 0

When x increases, // also increases.
The graph is a straight line sloping up to the right.
21 Whenff <0
When x increases, // decreases.

r>
Thc graph Is a straight linesloping down to the right.
Thc graph of// 2a- I 3, and we can call this:

thc straight line// - 2a- I 3
We also call // 2.1' H3 the equation of thisstraight line.
•We will findthe equationof a straight line by finding the slope and
y-intercept of the graph.
i Find theequation of straight line (1)in the diagram on thc right.

The y-intcrcept is 3. r^
Moving 3 to the right along the line moves
up 1, and therefore the slope is ' .

Therefore the equation of thc line is
»• J'r+3
check 5 Find the equation of straight line (2) inthe diagram above.
Problem 9 Find the equations ofstraight lines (3) and (4) in the diagram above.
Linear Function Graphs and Variable Ranges
Trigger] j in the linear function // 2a- I, find the values of //when x 3and
•r = 5.
Range is the set of all values

that a given (unction may have.
• From the graph of a linear
function, we'll find the range of
the variables.
m
u < For the linear function // = 2.1" - 1, when .'/
i =2x-
10
9
/
3 ^ .1' § 5i the range of the variablex is shown _
8
by a red line segmenton thc x-axis, and the range 7 i
of tlie variable.'/ is shown by a red line segment G / I
5 «
.
on the //-axis. 1
4 t
In other words, for thc linear function 3 1 |

2
// - 2x- l,iftherangeofa-is3 g x g 5.the 1
.
range of .'/is 3 ^ // < 9. _
0
- 1
1 2 .J • r.
j
\*
y
ProbiemiO For the linear function // = 2.1" - I,
6
_
answer the following questions.
4
(1) Drawthe graph of this function.
(2) Find the values of // corresponding
lo x - 1 and x .'{.
-4 -2 0 2 I •'•
(3) If the range of a-is 1- a- [\,
f-2
find the range of.'/.
-4
-6
Finding Linear Functions
When Given the Rate of Change and a Pairof X and y Values
1} Find the linear function for which the rate of change is —2, and when
x = 3, y = 2.
^>
!£lill|l:!irU:!ir:.tt;)(0((iti|ilH«|:)ii:!' •;5',,lliii:)lliil:|:|t1ll|ililliiini|:>(ijlilil:!itilifiil
;.'/• ' '•:>'•'<• lb

r\
\Wmmu •::•],:!: -'. '.-iiiililiiiitiforc: " WMtMh

JjJiJW(il!|Hil|:)|!llVi|5i Hi •'(# lj\i\:\\V:\< & •> •'&XA\-18
•
iDI "' I
Example 1 is the same as finding thc linear function whose
graph has a slope of —2and passes through the point (3, 2).
check 1 Find the linear functions that satisfy the following sets ofconditions.
© Therate of change is3, and when x = 1..'/ = 4.
(2) Thc slope of the graph is - 3, and the graph 2
passes through the point (1, 2). s~\
Piobiem 1 Find the linear functions that satisfy the following sets
of conditions.
© Thc rate ofchange is —1,and when x = —2,y= —3.

(2) The graph passes through the point (2, 0), and is parallel to the
straight line y — 2x + 5.
For y = ax+b. this
You can use the same method when given the I is when you know the
\
\
value of b-
coordinates of one point, and the y-intercept of the graph
Problem 2 Find the linear function whose graph passes through thc
point (2, 1) and has a y-intercept of5. ¥
62 3 — Linear functions
When Given Two Pairs of X and y Values
1) Find tlie linear function such that when x = 2. V—3, and when x = 5. 'J —9.
Answer The slope ofa straight line through the two points (2, 3) and (5, 9)
is:
9-3 =
5-2 c 9
Therefore
«.i :t
// 2 a- I b
3
Substitute x = 2 and y = 3 into this equation to / ;> 2
u
find thc value of/;:
3 ~- 2x2 I ft
0 / 2 ;> •'•
b -1 /
Answer // = 2x — 1
We can also solveExample 2 by creating a pair of simultaneous equations and solving.
Answer Let thc linear function we are looking for bey = ax + /;
When x = 2. y — 3. and therefore:
3 = 2cv + ft (1)
When x = 5. y = 9. and therefore:
_
9 5«i i /' 12)
Solving equations (1) and (2) for a and b, weget
a = 2, /» = I Answer // 2.1'
check 2 Find thc linear function such that when x = 2, V = 3, and when .r = 4.
Z/=-9.
problem 3 Find the linear function whose graph passes through thc points (- 3, 5) and
(3, - 1).
^
Basic Exercises £
- ^ " " —-••" •":'•'•.•
Linear functions pSOExuvpIO I p!il I x.vip'e?

P
Water is added at a constant rate to a tankcontaining 2 liters of water. Three
minutes after starting to add the water, the amount in the tank is 11 liters.
© How many liters are added each minute?
(2) Write an expression for y interms ofX<ify liters isthe amount ofwater
in thc tank x minutes after starting to add the water.
r\
Roto of change of linear functions pt>3cncck2
/ Give the rateof changeof the linearfunction y = Ax + 1.
Slopo and ylntorcepl of aorach pseOM? j ptunny*, \<P

,j Give the slope and y-intcrcept of the linear function y = Bx ~ 3.
.'/ Graphs of linear functions pbonxmyo? | i«p

•
14
l[ Draw the graphs of the following linear functions:
2
(D // = 3a- - 4
. 1 -2 0 2 4 *
1
// = .{ a- *2
• 2
•
4
r^
Equation tor a straight lino p60£x.v»fi!c3
,') Find the equations for straight lines © and

@ in the diagram on the right.
Finding linear equations p.etBanyhi \ pxaiunyoy \+s
6 Find the linear functions that satisfy the following sets of conditions.
© Thc rate of change is 3, and when .r = l,y = - 1.
(2) When x = - 3,y = 3,and when x = 3, // = 5.
64 3 — Linear (unctions
Linear Functions and Equations
Graph of a Linear Equation in Two Unknowns
The following equation is a linear equation in two unknown, x and y.
x \ 2// 2 = 0 11)
Trigger]) por equation (1), we'll find the values of y corresponding to values of x,
and complete the blanks in the following table.
1
\-B -4 - 3 -Z -I
If we plot the points whose coordinates are the values ofX and // in thc above table,
we get thc result in the diagram on Graph 1 below. As we add more and more of the
pointswhosecoordinates are values of a: and //, we get thegraph shown in the diagram
I
on Graph 2 below.
.V .'/
4 4 .
•
•
•
3
2
H4
^<^ 3
2
1
I ] 1
3
—J
-«-: -2- 0 3 . •I- —i ; ; :- 0 ~'i N\. X
1 4
-1 1
_
4
-2 -2 I
•
-3 • •
L-3
-4 -4
Graph Graph 2
Inequation (1), fixing tlie value ofx determines the value of//, and therefore y is a
function o(x. To show this function moreclearly,we solveequation (1)for y, lo get:
(2)
2 ••' '
2 — Linear Functions and Equations 65

The graph shown on tlie previous page is the graph of the linear function (2), with a
slope of ,. and a y-intercept of 1.
Wecall thisstraight line the graph of theequation a- 12// 2 = 0.
The graph of the equation x I 2// 2 0 is the set of points whose x and //
coordinates arc pairs of values satisfying the equation.
Let'sdrawthe graphs of linearequations in twounknowns.

rs
1) Let's draw thc graph ofthe equation 3,1" —4// - 12 = 0-
Solving this equation for // y
3 •
gives:
2 .
3 1
- 3g
t
y = jx
1-5 _
0 2 is* c
( •
.r
-1
Therefore the graph is a -2 M

straight line with slope
4
-4
A and y-intercept - 3. -5
y check "J Drawthe graph of the

•
G
.
equation 2x • y —3 = 0.
•
4 •
problem "| Draw the graphs of thc

2
following equations.
-( —i
!1 0 ; (
X
© x I 2y= -A
-2 (2) 3.1-2^ + 8 = 0
i
-4
I
-6
We can also use the following method to draw the graph ofa linear equation in two unknowns.
<5B|[2) Draw the graph of the equation 2a.- 3//1 6=0.

Hint Given two points, wecandraw a straight linethrough them.
When a- • 0,.'/ = 2
When // «= 0, x = - 3
Therefore the graph passes through the two points

(0, 2). (-3. 0)
Answer > y
The calculation is
G
easier setting x and //
r>
to zero.
4
3 "N
2 A.
_1_
* m T\
v/
^L ~
'.-10 i
>. 3 1 X
-1
-2
-3
1
check 2 Draw the graph ofthe y

G
U < equation 2.r —j/—6 = 0.
4
Problem 2 Draw the graphs ofthe

2
following equations.
© a- 1-3//= - 6 J; X
i
— ) —i
I O l <
(2) 2a--By I 10 (1 -2
® f+f-i -4
-G
2 — LinearFunctionsand Equations 67
For the linear equation in two unknowns ax+by+c = 0, let's draw
the graph when the coefficienta is zero.
3) Draw the graph of2y - 6 = 0.

This is a linear equation in two unknowns of the form O.r I 2y - 6 = 0.
Thus whatever the value of x, it isalways true that
2z/-6 = 0,or// = 3
This graph is the set of points whose y-coordinate is 3, and thus the points such as
(-1, 3), (0, 3), (1, 3), (2,3) r\
all lie on this graph. Therefore the graph is a straight line parallel to the
x-axis and passing through the point (0, 3).
2//-GrO
(</ = 3)
-9-8- / G -5 4-3-2-10 1 2 3 4 5 C 7 8 0 -«;
check 3 Draw the graph of the equation 5// —10.

f~\
Problem 3 Draw thc graphs ()f the follow ng equations.
(
0) 3// 1 3 0 (2) 2y 8
y
•
4 •
!-» -J •• ;
0 2 4 6 8 »;
-2 .
-4
J V
68 3 —Linear Functions ) ' =-•/). 78
Simultaneous Equations and Graphs
Trigger] j Let.s S0|ve l()e f0||owing simultaneous equations.

J 2x-y =1 (1)
X+y=5 (2)
The set ofpoints whose coordinates are (x, y) such that x and // y
1/
satisfy equation (1) above, isstraight line (1) shown in the diagram (1)/
\l /l
4
ontheright. The setofpoints whose coordinates are( x, y) such
* that x and // satisfy equation (2) above, isstraight line (2). 2
Therefore thccommon point with coordinates that satisfy both of / ' K

0
thesimultaneous equations above istheintersection of the graphs
(l)and(2). / -2
Problem 1 Read off the coordinate of the intersection of the graphs in thc diagram
above, and check that the x- and y-coordinates are the solution to the above
simultaneous equations.
O Solutions ofsimultaneous equations and Intersections ofgraphs
The solution of simultaneous equations in x and // is the pair of x and //

coordinates of the intersection of the graphs of the equations.
<J
Check "I Find the solutions ofthe following simultaneous

equations bydrawing thc graphs.
3a- I // 2
2 a-//= 3

We can find the coordinates of the intersection of two straight lines by solving the pair
of equations for the straight lines as simultaneous equations.
Problem 2 ) Find the coordinates of the intersection of the
two straight lines in the diagram on the right,

using the following procedure.
11J Find the equations for lines (1) and (2).

121 Solve the simultaneous equations you
found in step 111, to find the coordinates
C\
of the intersection.
problem 3 ) The graph of // r 2x 3 intersects thc

a'-axis at point A. Find the coordinates of
point A.
Finding the coordinates of the point where a graph

intersects the x-axis is the same as finding the
coordinates of the intersection of the graph and the
straight line // = 0.
•• Let's try/ *~J% m

Try solving the following simultaneous equations, usinggraphs.
r\
y / 2 a- // = 1
(D
•
//
4 4a 2y = 8
•
// •
2 •
2a- // 1
— t
_
:
0
/ .
-
r
.
Ax 2y = 2
-2
What is the relation between \
the pairsof straight lines? /
/ 'I
i
Using Linear Functions
Water was healed inan experiment. The temperature ofwater was measured
every aflcr I minute for 5 minutes. The lable below shows the result of the
experiment, x is the time in minutes and // isthe water temperature in 'C.

Wc will predict how long will ittake for the water temperature tobe 70 °C.
X 0 1 2 3 •1 5
11 23.0 28.4 34.2 39.3 45.0 50.6
Trigger Using the diagram below, plot the points

whose coordinates are the pairs of x and y
values n the table above.
K'C)
Since thc points plotted in the diagram on the 'u
right all lie more or less on a straight line, we can
GO
sec that // is a linear function of x.
Problem *| Consider thc points plotted in the diagram

on the right to lieon a straight line passing
40
through the points (0. 23) and (4, 45). Draw
this line, and answer the following questions, gn

<J CO Find the equation for the straight line.
(2) What do the slope and y-intcrcept of u
thc straight linerepresent?
10
(3) Can you estimate how long it will
take for the water temperature to
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
reach 70 'C ? .(•(miiuilcs)
As we considered above, by treating the results of an experiment as a simple function,
wc can understand the basic relation between two quantities.

Geometrical Shapes and Linear Functions
In the diagram ofrectangle ABC D on the right, point P starts out 4 cm
from A. and moves along the sides through points B and C> to D-
When point P has moved x cm from A, let the area of 3cm
A APD be y cm2; we will investigate the way in which the

area ofA APD changes.
Trigger^ When P is moving along side AB, let'sfind the equation for y in terms of x.
r>
Next we'll think about when point P is moving alongside BC.
As in the diagram on the right, when point P moves along 4 cm
side BC. the area of A APD isconstant, equal to6 cm2.

Therefore, When 3 ^ x < 7,// — b'
P - C
Problem2 I When P is moving along side CD, write an .. 4cm
expression for // in terms of a-.
How do you represent the r\

length of DP using „r?
//tan
Problem 3 i Draw a graph showing how the area of
• ' A APD changes as point P moves
along sides AB, BC, and CD.
4 6 8 10a:(cm)
72 3 — Linear Functions VI p.53

Using Graphs of Linear Functions
The diagram below is a graph showing the
movement of trains between two stations P and
Q which arc 8 km apart, from 9 o'clock to 10
o'clock. Hokuetsu Limited Express

(Nilgata Prefecture)
(km)
(Station P)0 10 50 GOOninutes)

(9 o'clock) (10 o'clock)
Trigger! study the graph above. How many minutes after nine o'clock will the train
^^ leaving station 0at 9:25 meets the train coming from station P.
Let's think about more aspects of the graph above.
f^H£l_) Andrew sets out from station Pat 9:05 on abicycle, traveling at 12 km/hour
alongside the track to station Q. How many trains coming from station Q
will he meet before reaching station Q himself?
_
Hint Draw a graph onthe diagram above showing Andrew's progress from station
P to station Q.
Problem 4 Usingthe above hint, find the solution to Example 1.
Problem 5 in Example 1,how many trains coming from station P will pass Andrew?
— Let's try/ tsSSt

Try to makea problem to be solved usingthe above graph.

V >
problem 6 ) Barbara leaves the house at 9 o'clock, and sets off by bicycle for the park 12
km away. For the first 30 minutes she rides at 12 km/hour, she then takes a
lest, and finally sets offat18 km/hour.reaching the park atexactly 10 o'clock.
(km) (j) Draw a graph showing

10 Barbara's progress.
(2) For how many minutes

did Barbara rest? r>
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 (minutes)
Five minutes after starting herlest, Barbara is passed byhersister, also on

herbicycle on theway from thchouse tothepark, and Barbara andhersister
arrive at the parkat thesame time. If Barbara's sister traveled at a constant
speed, how many minutes after nine o'clock did she leave thc house?
V s.-
Lei's try /
A line segment AB has length 40 cm. Points P and Q 40cm- r~\

A. •B
move, stalling from A at the same time, and each traveling Q
to and fro along AB at a constant speed. One two-way
jouniey takes P20 seconds, and takes Q6seconds. During asingle two-way journey ofP
from Aand back again, how many times will Pand Qcross at intermediate points,
cm)
(B)40
• •
(A)0 10 15 (seconds)
74 3 — Linear lunctions p. 182

^
Basic Exercises
<i,,m..,,„„w i naiuaaiaiia
i
Qraph of linear equation in two unknowns pJXlxaivploi : p67(>an»)'a? : pegt'*mip!c3 I4"^
/ Draw the graphs of the following equations. y
4
© 2.f I- // = 4
2
@ 3// I 9 = 0
-2 0 2 i X
~~1
U ( Simultaneous equations and graphs pco Check i \^

-4
^ Find the solutions ofthe following
simultaneous equations by drawing graphs.
2a- I n = A
2x -3// = 12
Using linear functions /i6J/>.w.(>'.i r • pwiob'em?

P
3 Giveleaves the house at10 AM, and goes
bybicycle totown A. From town Ahe walks 6
totown B.The graph on the right shows the ,

o
relation between time elapsed from leaving
the house and his distance traveled. In this
example, answer the following questions. 0 10 ?0 30 40 rl0(mim„es)

© Find his speed, when he traveled by bicycle from his house to town A.
© At 10:20, his sister Dorothy sets out from the house on her bicycle at 18
km/hour, to catch up with her brother. Find the time when she reaches
him by drawing a graph. How many kilometers from the house is the
point where they meet?
p. 178 2 — Linear Functions and Equations 75

•^
ChapterSummaryProblems A f
"J For the linear equation // = - 3.r +5, answer the following questions.
(l) Find the values of// when .,- = - 3 and ,j- = 2-
@ Find the increase in the value of// when the value ofx isincreased by5.
(3) If the range of variablex is 4 g $ g 3, find the range of variable //.
Find the linear equations meeting the following sets of conditions.

r\
© When x = 5, y = 3, and when x is increased by 5. // increases by%
(2) The graph passes through points (2, 3) and ( —5, -11).
(3) Thcgraph passes through point ( —1, 5), and is parallel to the straight
line y = —3a; —5.
Answer the following questions about thediagram on the right.
®/ \ 5
4
(1) Find the equations for lines @ lo @. 1
(2) Find thesolution of the following simultaneous 2
equations, using the diagramon the right.

o| i
a- 2// » - 2
rs
\®
a- I // = 7 1
r\
(3) Find the coordinates of the intersection of lines@ and©.
4 In a certain town, the charge for water supply is a
linear function of thc amount of water used, in the
range from 21 m3 to 30 m3, inclusive. A family
uses 22m3 in Mayand is charged 2880 yen,then in

June uses26 m3 and is charged 3580 yen.
In July, if they use 28 Hi* what will thewater charge be?
76 3 — Linear (unctions
f* p.POO p 196
I Tlie tank shown in the diagram below is arectangular parallelepiped, with adepth of1m.
Water is supplied to this tank at aconstant rate from apipe A, and drains at aconstant rate
from pipe B. Tlie pipes are opened and closed according to the following sequence Q|to 131.
(T) When the tank is full, pipe Acloses, and water just drains from pipe B.
121 When the water draining from pipe Bbrings Supply pipe A
the waterdepth to 20 cm, pipe B closes, and / ~
hi /
simultaneously pipeA opens, supplying water.
,'
_ (31 When the water supplied from pipe Abrings thc
water depth to 80 em, pipe B opens, and water is
k*- V
both supplied and drained simultaneously. Drain P'Pe B
The graph on the right shows 100(cm)
part of the change in the depth >
of water in the lank. How long 59

i /•
docs it take for one cycle from V /
the tank being full until the next

0 10 (lours
time it is full?
Let's Investigate I
-
Kazuko goes from town A to town
B. The graph on the right shows the
approximate relation between time and
the distance she has traveled.
Choose suitable numbers, and tell a
story about how she went. x

(minutes)
IV li.20\ 2 — Chapter Summary Problems 77

Graph of x = h
On page 68. wc looked at thc graph ofthe linear equation in two unknowns,
(IX I- by I- C 0 when a, the coefficient of a', is zero.
Now weask: What does the graph look likewhen b, thecoefficient of//, is zero?
[1) Let's draw the graph of 3.r -6 = 0-

3a li 0
3.r (i — 0 is nn equation = 2)
7~\
in two unknowns of the form
3a- I 0// --6 = 0. Therefore, forany

value of //, 3.1' —6 = 0. or x — 2, holds.
This graph is thc set of points for which -4-3-2-10 3 . *

1
the a'-coordinate is 2, or in other words,
•2
the straight line parallel lo the //-axis -3

M
passing through the point (2, 0). -5
'-G
-7
Problem "J | Draw the graphs of thc following

equations in the diagram on the left.
© .1= 2
<D - r I 3 - (I
(D 2u 1(1
J_
2 0 4 •«•
2 Ifa,b,and c are constants, the graph ofthc linear equation

;
in two unknowns,ax I by \ c = 0, is as follows:
-4
When a (), a straight line parallel to the x-axis

[-6
When b = 0. a straight line parallel lo the y-axis
78 3 — Linear lunctions
)n p.203 Answer
0 Dividing theoil
1have10 liters of oil. Using only a 3-litercontainer and a 7-litercontainer, howcan I
divide this equally into two parts of 5 liters?
The figures in thediagram below each consist of three congruent shapes, squares and
equilateral triangles, joined together. Divide each
of these figures into four congruent parts.
- '
Playtime Problems 79
Chapter 4 Parallel Lines and Congruent Figures
1 Parallel Lines and Angles
TriggerJ por eacn 0f these polygons, we'll find the sum ot all the angles.
Quadrilateral Pentagon
Hexagon Heptagon
Octagon
80 4 —Parallel Lines and Congruent Figures

You learned in elementary school that the sum ofthe three angles ofatriangle is 180°.
Using this fact, let's think ofa way to find the sum ofthe angles ofa polygon offour or
more sides.
.*, Let's try dividing thc polygon into triangles.

Choose your own way of drawing lines to
divide the pentagon on thc right into triangles.
Using the same method, try dividing all of the

<J polygons on the opposite page.
LU Fill in the blanks in the following table, to find thc sum of the angles of each
polygon.
Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon
Number oftriangles
Sum ol angles
I wonder how
everyone else has
divided it?
TT
1 — Parallel Lines and Angles 81

Interior Angles and Exterior Angles of a Polygon
Sum of the Interior Angles
The diagonals from any vertex ofa polygon* divide

the polygon into a number of triangles. Let's use this
fact to find the sum of the angles.
Problem ~\ < Usetheabove division to find thesum of theangles of the polygon. Fill in the blanks
r\
inthe following table, and make an expression for thesum ofthe angles ofa polygon.
Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon
Number of vertices a
Number of diagonals 1
Number of triangles Z
Sum of angles ,80° x 2
Torefer toa polygon, we write theletters for thevertices inorder j>
around thepolygon. Forexample, wewrite "pentagon ABCDE." \ •

Exterior angle(J>^'
As in zBAP in the diagram on the right, we call the angle
between the extension of one side and the adjacent side as g

tlie exterior angle of that vertex. Angles such as £ BAE and
ZABC arecalled Interiorangles. In the diagram on theright,
if we extend side BA, and create another exterior angle of the

vertex A, thisangle is equal to z BAP.
A Here when wc say "polygon" wc arc considering only a convex

polygon, and excluding polygons as shown on thc righl, which
include a concavity.

If n isthe number of vertices ofa polygon, we can find the sum ofthe interior angles
with the following expression.
/ 180* is thesum of the
• Sum of the Interior angles of a polygon 9 ( interior angles ofa
\ triangle.
The sunt of thc interior angles of n polygon
with n sides is
180°X(w-2)
f^^ff 1 ) Find the sum of thc interior angles of adecagon (10-sided polygon).
w
In the above expression, substitute 10 for n to obtain:
18(1° X( 10 2)= 1440°

Therefore the sum of the interior angles of a decagon is 1440°-
check "| Find the sum of thc interior angles of a dodecagon (12-sided polygon).
problem 2 Answer the following questions about the interior angles of a polygon.
CD Find thc size of each interior angle of
All interior angles of a
a regular nonagon (9-sided polygon). regular polygon are equal.
(2) How many vertices has a polygon
whose interior angles sum to 1620°? *

-
•• Let's try/
Take apoint that is not avertex ofapolygon, and join this point to each vertex, to make anumber
oftriangles. Using these triangles, try to find the sum ofthe interior angles ofthc polygon.
Interior point Poim on side Exterior point

Sum of the Exterior Angles
Trigger^ Ajogging track isas shown in the

diagram on the right. Alfie starts from
point P, proceeding in the direction of the
arrow. After completing one circuit, he
returns to P. Through how many degrees
has he rotated the direction he is facing?
Let's consider the sum of the exterior angles* of a

polygon, starting from the expression for tlie sum of rs
the interior angles.
First consider a pentagon.
At each vertex the sum of the interior and exterior
angles is 180°- Therefore the total of all the interior

and exterior angles for the five vertices is:
180° Xf) - 900°
But the sum of the interior angles is
180°x([>-2) -540°
Therefore the sum of theexterioranglesof a pentagon is
900°-540° = 360°
Problem 3) In the same way asabove, find the sum ofthe The sum of the exterior
; angles isconstant, regardless )
exterior angles of a quadrilateral and hexagon. \ ofthenumber ofvertices. /
^
By the sum of the exterioranglesis meantthe sum of one anglefor each vertex.
84 4—Parallel Lines and Congruent Figures) p. 108

i Sum of the exterior angles of a polygon
The sum of the exterior angles of a polygon Is 360"
fjHjTgl) In the diagram on the right, find the angle

shaded in color.
Hint Since the sum of the exterior angles of a
polygon isMO0, the shaded angle is
o < 360°-(80°-1 70° I 115°) = 95°

Answer {15°
check 2 In the following diagram, find the size ofshaded angles.
© (D
problem 4 Answer the following questions about the /Since a„ lne in,erior angies
, , I of a regular polygon are
-
exterior angles of aregular polygon. I ^ ^ extefJor ang|es
® Find the size of one exterior angle of \™st also all be equal
a regular octagon.
(2) How many sides has a regular • /

polygon of which the exterior angles
arc each M"? ST
Let's try.'
Explain the fact that thc sum of the exterior angles of apolygon with nsides is 360°.
using the variable 11.
1 _ parallel Lines and Angles 85
Parallel Lines and Angles
In Section 1I we started from the fact that the sum ofthe interior angles ofa triangle is
180°, and derived various properties ofthe angles ofa polygon. You checked this property
of the sum of interior angles of a triangle using a protractor inelementary school, but let's
see if wc can derive thisfrom more basicproperties, as wc did in Section
To do this, first we will investigate basic properties of geometrical figures.
r>
1riggerJ Andrew and Belinda are
playing on a seesaw. If
Andrew goes down by10°,
by how manydegrees does
Belinda go up?
When two straightlinesintersect, this forms angles around
thepoint of intersection. Angles like Z a ' and Z e inthe

diagram on the right arecalledvertical angles. Z b and Z d
are also verticalangles.
In the diagram on the right, whatever the size of z /;, the
following are true.
/a 18(1° Z/>
Ac ^ 180° /b
Since Z a and Z r are each equal to 180° - Z b, then

Za = / c.
Whenindicating angles, wcsometimes write just thc

nameof the vertex, as in z B, or indicate thc angle witha
lowercase letter, as /.x.

Problem -\ ) In the diagram on the previous page, explain why z b= Z </•
• Properties of vertical angles •
Vertical angles are equal.
i ) Three lines intersect at a point, as in the

diagram on the right. In this case, since / a is
ij ( vertically opposite the angle of 45°, wehave

/a = 45°
check "J In the diagramof Example 1, find the sizes of

Z /», Z r, and Z d.
In the diagram on the right, straight line «intersects two straight lines,
line ( and wj.We say that angles / a and Z e are conesponding
angles Z /> and Z/, Z <•and Z#, and Zrf and Z//, are also pairs
of corresponding angles.
Wesay that angles such as Z band z // are alternate
^
angles. / Cand Z e are also alternate angles.
chock 2 Answer the following questions about the diagram on the right. ^
® Which angle is a corresponding angle with Z /; ?
(2) Which angle is an alternate angle with Z s ?
z' Try looking for tho other
corresponding angles \
\ and alternate angles.
©
Parallel Lines and
Corresponding Angles
Trigger! ^s SMOwn jn the diagram on the

*"*** right, we'll draw two parallel lines
using set squares, then mark
corresponding angles.
If we draw twostraight lines ( and III so that

C
corresponding angles with respect to another straight (
line ll are equal, then ( and ill are parallel. m
If we draw a straight line n to intersect two parallel

\î
straight lines / and in, then the corresponding

11,
angles are equal. c Xa

In other words, in the diagram on the right the
III y(b
following are true.
(T) IfZ// = Z/Mhcn</ // in.

/
\2\ If I // in, then Za = Z b. c \"
yes0
Check 3 hi the diagram on the right, when ( // m.
find the size of Z a. III
V i
\
Parallel Lines and Alternate Angles
Trigger^ )n the diagram for Check 3above, how big is z/>?
In thc diagram on the right, when the two straight c *

\to
lines ( and /;/ are parallel, then the alternate interior
angles Z a and z h are equal.
We can show why this is the case, as follows.

III
V
V

Since Z a and Z c are conesponding angles for a pair of parallel lines Z a = Z (.-
Since Z /; and Z c are vertical angles /.b = /L c
Since both z <v and Z /; are equal to z c Z.a= £ b
Problem 2) In the diagram on thc right, assume e y

rA/
Z a — Z ft .In this case explain why
£ // m, using the fact that corresponding

m /4
angles are equal.
Y
W
We can summarize the relation between parallel lines and angles as follows.
• Relation between parallel lines and angles •
When one straight line intersects a pair of other straight lines
(T] Ifthepair ofstralglitlines areparallel, then corrcspoivdingangles and alternateangles arc equal.
(jT| Ifcorrcspoiidingangles or alternate angles are equal, then the pair ofstraight lines arc parallel.
. \'.[4-;t~.-j.-.lM".~~i..-
Cheek 4 Of thestraight lines in thediagram on the

right, indicate which are parallel, using
the // symbol. Also indicate which sets of

v_z
angles from Z x, £ V, Z z, and Z a are
equal.
problem 3 ) In the diagram on the right, given that (

0 // m, find the size of Z x and Z y. Also
find the value of Z x + £ y .

Proof
In elementary school, you investigated the interior

angles of a triangle by measuring them, and by
rearranging the pieces of a triangle as shown on the
right, and you learned that the sum of the interior
angles of a triangle is 180°.
We can now explain why this is true, using the
properties of parallel lines.

n
As shown in the diagram on the right, let CD be the
extension of side BC of A ABC. Then draw a straight
line CE passing through C and parallel to side AB. In
this case, the following hold:
Since alternate angles of parallel lines are equal
Z ,y = Z a' Since za'+ zb'A- /-C

forms a straight line, it
Since corresponding angles of parallel lines are equal must be 180°.
Zb= A b'
Therefore the sum of the interior angles of A ABC is
za I z b -I zc= za' I z//-I zc

$>
= 180°
In the above explanation, based on the propertiesof parallel lines we deducedthat the sum of the
interior angles of a triangle is 180°. Showing that something must hold from an assumption of
properties that we already know to be true is called proof. A
From this proof, we can also derive the following fact:

ZACD Zrt-t Zft
90 4 — Parallel Lines and Congruent Figures

O Propertiesof the interior and exterior angles of a triangle <>
(T) The sum of the Interior angles of a triangle Is 180°.

2 An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum
of thc two other interior angles.
t»fBjjBj2) In the following diagrams, find thc si/.c of. x.
Hint > (t) Since the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180 °,
Z.r = 180°-(56° + 42°) = 82° Answer 82°
(2) An exterior angle ofa triangle is equal to the sum ofthe two other interior angles,
and therefore, Z .»• = 47°+ 38° = 85° Answer 85°
check 5 In the following diagrams, find the size of Z .r.
(D (3)
Problem 4 I In the diagram on the right, draw a straight

lineDEthrough vertex A of AABC parallel
to BC. Using this diagram, prove that the
sum of thc interior angles of a triangle is
180°.

problem 5) In the following diagrams, find the size of Z.f. In CD, e// nu
(1) ®
in
:••• Let's try/
In the following diagrams, draw lines tocollect the interior angles of the triangle about rs
point P, and usethis to prove that the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
| Window on math —Euclid and geometry
Around the third century BC, the Greek

Euclid produced a collection of the known
properties ot geometrical figures, inhis
"Elements", comprising thirteen books. Inthis

he started from a small numberof verysimple
assumptions, and proceeded in sequence to
derive many many morecomplicated properties.

The Elements became a model textbook,
and was read for more than 2000 years

Euclid
by people around the world.
92 4—Parallel Lines and Congruent Figures }' V p. 109

^
••'•'' —"'••
Basic Exercises
••'•«—- • • ...
§
Sum ot the Interior angles and exterior angles of apolygon pB3Fxmêi • pasProblem 4 \^
1 Answer the following questions about a regular pentagon,
(j) Find thesum of the interior angles.
@ Find the size of an exterior angle.
Vertically opposite angles, corresponding angles, and alternate angles pBTExmyb i \ pjBrChotkS \ f
2 In the diagram on thc right, name the

<j I
angle which is vertically opposite z b, the
corresponding angle to z b, and the alternate
angle to z />. ,„ <• j h
Relation between parallel lines and angles

Cfi89 w
,) In the following diagram, if ( // »j, find the size of Zx
© t r,n\ ® ( /
III
-y
w I
Properties of interior and exterior angles of a triangle /> 9ffj.viipto g | W
4 In the following diagram, find the size of /.£.
CO ®

2 j| Congruent Figures
Congruent Figures
Trigger! The pattern onthe right' is

based on a geometrical figure,
and consists of a tiling ot many
figures, all congruent to this
figure.
r>
What is this basic figure?
For two figures in the plane, if by sliding and flipping one figure we can align it to
coincide with the other figure, then we say these figures are congruent.
check 1 In thc following diagram, whichof the triangles (a) to (d) are congruent to
AABC? Say which are thc corresponding vertices and sides.
'
G
/
• >
B
,
>
II
This is n traditional Japanese pattern, called "Hemp

leaves". Thc photo on the right shows a hemp plant.
94 4 — Parallel Linesand Congruent Figures

For congruent figures, the following facts hold.
Properties of congruent figures @
For congruent figures, the corresponding line segments and angles arc equal.
In thc diagram on thc right, suppose the
quadrilaterals ABCD and A'B'C'D' are congruent,

and the corresponding vertices are A and A', B and
B', C and C, and D and D'. In this case we write
<J
Quadrilateral ABCD = A'B'C'D'
The = symbol indicates congruence. When

usingthis symbol, we writethe symbols for the
corresponding vertices in sequence around the
quadrilaterals.
Check 2 In Check 1on the previous page, show

which triangles arc congruent with A ABC,
using the = symbol. In an expression using
the = symbol, we can see
which are the corresponding
sides and angles.
Problem 1 I If Pentagon ABCDE = Pentagon FGHIJ,
_
saywhich are the corresponding sides and

angles.
Incongruent figures, since corresponding line

segments and angles are equal, for example when
A ABC = AA'B'C we can say the following.
AM = A'B'. ISC WC, CA C'A'

zA = z/V, zB = zIV, zC = zC
2 —Congruent Figures 95
w p. 188
Conditions for Congruent Triangles
Trigger* Hanako had the following conversationwith her r -\
younger brother Jiro, who isat elementary school. Looks like there are
several possibilities.
v J
My homework is to draw a
triangle with two sides of
5 cm and 6 cm, and one
angle of 50".
n
In the above T'!^D, if the two sides
and the angle are in the relative
positions shown in the diagram on
thc right, then even with the two
sides and one angle fixed, there are
two possibilities for the triangle.
On the other hand, if the angle is
between the two sides (called the ,>cm
"included angle"), then fixing the

two sides and the angle determines j;' 6cm
a unique triangle.
Problem "\ ) In the following cases, is there a unique triangle satisfying the conditions? Try
actually drawing the triangles.
(T) Triangle with sides 4 cm,5 cm,and6 cm

(2) Triangle with one side 6 cm, and two angles of 50° and 60°
In case 0 in Problem 1, there is a unique triangle. Again, in case (2), if the length of one
side,and the angles at bothendsof this side are fixed, then thereis only onepossible triangle.

Therefore, for the following combinations of sides and angles, if we know their sizes,
this determines a unique possible triangle.

(a) Three sides
(b) Two sides and thc included angle
(c) One side and the angles at both ends
Since there isa unique \^

Given A ABC, using any of (a) to (c) triangle, the shape \
ir% andsize are boththe I
above we can draw another triangle
\' same.
congruent to AABC. J
<J
From what wchave found out sofar, wecan derive the following congnicnce conditions fortriangles.
1' Congruence conditions for triangles <
Two triangles are congruentIf any of the following sets of conditions hold.
11 ] Three sides arc thc same.
A A' ( AB = A'B'
BC = B'C
B " C * • V °A =C'A'
121 Two sides and the included angle are the same.
A A' AH = A'B'
_
BC = B'C'
ZB= ZB'
One side and thc angles at each end of thc side are the same.
BC = B'C'
ZB= ZB'
ZC = /C
Tocheck whether twotriangles arecongruent, wedo notalways need to move the triangles
around to see if theycoincide, we can determine that theyare congruent if any of the above
sets of conditions hold.
1) In the following diagram, for AABC and AQPR, we have /ftemember to write triangles and\
I sides withthe corresponding
AB = QP, BC = I K, CA —RQ Vyertices in the same order.
Andtherefore, sinceall threesidesare thesamelength
A ABC = A QPR
I)
rs
c ir
a cm
I. N O Q 4cm
check 1 In the above diagram, find othercongruent triangles in additions to the ones in Example
1,andshow them using the= symbol. Ineach case, say which conditions you used.
Problem 2 In each of the following diagrams, find a pair of congruent triangles, and show
them using the = symbol. In each case, say which conditions you used. In each
diagram, sides and angles marked with the samesymbol are equal.

Proofs Using Triangle Congruence Conditions
In the first year, you learned the construction for bisecting an angle; now wc will use the
congruence conditions for triangles to prove that this construction is correct.
We can construct the bisector OC of z XOY as follows.
(11 Draw a circlewith the vertex 0 as center, and

let A mid B be the points of intersection of this
U < circle with the lines OX and OY respectively.
12 Draw circles ofthe same radius with centers A q

and B, and let C be their point of intersection.
13 Draw the ray OC.
(|^_^2 ' Prove that the ray OC constructed above is

the bisector of z XOY.
Hint As in the diagram on the right, join A to C, and

B to C, and prove thc result by showing that
triangles OAC and OBC are congruent. ()
U Proof In triangles OAC and OBC,
OA OB
/OA and OB are equal,
AC BC because they are both radii
v of the circle with center at O.
OC OC
Since the three sides are thc same, we have
A OAC A OBC
Since conesponding angles of congment triangles areequal,
zAOC / HOC
Therefore, OC is the bisector of z XOY.
2 — Congruent Figures 99
check 2 In the diagramon the right, if
AB- AD
zABC = ZADE
then
BC = l)K
A I)
CD To prove this, which two triangles would weneed to prove

congruent?
(2) Say which triangle congruence conditions are used in the proof in (1).
"
Window On math — Constructing equal angles and parallel lines
I Let's investigate whyconstructions work.
As in the following diagram, we can construct / DAB to be equal to

1
z XOY . Look at the procedure for this construction.
Then in this construction, prove that <£ XOY = z DAB.
O D/@
The diagram on the right showsa method of <> ©

o p Q
construction ofa line through point P noton the straight *» i
©
/
line (, parallel toline e. In theconstruction onthe right, *
e;
takea point Aon £, and find points BandQsuch that B
AP = AB = PQ. BP = AQ
Prove that in this construction PQ // g.

Creating Proofs
Hypothesis and Conclusion
Triggers
In the diagram on the right, a straight line n
intersects two straight lines £ and m. Enter
the appropriate symbol in the jin the
following statements.
© If 2 // wi.flien/a ~\/.b
(D If/c= /d .then £\ \m
*
(3) If g // m, then za+ /-d\ 100°
Often we make statements about a figure in the following way:
OOO then •••
In a statement like this, wecall the part OOO before "then" the hypothesis,
and thc part COD after"then" theconclusion.
1 I In (0 above, ( // in isthe hypothesis, and Z a = Z /; isthe conclusion.

-
Check 1 For (2) and (3) above,say whatis the hypothesis, andwhat is the conclusion.
problem -| For the following statements (i) and (2), say what isthe hypothesis, and
what is the conclusion.
(\) If A ABC : ADEF, then AH l)K. We say hypothesis and \

conclusion for properties I
(2) If x is a multiple of 6,
of numbers too. J
then x is a multiple of 2.

Reasoning Underlying a Proof
We'll makegeometrical proofs, while writing out thereasons underlying theproof.
2.) In the diagram on the right, Eis the point of

intersection of line segments AB and CD, and:
EA = KB. AD// CB
Prove that ED = EC.
r\
Hint The hypothesis is: |.;a = E13, AD // CB

Hypothesis
The conclusion is: ED = EC
We can show that the conclusion follows IAAEDS ABECI
from the hypothesis by showing that triangles

Conclusion
AED and BEC are congruent.
Proof In A AED and A BEC: Reasons for proof
EA KB Hypothesis
/AKI) /BKC Vertical angles arc equal
zEAD - zEBC Alternate angles of parallel lines areequal r\

Therefore
A AED • A BEC The two triangles have one side and the angles ateach
end ofthe side equal, and therefore are congnient
And thus
El) EC Conesponding sides ofcongnient triangles are equal
In this way, when proving something, we can useany facts we have already
proved to be true.

check 2 In the diagram on the right, if0 isthe
midpoint of each of AB and CD, then AC
// DB. Weprove this using thc following

sequence of statements.
Say what the reason is for each of (1) to (A).
In A AOC and A BOD:
OA = OB Hypothesis
OC = OD Hypothesis
<~s
z AOC = Z BOD (1)
Therefore
A AOC s A BOD (2)

And thus
ZOAC= ZOBD (3)

From which wc get
AC // DB W)
Problem 2 ) 111 thediagram on the right, when

AC - BD, AD = BC
W
then AC // DB. Answer the following
questions about this fact.
(1) Give the hypothesis and conclusion.

(2) Toderive theconclusion from thehypothesis,
wc can tise the fact that two triangles in thc
diagram are congruent. Which triangles
should wc provecongruent?
(3) Give a proof, writing out thereasons

behind each step.
2 — Congruent Figures 103
Let's collect together facts from what we have learned so far that we will be ableto use
often as a basis for reasoning in a proof.
Properties of vertically opposite angles 6 p.87 P
r\
• Relations between parallel lines and angles p.«9 P
When a straight line intersects two straight lines:
(1 ] Ifthc stralglit lines areparallel, then corresponding angles and alternate angles are equal.
[2] Ifcorresponding angles and alternate angles areequal, then the straight lines areparallel
® Properties of interior and exterior angles of a triangte • p.91 p
j.1J Thc sumof the interiorangles of a triangle is 180°.

(2) Anexterior angle of a triangleis equalto the sum
of the two adjacent interior angles.

Sum oftheinterior and exterior anglesofa polygon I p,83, <(.') P
I! I For apolygon with nsides, the sum of the Interior angles Is 180°X(// —2)
(?1 The sum ofthc exterior angles ofnpolygon is 360°.
• Propertiesof congruent figures • p.95 P
In congruent figures, corresponding
line segments and angles are equal.

*
v Conditions for congruent triangles © p.97 P
Two triangles arc congruent Ifnny of the following sets of conditions holds.
(i ] All three respective sides are
equal.
|2| Two sides and thc included
angle arc equal.

-
131 One side and the angles at each

end of thc side arc equal in the
two triangles.
In addition to the above list, we can also use

We learned properties of
properties of equations, the formula for an - equations in the first year.
area or volume, and so on as a basis for the
reasoning of a proof.
A
Basic Exercises
•yt%<—T--
i
p.97
Conditions lor congruent triangles
In the following cases, what conditions
need tobeadded so that triangles ABC and
DEF arc congruent?
(!) AB = DE, /B= /K

(2) ZA = ZI), ZC= /K
(3) AC - DF, BC - EE
Creating proofs • hypothesis and conclusion pl02fxmp!o? ; p103Check? \*r*

In the diagram on the right, if AB s DC A
;'
and AC = DB, then -iBAC = ZCDB.
We can use the sequence below to prove
this. Answer thc following questions.
® Give the hypothesis and conclusion.

(2) Fill in Ihc ( jbelow with the
names of the appropriate triangles.
(3) Give the basis for the reasoning in
steps (I) and (2) below.
In AABC and |
AB = DC
AC-DB
BC = CB
Therefore AABC=[ (1)

And thus ZBAC- ZCDB (2)
106 4 —ParallelLines and Congruent Figures

apter Summary Problems A, f
7 In the diagram on the right, ifS// m, and Zd li
=40", find tlie other sizes ofthe angles.
2 In 'he following diagrams, find the size of Zx.

CD
o
Answer the following questions.
CO How many sides has a regular polygon with exterior angles of45 °?
(2) Find the sum ofthe interior angles of a polygon with 20 sides.
(3) How many sides has a regular polygon for which thc sum of the interior
angles is 1260°?
In the diagram on the right, if PA = PB and M is

_
the midpoint of the line segment AB, then z AMP
= z BMP. Answer the following questions.

(T) Give the hypothesis and conclusion.
(D To derive the conclusion from the hypothesis, we
canuse thefact that twotriangles in thediagram A
are congruent. Which triangles are these?
(3) Inthe proof of (2), givethe conditions used

for the congruence of the triangles.
I p.201 Answer p 197 Chapter Summary Problems 107

j In the diagram below, if (//in, find the size of ZX,

© L
»i
r\
If P is a point on the perpendicular bisector
of line segment AB, then AP = BP.
Give a proofof this, usingconditions for
congruence of two triangles.
A M
O III the diagram on the right, if
AB = AD. BE DC
Prove that
BC = DE
rs
Let's investigate!
What kind of book was Euclid's
"Elements," referred to on page 92?

Choose some of the geometrical
properties we have studied in this

Ilia %
chapter, and try to find out how these
\ f.' :p.t?.J:z*ir.:i '. v • • •
are discussed in "Elements."
Euclid's "Elements'
108 4—Parallel Lines and Congruent Figures') p.201 Answer

Window on math — Finding the sum of angles
A
In the diagram on the right, the following holds:

zADC= /A-l-zB+zC - (I)
Let's use this relation to find the sum of angles.

B^
1 Give different explanations forwhy (I) holds.
Using relation (1), in each of the following diagrams, find the sum of
-
the five marked angles. _

Can you do this without \
using relation (I)? J
A A
Q In the diagram on the right, find the sum of

the seven marked angles.
-
A Try increasing the number of points on
the circle, or changing the way they are
connected, to draw different diagrams, then
find the sum of the angles.
Connecting seven point byjoining every

other point around thecircle gives
| Ius the diagram on the right.
Window on math 109

Chapter 5 Properties of Geometrical Figures
1 Triangles
Trigger! The diagrams below show a method

%* of making aright angle at the
position ofpoint A. Think about why
this makes a right angle.
1 i> 3 o
r>
A II
A B
110 5—Properties of Geometrical Figures

Remembering the method used on thc previous page, try to make a right
angle at thc point A.
Is it always a right
Ld check
III the diagram you have drawn above,
that zBAC is a right angle. angle?
1 —Triangles 111
Properties of Isosceles Triangles
In . on the previous page, did you make a

construction such that / BAC is always 90°?
Since OA = OB = OC, AOAB and AOAC arc
both isosceles triangles.
As you learned atelementary school, two angles ofan

isosceles triangle arcequal, and therefore we can seethat: r\
/OAB ZOBA
z()AC - zOCA
Pfobiim-J In the above diagram, let /OAB = Z a, and /OAC Z /), then
consider the sum of the interior angles of A ABC From this, prove that
ZBAC= Z9()°.
In an isosceles triangle:
Wecallthevertex between thetwo equal sides Hie apex.
Thc side opposite Ihc apex is the base.
The angles at eachend of the baseare the base angles.
In the proof of Problem 1, we used the following facts.
(1) A triangle with two sides equal is an isosceles triangle.
(2) The baseanglesof an isosceles triangleare equal.

(,'{) Thc sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
When wc say precisely what a term means, as in (1) above. We call this a definition.
112 5 —Properties of Geometrical Figures

We proved statement C.i) on the previous page
using the relations between parallel lines and
angles in Chapter 4. But you only checked
statement (2) in elementary school by folding a
paper triangle, or by measuring the angles.
Let's now prove statement (2)ontheprevious page:

Base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.
Hint If wc consider A ABC in which AB = AC.

then we have to derive that / B / C
Give thc hypothesis andconclusion for thestatement
"Base angles of an isosceles triangleare equal."
Proof Construct the perpendicular bisector of the apex Z A,

and let D be the pointof intersection withthe base.
Then in triangles ABD and ACD:
AB - AC
AD is common
/BAI)= /CAD B I)
_
Since these triangles have two sides and the included angle equal,
AABD- AACD
Therefore Z B = ZC
Thc above proof above applies lo any
A ABC in which AB AC In
other words, for any isoscelestriangle,
the base angles are equal. k
1—Triangles 113
We often use properties such as "The base angles of an isosceles triangle arc equal."
or "Thc sum of the interior angles of a triangle is |80°." as a basis for proving other
geometrical properties. Important facts likethisthat have been proved arecalled theorems.
' i Base angles of an isosceles triangle (>
Theorem Base angles of an isosceles triangle arc equal
r\
• Using properties of the base angles of an isosceles triangle, let's
investigate the size of theangles.
In the diagram on the right, if sides with the same
marking are equal, find thc size of Z x.
Hint z.r (180° 100°) -r2 '10°

Answer-1(1'
check "j In each ofthe diagrams below, ifsides with the same marking are equal, find
the size of / x.
An angle greater than ()" and less than 90° is called an acute angle; an angle greater
than 90° and less than 180° is called an obtuse angle.
p«obi«m 2 Say why a base angle ofan isosceles triangle is always acute.
An isosceles triangle whose npex is aright angle is called aright-angled isosceles triangle.

Properties of the Bisector of the Apex of an Isosceles Triangle
As shown in thc diagram on the right, if we draw the bisector A
of the apex / A ofisosceles triangle ABC, and let Dbe thc
point where this intersects BC, then:
BD - CD. AD i BC
Prove that this is the case.
As we provedon page 113,
AABD AACD
ij <
The fact that BD - CD follows immediately, because they
arc corresponding sides of congruent triangles.
Problem 3 Fill ill in the following, lo complete the proofthat AD I IJC.
SinceA ABD = A ACD, corresponding angles are equal,and thus

ZADB =[ (I)
ZADB+I ]=180° (2)
From (1) and (2), 2ZAI)B=180°
Therefore, ZAI)B =|
O And thus AD I BC
From our study above, wc get thc following theorem.
Bisector ol the apex of an isosceles triangle
Theorem The bisector of thc apex of an
isosceles triangle perpendicularly
bisects the base.
1—Triangles 115
problem 4 i In the diagram on tlie right, suppose that
CA CBandDA = DB.
(J) Prove thai Z ACD =: Z BCD.
(2) From the result of (l), prove thatCD
is thc perpendicular bisector of line
segmentAB.
r\
Equilateral Triangles
The definition of an equilateral triangle is

A triangle whose threesides arc all equal
Let's prove that the interior angles of an equilateral
triangle are all equal.
For this, in A ABC, from
hypothesis AB = BC = CA
we have to derive
conclusion ZA - ZB= ZC
n
Problem 5 Fill in the in the following with angles, to complete thc proof.
Sincewccan think of AABC as an isosceles triangle with AB = AC:

4B-[ ] (1)
Similarly we can think of AABC as an isosceles triangle with BA = BC, so:
<"-A=[ | (2)
From (1) and (2), ZA=ZB=ZC
116 5 — Properties of Geometrical Figures

Conditions for an Isosceles Triangle
What conditions have to be applied to make a triangle isosceles?
Trigger^ |f you fold apiece of paper tape as shown below, what sort of triangle
^** is the overlapping triangular portion?
In the ***) above, we can derive the fact that / ABC / ACB from looking at tlie
tape as a pair of parallel lines.
problem -j i„ AABC of the "*»"), explain why z ABC - Z ACB-
When two sides of a triangle arc equal, two angles arcalso equal (a)
We have already proved this. But in the reverse direction, can wc also say
Iftwo angles of a triangle arc equal, two sides arc (b)
also equal
*
Let's prove that if a triangle has two angles equal, the two sides
containing the angles arealso equal, for AABC. From thc
hypothesis / B = Z\ C
wc have to derive the
conclusion AB —" AC
1—Triangles 117
Let's now prove that if atriangle has two angles equal two sides are also equal.
Proof > Draw thc bisector of ZA, and let its intersection A
with BC be point D.
In A ABD and A ACD,
Z.B=ZC
ZBAD=zCAD 0)
Since thc sum of the interiorangles of a triangle B

is 180°. the remaining angles are also equal.
7~S
Therefore ZADB= Z ADC (2)
And AD is common (3)
From(1), (2), and (3),sinceone side and the anglesat each end are all equal,
AABD= A ACD
And therefore, AB - AC
Conditions for an isosceles triangle •
Theorem If two angles of a triangle are equal, the triangle is an isosceles
triangle, with the equal angles as thc base angles.
v:!J."-w;'.-HAWJOMWiJ>*i!ivJffl^^li.w..*J.^J,i*.W^VJ»liii AWM^Ji
Z~\
• Using the above theorem, let's investigate some
geometrical properties.
chock 1 In isosceles triangle ABC, draw thc bisectors
of Z B and Z C and let P be the point of their
intersection. Now prove that APBC is an
isosceles triangle.
problem'/>N
2; A triangle with all three angles equal is anequilateral triangle. Prove this.
118 5 — Properties ol Geometrical Figures

Converse of a Theorem
Let's compare thc property of the base angles of an isosceles triangle (a) and thc
condition foran isosceles triangle (b) on page 117.
ForAABC, wccan write (a) and (b) respectively as:

(a) IfAB- AC then ZB- ZC
(b) IfZB=ZC then AB - AC

Comparing (a) and (b) we find that the hypothesis and
- < conclusion have changed places. |>
When wc take a theorem and interchange thc hypothesis and conclusion, we state
the converse of tlie theorem.
In other words If OOO then •••

thc converse is If ••• then OOO
Above, (b) is Ihc converse of (a), and (a) is also thc converse of (b).
check 2 In the diagram on the right, give theconverse

of If C // in then Z a = z\b
u (
Problem 3 Give the converse of each of the following / II not true, give a
counterexample.
statements. Also say whether each one is true. \
(0 For an equilateral triangle, thc three
interior angles arc equal.
© If.r ^ 5, then .r > 3
As you found in Problem 3, thc converse of a true statement is not necessarily true.
Tlierefore, before saying that thc converse of a theorem is true, it is first necessary to
give a proof.
1—Triangles 119
Congruent Right-angled Triangles
Let's investigate the conditions ofthe sides and angles oftwo right-
angled triangles for them tobe congruent.
Triggerl In A ABC and A DEF, if

zC= zF = 90°
AB = DE
zA« /D r>
then can wesay that A ABC • A DEF ?
In a right-angled triangle, the side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse.
Hypotenuse
Hypotenuse
As you will see from the *{jg| question, two right-angled triangles are congruent if the
hypotenuse and one acute angle in each triangle are equal.
^
If two right-angled triangles have the hypotenuse and one other side equal, then they
are congruent. In other words:
In A ABC and A DEF, if
/C zF = })()°
AB DE
AC Di
li™ A ABC A DEF
Let's prove this. \> CM
120 5 —Properties ofGeometrical Figures

Since AC = DF, we can flip over A DEF and place AC and DF together. Since
zC Z F = 90°, Z BCIC = 180°, and the three points B, C, and Elie on a
straight line.
A(D)
R C E B C F E B C(E) E
(
Problem -\ In A ABIC above, explain why z B = Z IC. Using this fact, give a proof
that AABC s A DICK.
t Congruence conditionsforright-angled triangles ''
Theorem Two right-angled triangles arccongruent ifeither of(hefollowing conditions holds.
|T1 The hypotenuse and oneacuteangle are equal.

.21 Thc hypotenuse and one other side of each triangle are equal.
r Compare these with the^
congruence conditions
for triangles in general. '
_
w
Check "J In the diagram below, which are the congnient triangles? Express this using the
symbol. Give theconditions (hat you used to justify saying that the triangles
arecongruent, a D r>cm
li cm
3cm C ticm
1 — Triangles 121
$ Using the congruence conditions for right-angled triangles, let's look
at moregeometrical properties.
probiem'2) In A ABC drop perpendiculars from M, the

midpoint ofside BC tosides AB and AC cspectively,
Let the points where these perpendiculars intersect
AB and AC be D an E respectively. If
MD = ME
then A ABC is an isosceles triangle. r^
Prove this.
Let's look at the properties of the bisectors of thc interior angles of a triangle.
Problem 3) As in the diagram on the left, let

I be the point of intersectionof
thc bisectors of Z B and Z C of
A ABC, anddropperpendiculars
Z">
from I to the three sides. Let the
points of intersection of these
perpendiculars withAB, BC, and
CA be D, E, and F respectively.
© Prove that ID- IE = IF.

(2) Prove that the ray AI bisects
ZBAC.
problem 4) In the diagram ofProblem above, draw acircle with I as center and IE as
radius.
122 5—Properties of Geometrical Figures

.*
Basic Exercises
n—"—-„ • vrn.
§
Properties of Isosceles triangles ,i„BmWi| p
/ In the following diagrams, sides marked with tlie same symbol are equal.
Find Ihc size of Z x.
u (
Converse of o theorem p 110 Check? sP

p.lWPmbiem3
Give the converse of: "If A ABC s A DEF. then AB - DIC Say
whether this converse is true.
(tongruencecondforufwrlghrtno^M^^ 1,121 Check i j piwchecki P

t) In the diagramon Ihc right, A
BE CI)
- (
zBEC = ZCDB = 90°
In this case, answer the following questions.
(1) Give tlie congruence conditions used to

prove that A BCIC • ACBD.
(2) To prove that AB = AC, what do wc need B C
to show from A BCIC = A CBD.
1—Triangles 123
Parallelograms
HU
Properties of a Parallelogram
Trigger! As shown on the right, lay a piece of tape m mk m 1^*

over another piece. What shape is the area
where one piece covers another?
W\\ r*\
Tlie sides that face each oilier in aquadrilateral are called opposite sides, and
the diagonally opposite angles in aquadrilateral are called opposite angles.
The definition ofa parallelogram is: 1)
A quadrilateral with both pairs ofopposite sides equal

Wc sometimes write the parallelogram ABCD asOA BCD.
Trigger* ,n OABCD on the right, if the diagonals

intersect at point 0, show which lines and
angles are equal.
>From the definition of a parallelogram and basic geometrical properties wc can derive
the following properties.
<| Properties of a parallelogram I
Theorems 11 ] The two pairs of opposite sides of a parallelogram areequal.

12: The Iwo pairs of diagonally opposite angles of a parallelogram arcequal
(31 The two diagonals ofa parallelogram intersect attheirmidpoints.
I

Let's prove properly |jJ of a parallelogram.
Hint > Thehypothesis that quadrilateral ABCD is A d

a parallelogram is:
AB // DC, AD // BC
From this we have to derive thc conclusion:
b' ~" C
AB = DC, ad = bc
To do this, wc draw tiie diagonal AC, and
show that
w AABCs ACDA
Hypothesis Conclusion
AB // DC, AD // BC !AABC "s= ACDA I AB - DC, AD = BC
A D "A D A . D
B C B C B C
Prool ^> Draw the diagonal AC. A^ ^ D

In A ABC and A CD A
AC is common (1)
s->
Since alternate angles of parallel lines arcequal t
B C
ZBCA - ZDAC (2)
zBAC= zDCA CD
Since one sideand the adjacent angles arcequal
AABC- ACDA
Therefore
AB - DC, AD - BC
Problem "|) Prove properly 121 ofa parallelogram.
2 — Parallelograms 125
For n AIJC1). tak'"g Poilu ° as ll,c Intersection ofthc A
diagonals, let's prove property 131 ofa parallelogram.
problem 2 ! For the parallelogram inthe diagram on thc

right, give thc hypothesis and conclusion for
property (31.
We can write a proof ofproperty [31 as follows.

n
Proof
In A ABO and ACDO
Since opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal
AB » C
And since alternate angles of parallel lines are equal -f-^.

ZABO " ZCDi
ZBAO = ZDGO ••• (3) B

Ide and the adjacent angles are equal
0 i ACDO
Therefore
OA » OC, OB - OD
check "I For O ABCDI"(J) and (2) below, find thc values of.r and //.
Say what properties of a parallelogram you used to find the values.
© • D ®
120'
IH'III
126 5 — Properties ofGeometrical Figures

Proofs Using Properties of a Parallelogram
Let's see what we can prove using properties ofaparallelogram.
(S^-J) Lcl 0 be Ihc point of intersection of the diagonals A K n
Of O ABCD- Let E and p be thcpoints of

intersection of a linepassing through O with AD
and BC respectively, as shownin thc diagram on
the right. Then OIC = OF. Prove this.
u < • Can you sec what we need to prove in order for OIC = OF?
Proof
9I.W:)tiilO# gonals ofa parallelogram r.U:H*>itet their mid.

OA-OC
And since diagonally opposite a.

ZCOF
i!jw-»wi|;'-.i.i-.ui-jiiiiii-i-)(-,[i-;w'
Since one side and the adjacent angles are equal

AAOE s ACOF
o ( Therefore
OE = OF
HtfK&i
check 2 Onthediagonal BD of O ABCD. If

we choose two points E and F such that
BR = DF. Prove that AIC - CF.
Conditions for a Parallelogram
• in the previous section 1J we derived various properties ofa

parallelogram. Now we will consider what conditions are needed to
say that a figure is a parallelogram.
In thc kind of fairground ride in the photographs, thc scaling platform moves while
remaining horizontal. Why is this?
r\
Hitachi Kamine Leisure Land
(Ibaraki Prefecture)
Trigger* The diagram on the right shows A D

^W* the ride above, seen from the side.
In this diagram, when the seating
platform AD moves, what parts do
not change? B
/ c

In thc diagram at thc bottom of thc previous page,
by joining points B and C we can consider Ihc
quadrilateral ABCD as in the diagram on the right.

In the diagram on the right, AD is thc seating
platform, andAD moves while keeping AB = DC and
AD = BC. Since BC is horizontal, lo prove that the
seating platform remains horizontal wc need to show
that AD// BC
In other words, for the quadrilateral ABCD, from thc

.-.
hypothesis AB = DC, AD = BC
wc need lo derive the
conclusion AD // BC .
B
Problem "| ) Prove the above, using thc sequence (T), (2J.
[T] Connect points Band D,and prove that
A ABD- ACDB-
121 From theresult of[1',show that

£ ADB = Z CBD, and prove that
AD // BC
problem 2 In the diagram for Problem I, Ills also truethat AB // DC Prove this.
From Problems 1and 2, wesec that both pairs of opposite sides of quadrilateral ABCD
are parallel. Inother words, we can say: "A quadrilateral with both pairs ofopposite
sides equal is a parallelogram."
Thisfact is tlie converse ofthe properly 11 of a parallelogram given on page 124, thai
thc two pairs of opposite sidesof a parallelogram are equal.
2 — Parallelogram 129
On the previous page we proved that the converse of property 11 |of aparallelogram is
also a condition for a quadrilateral to be a parallelogram.
Trigger^ Let's look at the converse of properties (2 jand 3; of aparallelogram on page 124.
Let's try to prove the converse of property j21 of aparallelogram. A 1)
Hint Thc hypothesis andconclusion are as follows:

Hypothesis /A-/-C, ZB = Zl)
Conclusion AB // DC, AD // BC B r>
Proof
the Interior angles of a quad iteaii.$:£

.+ ZB+ZC+ZD = 360>
Andslnce ZA •= ZC, ZB = ZD
ZA+ZB+ZA+ZB = 360
Therefore ZA+ZB =• 180
On the other hand, If we construct the exterior an< ., ZDAE

ZDAE+ZDAB - 180°
>r:l;flMVu(l/W<: DAE = ZB
(îK:fefli(*)ît|]'ilQfOil!JI#?if*:!li
Note I "Similarly" means wecan prove something usinga similar procedure.
Problem 3 If point O isthe intersection ofthc diagonals of A

quadrilateral ABCD, then,
OA = OC, OB - Ol)
This is property j3 ]of a parallelogram. Prove "
that Ihc converse of this theorem is also true.
Triggerj j [s ,he quadrilateral ABCD drawn by the
^•k following procedures aparallelogram?
11 ] Draw line segment AD of length 4 A ...... 4cm
cm on line / on a ruled notepad.

[21 Draw line segment BC oflength 4
cm on line m on the notepad.
4cm ' C
3 Draw the line segments AB and
DC.
In thc "raj question above, since the ruled lines on the notepad are parallel, AD // BC
u (
And AD : BC- Does this make the quadrilateral ABCD a parallelogram?
Problem 4 I Proves Ihal quadrilateral ABCD in thc Tli»*jjl question is a parallelogram.
We can collect together conditions for a parallelogram as follows.
Conditions for a parallelogram <
Theorem Ifany ofthe following sets ofconditions hold for a quadrilateral, itIs aparallelogram,
11 ] Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel. ... Definition
[2) Both pairs of opposite sides arc of equal length.
_
(3) Both pairs of opposite anglesare equal.
[41 The diagonals intersect at their midpoints.
15 ] Onepair ofopposite sides isequal, and these sides are parallel.
, , . ,
check "J Of the following quadrilaterals ABCD, which are always parallelograms?
(a) AB - BC, AD = DC
(b) AB DC, AD// BC
© zA - ZC, ZB- zD
Using the conditions for aparallelogram, we willprove various geometrical facts.
tSBTl ) The diagonals of O ABCD intersect at point

O. If E and F are two points on diagonal BD
such that OE = OF. prove thatquadrilateral

AECF is a parallelogram.
j Which condition for a parallelogram should wc use here?

rs
Proof
Check 2 If the midpoints of sidesAD and BCof

OABCD are M and N respectively, prove
that thc quadrilateral MBND is a parallelogram.
Monument at Kanazawa Station

(Ishikawa Prefecture)

Special Cases of the Parallelogram
Let's look at the rectangle, rhombus, and square.
A rectangle is
a quadrilateral with four right angles.

A rhombus is
a quadrilateral with four equal sides.
_ (
Trigger^
•y^^1
Boltl arectangle and arhombus are parallelograms. Can you see why this is so?
A rectangle and a rhombus are both special cases of a parallelogram.
.
The following facts about their diagonals are also true.
[T) The diagonals ofa rectangle have thc same length.

[2; The diagonals of a rhombus arc perpendicular.
Problem "J Draw thc diagonals AC and BD ofrectangle A

ABCD. Derive A ABC m A DCB.
_
Then prove that 111 above is true.
Problem 2 Lcl the diagonals AC and BD of rhombus
ABCD intersect at point 0. Derive
A ABO b A ADO. Then prove that |2|

above is true.
Using the properties of the diagonals of arectangle, we can prove thc following.
The midpoint of the hypotenuse of a right-
angled triangle is equidistant from all three
vertices of thc triangle.
Problem 3 hi right-angled triangle ABC, ifMis the

midpoint of the hypotenuse AC, prove
that MA = MB - MC
r>
A squareis a quadrilateral such that all four angles /

Parallelogram \
are right angles, and all four sides arc the same .Rectangle Rhombus..
A
length. In other words, a square is a quadrilateral
that is both a rectangle and a rhombus. Therefore
v_ \/ _J
a square has both the properties of a rectangle and \ /
those of a rhombus.
Conditions foi a rectangle, rhombus, and square
For a parallelogram to be a rectangle, rhombus, or square, what additional conditions

have to be satisfied?
Select thc conditions from (a) lo (d) which fit in each of thc numbered (o to <*) in thc diagram below.
O zA=9U° (E) AB = BC © AC=BD Cd) AC I BD
A D
•' ?'
D
I)
B C
Rectangle
>
A
B C
Parallelogram B C
B
Squaro
(3, ®
C
Rhombus
134 5 —Properties of Geometrical Rgures) p203

Parallel Lines and Area
Using properties of parallel lines we will lookat shapes with thesame area.
Given a pair of parallel lines. Perpendiculars drawn
from two points on one of the lines to the other line

arc the same length. This is obvious, because opposite
sides ofa rectangle are the same length.
u <
i'•'.' • •: i As iii the diagram on the right, let's look at I A A'
the triangles which have common base BC,
andapex on a slraight line Cparallel lo BC:
AABC, AA'BC, AA"BC
These triangles have the same base and the
same height, and therefore the same area.

In other words, AABC* = AA'BC = AA"BC
check 1 In O ABCD in the diagram on the right,
M is thc midpoint of the side BC. Find

triangles with thc same area, and write an
<J
expression for this.
problem 1 if trapezoid ABCD has AD // BC. and O

is tlie point of intersection of its diagonals,
(hen: AAOB = A DOC
Prove that this is true.
Wc sometimes write AABC, AA'BC, and so on,using the name of a figure to represent its
2 —Parallelogram 135
Let's think abouthow to change a polygon without changing its area.
flmW 2) To construct a triangle with thc same area as

thc quadrilateral ABCD in thc diagram on thc
right, wc canuse the following method.
111 Draw the diagonal AC.

12| Draw line Cpassing through vertex D,
and parallel toAC, and find (lie point of B
intersectionE with the extension ofside BC. r\
131 Join points A and E, to construct A ABE.
problem 2 l In thediagram for Example 2, prove that Ihc areas ofquadrilateral ABCD = A A BE
problem 3 ; In the diagram on thc left, a rectangle

is divided into two parts, (a) and (b),
by a bent line ABC. Draw a straight
line passing through A, dividing the
rectangle into the same two areas.
Window on math — Joining midpoints
Let D and E be the midpoints of sides AB and AC of AABC.

Explain why the following hold, using area .
relations.
,
1 SinceADBE= ADCE,
DE // BC
2 Since2ADBE = AEBC,
2DE = BC

f%
Basic Exercises i
. •» • -
Properties ola parallelogram ,,ipecheck i J**

Let M be the midpoint of side CD of O ABCD, and let N be the point of
intersection of theextension of AD and thestraight line BM. If AB = \\cm
and AD = /| cm, find thc lengths of the line segments DM and DN .
A D N
Properties of a parallelogram, and conditions for a parallelogram pi?tix.uitfo t j pi&cxmipei | V

In the diagram on (he right, quadrilaterals ABCD A
and EBCF are both parallelograms. Refer to this
diagram to answer the following questions.
® Prove that AD = RF.
(2) Prove that quadrilateral AEFD is a
parallelogram.
Parallel lines and area

-
, i In thc diagram on the right, if A B // DC,
answer thc following questions.
(f) Which triangle has thc same area as

AABC?
(2) In addition lo (1), give any othersets

of triangles which have the same
area.
3 Triangles and Circles
H
Right-angled Triangles and Circles
Trigger'! Place two textbooks as shown in the diagram below, and letAand Bbe
the corners of the textbooks. Taking care notto move Aor B, we move a
set square touching Aand B, and investigate the movement ofthe corner P.
f\
mm
Tl f
A B
IftH
I What is the shape of the 2

I path that Pmoves along?
0 • •
Y
7 / 5.
:
/A / B

Problem 1 ) Draw a number ofright-angled
triangles ABP with linesegment AB
as hypotenuse, and see what sort of
B
path thc point P plots.
As proved in Problem 3 on page 134, the

midpoint of the hypotenuse of a right-angled
W
triangle is equidistant from all three vertices of
thc triangle.
Therefore, if 0 is tlie midpoint of the hypotenuse

AB of right-angled triangle ABP, wc have
OA = OB = OP
In other words, point P lies on thccircle with line A
segment AB as diameter.
Problem 2) In the diagram you draw in Problem 1, add thc circle with line segment AB
W
as diameter, and check that point P is always on this circle.
Problem 3) As shown in (he following diagram, using a set square it is possible to find
the center O of a circle. Explain how this works.
3 — Trlanglos and Circles 139

Isosceles Triangles and Circles
Two Isosceles Triangles
Triggerjj Let pojnt phe jn vari0us positions on

W the semicircle with center 0 whose
diameter is the line segment AB. What
is the size of / APB?
"^ In the trigger question, since OA = OB - OP, / OPA and / OBP arc isosceles
(dangles. In this case, wchave proven on page 112 that Z APB —9(1° .
If the base angles of thc isosceles triangles 1'
arc / a and z />, we can sum up this proof as
follows.
The two isosceles triangles OPA and OBP share side OP. (1)
The three points A, O, and B lie on a straight line. (2)
Since the sum of Ihc internal angles of A ABP is 180°,
2(z.a\ Zb)= 180° (a)

Therefore, Z APB = ZaV Zb = 90° (b)
In the diagram for two isosceles triangles as above, if we keep the condition (1), but
vary condition (2), wccan look at cases where A, O, and B arc noton a straight line.
In this case, where dothe angles 2( Z a I Zb) in(a)and / a | / /> in (b) appear?
z Trymaking a tool as
I shown on the right,
V and investigate.
T\

Problem *| ) In the following diagrams, find the measure of Z a I Z. b.
140 0
/What is the sum of

( the interior angles of
^quadrilateral PAOB?
m
In (1) above, 2( Za I Zb) is equal to difference if
-
we subtract / AOB from 360" (the sum of the interior
angles of a quadrilateral). Looking at the diagram on
the right, we can see that 2( z a \ z b) is equal lo .

/ AOB measured from theoutside of thcquadrilateral. 360 /_ AOB
Problem 2 I In (2), where isthe angle equal to

2(Za \ Z b)? Show this on thc
diagram on thc right.
From what you learned in Problems 1 and 2, wc sec

O that given two isosceles triangles sharing side OP,
as shown in the diagram on thc right:
/APB= :t1 /AOB (1)

Since OA, OB, and OP arc all thc same length, we
can regard them all as radii of a circle center O.
Therefore, wc can regard the relation (1) as a relation between / APB formed by any
three points A, B, and P on a circle center 0, and the central angle / AOB.
3 — Triangles and Circles 141

Inscribed Angles
In the circle center O, if P is a point on the circle

excluding the AB. then we call /APB an inscribed
angle for AB- We also call AB '»e arc intercepted by

thc inscribed angle /APB.
Probiom 3 In your notebook, draw a circle center O, and choose two points A and B on
the circle, then draw an inscribed angle and central angle for AB-
r\
In the circle center O, there are any number of inscribed angles intercepting AB> but
only one fixed central angle.
o Inscribed angle theorem <>
Theorem The size of an inscribed angle intercepting n particular arc of the
circle is constant, and is one-half of the central angle for that arc,
In thediagram above, / APB ., / AOB. We can prove thisas follows.
r>
Prool Draw diameter PC, then / APO = / a, / Bl'() == / b
Since OP-OA./PAO - / a
Since / AOC is an exterior angle of A AOI \
/AOC /APO I /PAO- 2Za
Similarly, / HOC 2Zb

Therefore, / AOB = 2( / a + / b)
Since/APB / a I / b,
/APB }? /AOB

Wecan check that in the following cases (a) and (b) it is still truethat
/APB- J /AOB.
la. (b)
u <
l^^™^1 In the diagram on the right, / A PB is an
inscribed angle intercepting AB. and therefore its
size is half of thc central angle / AOB.
Therefore
/APB- J x80o =40°
check 1 In the following diagrams, find the size of / x
Let'stry/ • sS* m
When P is in positions as indiagrams (a) and (b)above, try to prove (hat the
inscribed angle theorem still holds true.
c p /'// 3 — Triangles and Circles 143

A
Basic Exercises
•
i
Inscribed angle theorem p /•r.ir.i.wvi'd i
/ In Ihc following diagrams, find the size of/ .r.
(!) © <D
Window on math — Positioning the video camera
For a choral concert in the
school gymnasium, we wantto

position the videocamera so as
justto capture thewhole stage.
Inthe lower diagram, the

current position ol the video
r^
camera is just right to capture
the whole stage, butthe
locations shaded blue in the
diagram are occupied by

chairs, and cannot be used.
Without changing the zoom
settingof the video camera,

where should it be located to
capturethe whole stage?

i '

1
Chapter Summary Problems A i
j Given an isosceles triangle ABC, with AB = AC. If P is a point on the bisector
of Ihc apex/ A, prove that PB = PC.
2 In the isosceles triangle ABC, AB=BC. The midpoints of AB and AC, are D
and E respectively. Let F be thc point of intersection of BE and CD.
(T) Prove that BE = CD.

(§) Prove that A F BC is an isosceles triangle.
U (
If two parallelogramsABCD and A'BC'D each
have line segment BD as a diagonal, then all
the diagonals, AC, A'C, and BD intersect at a
single point. Prove this.
/j. As shown in Ihc diagram on thc right, from thc

vertices A andC of £7 ABCD, perpendiculars
arc dropped to thc diagonal BD, meeting it at E
and F respectively. In this case, prove that the
_
quadrilateral AECF is a parallelogram. b
/) In the following diagrams, find thc size of / x.
♦1 p.201 Answer p.197 3,p./98 Chapter Summary Problems 145

ChapterSummaryProblems B
I In AABC, if thc midpoints of sides

AB and AC arc D and E respectively,
then
DE // BC, DIC = ' BC

Prove this, using the following outline.
r\
IjJ Prove that if F is the point ontlie extension ofDE such that
EF = DE, then quadrilateral ADCF is a parallelogram.
12 ] Prove that quadrilateral DBCF is a parallelogram, and derive

that DIC // BC and DIC = ^BC
2 C is a point on line segment AB,
and equilateral triangles ACD and
CBE arc constructed as shown in the
diagram on tlie right, with AC and BC
as one of each of their sides. In this
case, prove that AE = DB.

r>
Let's investigate I
In Question 2 above, ifthe conditions

are changed as follows, what will hold
true? Draw a diagram, and write a
summary of the results.
• Rotate ACBE about point C.

• Change the two equilateral triangles tosquares.
I v
146 5—Properties of Geometrical Figures] ' ~f p. 202 Answer
9
Geometrical Figures Maintaining aConstant Angle 9
ggeri.) In the ^ question on page 138, change the point whose movement you
are investigating to the 60° corner of aset square, and see what path is
traced out by the 60° corner.
As shown in (he diagram on Ihc right,

if we take many points P such that the
angle with respect to thc points A and B,

Zi APB = 60°, wecan expect that point P
^
will lie on a circle with AB as chord.
Problem "| in your notebook, draw two points Aand B, and find ten points Psuch that
Z. APB = 60°- In addition, draw a circle and check if thc points are on thc
same circle.
A circle is a geometrical figure
formed by points which meet thc
condition of being a fixed distance

from a point O.
Also, as we found above, wc can
-
regard ncircle as thc set of points
Distance from point ZAPB is constant
P such that thc angleformed O is constant
Wither respect to two points A and
B.Z APB, is constant.
problem 1 in problcin I, change thc size of/ APB to 45° or 30°, and carry out thc
same investigation.
) V p.203 Answer Development 147

Fora fixed AB such that theinscribed angle
/ ACB = / a, consider whether a point P such that
/ A PB = / a mustlie on thc same circle, in the case
that point P is on thesame sideof line segment AB as
point C.
Problem 3 | Compare (he size of / APB with the inscribed angle / a intercepting (lie arc AB, when point
Pis on the circle, inside the circle or outside the circle center 0 as shown in Ihc following diagrams.
r\
S c_ p ID
After investigating as in Problem 3,wcfind the following.
111 When point P ison thc circle center O:

/APB= Za
121 When point P is inside the circlecenter O:

/APB > Za r\
131 When point P is outside the circle centerO:

/APB < Za
From Problem 3 we sec that if point P is on the

same side of line segmentAB as point C, then if
/APB- Za
point P lies on thc circle center O.

Tracing the Movement of an Inscribed Angle
As shown in the diagram on thc right, let's look at
inscribed angle / ACB that intercepts AB in various
positions, and investigate its size.
Trigger^ Point pmQves a|Qng the arc AB inc|udjng pojnt c From pojnt cjt
"* approaches point B. Mark the angles equal to / c.
As point P approaches point B, wc can sec (hat chord

PA approacheschord BA, and the straight line PB
approaches the tangent BT at point B.
Problem 4 As point P approaches point B, what
_
angle docs /1' approach? Mark this in thc
diagram on tlie right.
Problem 5 hi Problem4, move point P more, to go past
point B and into the arc on thc opposite side

Taking / P as thc angle made by the
straight lines AP and BP, where does this
angle appear in llic diagram on the right.

Mark thc angle in thc diagram.
Development 149
In thcdiagram for Problem 5, wecan view all of the vertices of quadrilateral APBC as lyingon a
circle.When a quadrilateral has all four vertices lying on a circle in this way, we say it is a cyclic
quadrilateral, and is inscribed in the circle, while Ihc circle is the circumcircle of tlie quadrilateral.
Problem 6) The diagram on the right shows Problem 5on the C

previous page, withE a point on theextension of BP.
Prove thc following two statements.
(j) /ACB- /APE

(2) /ACB I /APB = 180°
rs
Statement (2) in Problem 6 showsthe following.

Opposite angles of a cyclicquadrilateral add up to 180'
From Problem 4 on the previous page, we can expect
that as in the diagram on the right, / ABT, the angle
between a tangent BT to the circle and the chord AB is
equal to / ACB. the inscribed angle that intercepts AB-
r^
Problem 7 In the diagram on the right, BT is a tangent to (
Cv
the circle center O, with ils point of contact at B.
Prove that/ ABT /ACB.
From what you found in Problem 7, wccan seethefollowing, h

Thc angle between a chord and a tangent passing
through thc same point on a circle is equal lo the
inscribed angle in the circle that intercepts the

chord.
150 5 —Properties ofGeometrical Figures

() Converting a quadrilateral
Cut the quadrilateral on the right into four pieces, cutting
along straight lines, and rearrange thc pieces toform a
parallelogram.
sJ <
Hmm, how is the quadrilateral

above cut up?
© 64 = 65?
Cut the square shown in the diagram belowalong the thick blue lines, and
rearrange the pieces to form the rcctnnglc on the right. Whydocs the area
increase??
-
8X8 = 64 5X13 = 65
] r ~* You can cut out theversion printed onp.209. 151

Chapter 6 Probability
] Probability
Triggefj There are six cards, each of w lich has a sing e number from 1 to 3 written
on it, as follows: 1|. I2L [2 3|. ill li . Shuffle these cards well,
and draw one, to nvestigate howthe numbers come out.
Cut out the cards from page 209, and try an actual experiment, entering the
numbers in the table below. r>
Note that after drawing a card, you must return it to the pack for the next round.
. i'
-m-_
Number of try 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 :
Number on card
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 j
rs
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 i
Which number
appears most
often?
*
152 6 — Probability
Do some events occur more often than others?
LL1 Intheeach of thc following questions there arc two events © and ©. Which of
two do you think will occur more often?
(j) When you throw a die:

© the result is a 1
© thc result is an even number
U (
w
(2) Ifyou toss a 100-yen coin

© it lands heads up (cherry blossom side)
© it lands tails up ("100" side)
(D Drawing card from a pack of52playing cards (no jokers)

© thecard is a heart
© thc card is a court card (KQJ)
s> Let's try!
With the set ofsix cards described in thc trigger queslion on thc previous
page, draw acard, then replace this card and draw acard once more.
In this case, which ofthe following, © or © do you think is more likely
to happen? Why not try
© Both times thc card is a13 j. actuallydoing the j

experiment?
© You draw one 21 and one 131.
♦K p.16 /Chapter Summary Problems BS 1 —Probability 153

Thinking About Probability
Let's think about how to represent how likely an event is, using numbers.
In an experiment of throwing a regular

die, all sides will land uppermost
equally often. Therefore, we can

consider that a I will appear about once
r\
in every six times. In other words, if
we throw a die a large number of times, A
the proportion of times Ihc 1 lands
uppermost will be close to -r.
(Numberof times I occured)

(Proportion of 1occuring) =
(Total numberof throws)
The table on thc right shows the result of Number of Number ol limes Proportionof
throws 1 occured 1 occuring
an experiment to find out how many times
50 1 O.Ul
1 occured after throwing a die.
100 13 0.13
ZOO 32 0.16
| Problem "\ ) Complete the table on the right, H00 '10 0.115
by finding tlie proportion of I 600 89 0. IU8

800 125 0.156
occuring. Round off your answer
WOO 165
in three decimal places. 1200 202
I'lOO 239
Wccan show the results of this experiment 1600 269
1800 299
using a line graph shown on the next page.
2000 331
154 6 —Probability
X*
m\ ilii) (><)0 Kiln 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Number of times die thrown
Problem 2 From thc results of Problem I, complete thc graph above. What
w, (
can you understand from the graph?
Experiments or observations such as "throwing a die and getting a I" are affected
by chances. The possible result of a single trial in an experiment is called an
outcome. An outcome or group of outcomes is called an event. Thc measure of

thc likelihood that an event will occur is called the probability of thcevent.
For example, when we throw a die we. expect that the result will bea 1justonce in
six times, and therefore the probability is 4\
Thus tosay that the probability of P means that if we repeat the experiment a large
number oftimes, the proportion oftimes when the event occurs will approach P.
cheek 1 In an experiment of tossinga lO-ycn coin many

-
times, what value do you expect the proportion

of heads lo approach? Give thc probability of
Heads Tails
heads and the probability of tails. (obverse sido) (reverse sido)
Problem 3 In an experiment to throw a die six limes, Albert made the

following prediction. Is this prediction correct?
Since the probability of a 1 is •§•, a1will always appear exactly

once in six throws.
1 — Probability 155
Let's look at probability, using Well, since a baby
is either a boy or a
data from a number of sources. girl, I suppose the
probability of a girl
being born is —.
Let's examine table below.
Problem 4 Thetable on the right shows the Total Girls

Year
number of births in Japan in llic years births Propatioii
15)92 1208989 586853 0,185 r\
from 1991 to 2002. It also shows the
1993 1188282 578038 0,186
number and proportionof baby girls 1991 1238328 602418 0,186
born each year. 1995 11870(il 578517 0.487

1996 1206555 586762 0.486
From thc table on the right, can wc
1997 1191665 580760 0,187
say that thc probability of a baby girl 1998 1203M7 585733 0.487
1999 H77C)(i9 572900 0,186
being born is r, ?
20(10 1190547 578399 0.486
2001 1170602 569744 0.487
; I wonder if earlier years \ 0,186
2002 1153855 561015
v are similar?
2003 1123610 546874 0,187
Population Statistics for2002, Volume
The probability in Problem 4 is not like the probability found in Check 1, but is based
on the result of a large number of actual observations.
Check 2 It is said (hat October 10 is oflcn fine
weather. Looking at the weather records
for Fukuoka City for (lie 100 years from
1903 to 2002, it was found that this day

was fine weather in 64 years. Find the
probability of fine weather on October

Seaside Momochi (Fukuoka Prefecture)
10 in Fukuoka City.
Finding Probability Values
Let's look athow to calculate probabilities.
Trigger])
i,ei In asoccer match, to decide
which team kicks off there is a
coin toss. Let's think about why
we use a coin.
. -
When we toss a coin, we have equal expectations of it landing a head or a tail. In such
cases wesay that the outcomes are equally likely. In such caseswecan calculate
probabilities.
(^^^1 / Let's find out thc probability of getting an odd number in an cxpeiment of
throwing a die.
As shown in thc diagram on the right, there
is a total of six possible results. These results
are all equally likely outcomes. Of these six
~
results, there are three outcomes with an odd
number, so:
(Probability of an odd number) = '. = ,.
Check 1 Answer thc following questions to find tlie probability of obtaining an even
number in throwing a die.
CO How many outcomes are there in which thc result is an even number?
(2) What is thc probability of the result being aneven number?
1 — Probability 15/
In general thcfollowing result holds.
Finding a probability
Suppose that in an experiment orobservation there arc atotal ofn possible

outcomes or results and each of these outcomes is equally likely to happen.
Then if there are « ways for event A to occur, the probability p of A

occurring is given by the following.
o_
P
n
l^mWZj Ihave ten cards, each marked with adifferent number from I to 10.1 shuffle
these cards well, then draw a card. Find the probability Ihal the card drawn
is a multiple of 3.
Use the following procedure lo approach this problem.
(T) There arc ten possible outcomes, and these are

00 3]
all equally likely.
|j[l There are three cases in which thc number on

00 f6)
thecard is a multiple of 3: 3,6, and 9. 0 0 [9]
i
131 3
Therefore, thcrequired probability is-ttt. (10 r\
check 2 If a card is drawn from a 52-card pack ofplaying cards (no jokers), find the
probability thatthe card is a heart, using tlie following procedure.
(1) How many outcomes arc there in total?
(2) Can wcsay thai the events in(l) are all equally likely?
(3) Howmanyoutcomes arc there in which tliecard is a heart?
(4) Find thc probability that thc card drawn is a heart.
158 6 —Probability
• Let's Investigate the range ofprobabilities.
Trigger]) Thfee bagS| ^ Q< an(J c each con(ain flyfl ^ gs fo||ows ,f we take
one ball out, for each bag we will calculate the probability that it is a
blue ball.
Bag A:3 blue, 2 white balls Bag B: 5 blue balls Bag C:5 white balls
u Thc range of aprobability is from 0to 1. This is 0 ^ /; ^ 1/^The Probability of taking^

[ a blue ball Irom bag Bis
A probability of I means thc event will certainly occur. \J, isn't it.
A probability of zero means tlie event will never occur.
w
problem "\ \ Insert the symbol for one ofthe suits, (hearts, diamonds, clubs, and spade) in thc Q in
the following statement to makea problem for which thc required probability is 1or 0.
If a card is drawn from the set of 13 hearts, find thc probability that Ihc
suit of the card is [ |.
. Window on math —The beginnings of probability
The mathematician Pascal was asked the following question

byhisfriend Mere: "Two friends Aand Bare playing dice. The
tirst player towin threegames takes the stakes, but itthe
game has to be abandoned alter one player has won twice
and the other once, how should the stakes be divided?"
Pascal
Itwas this problem that led to the development of probability
theory in the 17th century.
We willlist allpossible outcomesin atable ordiagram, then find the desiredprobability.
(i.-inKr-i ,"•: ) I toss a 100-ycn coin twice. What is

Tails
the probability that heads come up in Heads
both toss?
Hint Trywriting thcoutcomes ina lable as on thc right. First toss Second loss
Heads Heads
Heads Tails
Solution Wc can write tlie outcome of heads first time and tails
Tails Heads
second times as (Heads,Tails). Tails Tails
rs
There are four outcomes with thc following results.
(Heads, Heads), (Heads, Tails), (Tails, Heads), and
(Tails,Tails)
Wecan expectthateach of these is equally likely.
Of these only one represents heads both times. Answer ;

1
Tliereforetheprobability is
check 3 In Example 3, find the probability of heads come up thc first time and tails come
up thc second time.
Problem 2 Three people, A, B, and C have decided toplay the following game.
Two coins will be tossed. If both land heads up A wins, if one is heads and
one is tails B wins, and if both land tails up C wins.
A gives thc following argument about thisgame.
There arethree possible outcomes:

two heads, one each heads and tails, and twotails
Therefore the probability of each of the three players winning is \
Is thisargument correct?
To list all of(he possible outcomes, wc can make atable as shown in Example 3on the
previous page We can also use adiagram as shown on the right.
For instance, in Example 3,we can draw a
First toss Second toss
diagram asonthe right, toshow all of the
®
outcomes. Hrepresents the head and Trepresents / ®
the tail. CO
This kind of diagram is called a tree diagram.
U i
Let's find more probabilities. Using atree diagram.
Check 4 A and B play rock-paper-scissors. For

a single round, answer the following
questions.
(D Ifwe write Rfor rock, Pfor

paper, and S for scissors, complete
thc diagram on the right.
(2) Find the probability that A wins.
_ (
If A play rock, there are three
ways forB to play:rock, paper,
and scissors.
problem 3 in t|lc anovc problem, find the

probability of a draw.
k4) Two dice, one large, one small, are thrown.
Find the probability that the total on the
two dice is 5.
Hint Wc will write the outcome in which the small die is 2 and thc large die is 3
as (2, 3). All other possible outcomes are listed in the following table.
\latge
1 2 3 4 5 6
SmalK
1 (1. 1) CI. 2) CI, 3] (1,40 (1.5] (1.6)
2 [2. 1) (2. 2) (2. 3) (2.4) (2. 5] (2. (i)
3 Ct. I) [3, 2) (3. 3) C3. A) (3. 5] (3. 6)
A [-1.1) (•1. 2) C4. 3] (4,4] (4. r») (4. 6)
6 (r>. i) [5, 2) (f). 3) [5,4] (5, 5] (5, (i)
(i (e, n (6,2) C6. 3) (6. 4) (6. 5] (6. G]
Solution
The re are a tota
be squally likely . Of these the following four outcomes give a total of 5:

bi,'U.'ivi'l:i.,».'>i;^'"ijk~«^'•??>'
(1,4), (2,3), (3, 2), (4,1)
t '-"•'^''î*
Therefore the re quired probability is 11
4 1
check 5 If large and small dicearethrown, find the probability that the total is 6.
Problem 4 When large and small dice arc thrown, answerthe following questions.
© What total on the two dice has the highest probability ofoccurring?
(2) Find the probability that the number on the large die isgreater than
(he number on the smaller die.
162 6 —Probability IV p. 168

Various Probabilities
Trigger^ yynen drawing lots, are you more likely to win by drawing firs! or by
^* drawing second?
Ah, but they do say

Drawing first looks 'Last but not the
better to me...
least"...
f^^^l ) There arc five paper slips, and three of them have
a red "Win" mark. If A and B draw one each in
turn, which of A and B is likely to win?
Hint Number thc papers, with ihe winning ones ©,

©, and 0, and thc losing ones © and (5). Ifwe
draw a tree diagram of A and B's draws, there
are 20 outcomes, as shown on ihc right. Wc can
regard all of these as equally likely lo occur.
. , In Example 1, find the probabilities of A and

_
Problem "\
B winning. Which of A and B is more likely to
win?
C'r-
Let's tryl
In Example 1,if we vary thc number of paper

u| I \ In Example 1,what
slips, llic number ofwinning slips, orthc number kj* 1 happens if (here are
|»W \ three people?
of people drawing, see if the probability of
winning is affected by the orderof drawing.
(JHJjj) Four students, A, B, C, and Dhave to
select a pairamong them forduties
bydrawing lots. Inthis case, find the
probability that D is selected.
Hint For example, whether A and B arc
selected, or B and A are selected makes no
difference. Noting this, we can list all of

the combinations for duties as follows. n
{A, BJ. (A. C), {A, I)}

(B, C). (B, I)}
IC, I)}
And wc see there are six combinations,
which we can assume are equally likely to

occur.
Solution Of thc total of six outcomes, there are three
combinations includingstudent D. Therefore
the probabilityrequired is:

r*>
3
Answer .,
(i
Problem 2 I Three members, A, B, and C, of
thc lable tennis club draw lots to
choose two players for a doubles
team. Find the probability that A
is included in (he team.
'. .'
Basic Exercises
• I) ...I.MI.!. i.ll M. n'.-..1.
•*
in.nw • .
Probability p.t54Picbttmt \ p.inchecki |V

j The following table shows the results of throwing a bottle cap.
Number of 1000 2000

times thrown
100 500 1500
Number of .'!<) 175) 368 564 742 "Heads"?
"Heads"
© Which of "Heads" and "Tails appears to be more

likely lo occur? "Tails.. u<
'^~/ '•:'. ® What value does thc proportion show in thc tabic \, ,,,«.;•*
approach? Find thc value lo two decimal places.
Procedures (or finding probability ,, i::ii. mp'«:> | 4^

A bag contains threered balls, two blue balls,and four whileballs. Answer
the following questions to find out thc probability of getting a blue ball from
the bag without looking.
(f) How many possible outcomes are there in total?

(2) Can we regard thc outcomes in(1)asallequally likely tooccur?
(3) How many outcomes result in a blue ball beingdrawn?
(4) Find tlie probability of drawing a blue ball.
U <
Tree diagrams and probability pi6ic/***-r |4-/
,' J Four cards arc marked with thc numbers 1,2,3, and 4. We _
shuffle the cards well, then draw two cards, and lay them in Ihc 1 ^
order drawn lo form a two-digit integer. ^ Jt
© Draw atree diagram, to list all the two-digit numbers that ^
can be formed.
(2) Find thc probability that tlie number formed is at least 32.
{"> p 17A See "Finding theNumber ofCases' (development) 1 —Probability 165

Chapter Summary Problems A f
Thereare three girls, Alison, Brcnda, and Celia,
and two boys,David and Earnest in a tennis club.
A girl and a boy arc chosen by drawing lots to

form a pair for a mixed doubles tennis match.
(T) How many possible pairs arc there in total?
@ Find theprobability Ihal Alison and
n
Earnest arc tlie pair.
2 A bag contains onered ball, one white ball, and oneblueball. I draw the balls
from the bag one at a time, and lay themin a rowin the order drawn.
(?) How many different ways can the balls be drawn?
(2) Find theprobability that thc red and white balls are adjacent.
Six cards arc numbered 1 to 6.1 shuffle When Ihe integer of tens digit
and the units digit is a multiple
these cards, then draw two cards in
of 3, the integer is always a
succession, and lay thc cards in llic order multiple of 3.
I drew lliem, to make a two-digit number. \l

r\
In (his case, find (he probability that thc
number formed is a multiple of 3.

#
'[ Enter a word in the L ] in the following question, so that the probability to be
found is equal lo 3 .
Ifa die is thrown, find the probability that thc number given is (~J
166 6 — Probability f< p.202 Answer p. 109 SupplementaryProblems

/ Two dice, one large, one small, are thrown; let x be the number on thc
larger die and // be the number on thc smaller die. Find the probabilily that
2x I y~8.
£ There arc six cards, each ofwhich has a single number from I to 3 written on
it, as follows: [l |. [2J. [2_|. |3|. \J\, [3]. These cards arc shuffled well, and
one is drawn, then replaced, then another is drawn. Which is more likely to
( happen: that a131 is drawn both times, or that a12 jand a131 arc drawn once
u each?
Q The diagram below shows aregular hexagon ABCDEF. Thc bag contains five
cards, labeled [fi], [c], [d], |e), and [f|. Wc draw two cards from the bag,
and join the vertices of thc letters drawn and thevertex A. Thusdrawing a •
triangle. What is thc probability that this is a right-angled triangle?
Let's investigate I
Find various probabilities, by carrying out experiments.

9 Find thc probability ofa bottle cap landing "heads"
(outside up) or "tails" (inside up) or a thumbtack

0 \
landing pointing up or down.
K5)
• Try carrying out the experiment on page 193.
r* p.202 Answer Chapter Summary Problems 167

Probability of an Event Not Occurring
Triggerl |f the probability of winning when

CWhat is the proportion of
drawing lots is -j, what is the I winning chores?
chance of not winning?
Let's look atthe relation between an event occurring and the same event not occurring.
fflffj) When adie is thrown, find llic probability that ihc result is not a1. r\
The ways for a die to land arc:
000 • •
And all of these outcomes are equally likely.

For the event "(he resuH is not a 1" to occur, (here are five possible outcomes:
• • • •
000(E) •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Therefore the probability that the result is not a I is c
As we saw above, thc probability that the result is not a 1 is c • Bui ihe probability thai
the result is a 1 is "7". From these facts we see that the following relation holds:
(Probabilily of 1) + (Probability of not I) = 1 g^\
In general, for an event A, thc following holds:
(Probability of A occurring) + (Probability of A not occurring) = I

Therefore, the following relation holds:
(Probability of A not occurring) = 1 - (Probability of A occurring)
Problem "| | If (hree IO-yen coins are tossed,

"W ~X
"At least one coin is tails" is the
find the probability that at least same as "All three are heads' not
occurring.
one coin lands (ails up.
168 6 — Probability )IV p.20A Answer

Appendix
•* s
♦
c •.:..
• FurtherToplcs 170
Equations with Three Unknowns (development) 170

Finding the Number of Cases (development) 17 A
Making Predictions Irom Data (development) 178
When Are Ihe Clock Hands Aligned? 182
~
• Private Study 186
HowManyTurnson the Tollot Roll? 186

TraditionalPatterns withTiled Figures 188
Reading Braille 190
Let's Make a Beam Balance 192
Experimenting with Dice for Random Numbers 193
>Supplementary Problems - 194
<J
«••> \ | ILJLJ l_J
Idfui i UjmI
i
PW'
2
Equations with Three Unknowns v
Tnggerjj in the fjiagram on the right, each
'""**• number in a blue box is the sum
of the two values in pink circles on
either side. Let's find the values of
x, y, and z.
-4
r~\
We will investigate the relations among x, //, and z, and find theirvalues.
Probi«m "I | Albert compares the sum of x and

The sums are 3 and
y with thc sum of x and z, and 1. right?
realizes that // is 2 more than z.
How did he get this?
From Problem 1 and the fact that the sum of// and z is -4, we get tlie following
y —z = 2
O
y \ z= -A
probitm2 I Solve the above simultaneous equations, and find the values of// and z. From
the values of// and z, find thc value of X.
Albert found a relation between thc values represented by // and z, and derived
In this problem, there arc three values lo be found; can wc find thc values usingx, //, and
z, by representing thc relations among them as equations?
170
V p20A Answer
If we write thc conditions ofthe ' ^ as equations using.»-, //, and z,\vc
get the three following simultaneous equations.
x -I- // = 3 (1)
// \z= - A (2)
x \ z=\ (3)
If wc look at Albert's solution using the equations, we can find the values of x, //, and
z satisfying thc above three equations, by the following method.
o [\ ] Eliminate x from equations (|) and (.'{), to derive thc equation // z = 2.

|2| Solve // z —2 and equation (2) as simultaneous equations, to find thc values
of // and z.
[3J From thc values of// and z, find the value ofx.
Problem 3 In the above procedure, answer the following questions.

(0 In(1 |,how can wceliminate x from thc equations (1) and (3)?
(2) In[3!, how can wcfind thc value ofXfrom thc values of // and z!
In Chapter 2 you learned about simultaneous equations with twounknowns, bul here
u wc are dealing with three unknowns.
Generally, wctalk of a linear equation in three unknowns, and a combination of such

equations wc call a system of simultaneous linearequations in three unknowns.
Wc can say the equations wc used here arc a *3>

x+ y r Ot = 3
system of simultaneous linear equations in
0x+ y+ z- -4
three unknowns, with coefficients 0 or 1, as
x + oy + z = /
shown on the right.
Further Topics 171

Let's solve a scl of simultaneous linear equations in three unknowns, where thc
coefficients arc not all 0 or 1.
(§p5j-( 'i) Solve the following simultaneous equations.

2x I // \-Az = 5 (1)
-X-yr2z= -2 (2)
2x- y-z = l Gfl
Hint We can eliminate z as follows.
(1) 2.rl y\\z - f)

(2)x2 -)-2x-2y + Az= -A r>
Ax + Zy = 9 M)
(2) x- y I 2z = -2
(3)X2 -I ) .|.r 2// 2*- M

3x 3// = 12 (5)
problem 4 I Eliminate // from (-1) and (5), to find the value of x- Using this value, then
find thc values of // and z.
Thus, to solve simultaneous linear equations in three unknowns, first eliminate one
unknown, and solve thc resulting equations in two unknowns.
Problem 5 Solve the following sets of simultaneousequations.
.r I By 2z 7 2x I // I Zz ' 12
© .c Ay I- z = —5 © 3.r 12// - -j =
7.e 3// z - 0 .r 2// + <U: l(i
problem (y There are three natural numbers, a, b,

(Number to be divided)
and r. If wc divide c by /», the quotient
=(Divisor) x (Quotient) + (Remainder)
is 7 and the remainder 4.
When wc divide thc sum of b and c by a, the quotient is 5 and thc
remainder 4. Thc sum of a, b, and c is 100. What are the three numbers?
172
In the ™2Jl) on page 170, we can also solve using the following approach.
Each number in a blue ( j is the sum of ihc numbers

in llic O on either side. So the sum of ihe numbers
in thc three [ ] is twice Ihe sum of Ihe numbers in the
O- Therefore, the sum ofthe numbers in thc O 's
(3-.|-|-l)-f2 = 0. -4
Problem J Using (he above approach, how can we find thc values ofthe numbers in the Q?
U Ifwc write the above approach in equations, wc get thc following.
Problem 8 In the diagram on thc right, find llic
values of x, //, and z.
I Try making more \âmwk

problems like this. I (•, (*j,
-3
J\
Furlher Topics 173

9
Finding the Number of Cases 9
Trigger^ Four soccer teams play each
other 'home-and-away'*. How
many matches is this in total?
Try to think of a neat way of counting all the possibilities, being careful z~\
not to double-count, nor to miss some.
In the "HJI, if the teams arc a, b, c, and a b c (1
(I, then if wc represent team a playing at a X ab tie ad
b ba X be ltd
home against team /; playing away as ab,
c en cli X id
all of thc matches arc us listed in the table
(1 da db lie X
on thc right.
problem *| How do we approach the problem to calculate thc total number of matches?
Use Ihe table above as reference.
r\
Problem 2 Suppose thai instead of homc-and-away, each pair of teams plays just one
match, then how can wc look at thc above (able to find the total number of
matches? Using this approach, find llic total number.
Problem 3 Find the total number of brown dots in the
diagram on thc right, using the approach of
Problem 2.
•
i\ "Home mid away" means each team plays eachoilier team twice: once at its home ground, andonce
nl llicopponent's ground.
174 p.20A Answer

To find thc total number of matches in a home-nnd-away tournament, for example wc
can use thc following approach.
$
llj There are four cases for the home team: Home team Visitors (team playing away)
a, b, cmvld a-
[2] For each team playing at home, the other 3 possibilities
three teams will each be playing an away
match.
(31 Therefore thc total number is 4 x 3=12 4 possibilities

matches. Total number of matches is 4x3 = II
-
This approach is thc same as asking how many ways there are of selecting two of thc
four letters a, b, C, andil, and putting themin a sequence.
A bag contains one each of red, blue,

black, and white balls. From this
bag, I draw three balls in turn, and

place them in sequence. How many
different sequences arc there of the
balls drawn from the bag?
Hint For thc first ball, there arc four possibilities.

O
Forthc second ball, there arethree possibilities for each first ball.
For thc third ball, thereare two possibilities foreach second ball.
Solution Thc number of sequences is
4x3x2- 2-1 Answer 24 sequences
Problem 4 Select two from the five numerals 1,2, 3,4, and 5, and arrange them to make
a two-digit number.
How many Iwo-digit numbers can wcmake?
Further Topics 175

In an all-play-all competition, where each pair of teams plays one match only, we do not
distinguish ab for a as the home team against team bfrom ba for bas llic home team
against team a,and are only concerned with the combinations ofmatched teams.
In a four-team all-play-all, wc can find Ihc number
of matched teams to play onceeach, by taking the a,
four points a, A, c, andd in the diagram on the
right, and counting the number of line segments
joining any two of the four points.
b
z~\
a.
Since the points that can bc joined to it are
the three points other than a, we can draw

three lines from a.
Similarly, there are the same number of lines
joining b, c, and d to other points, so the
total number of lines is 3 x I, (hat is 12 lines.
(31 However, When drawing a line from a lo b, we have drawn llicsame line as
rs
when drawing from b to it, and therefore we have counted each line twice.
141 Therefore we can find the number oflines joining two offour points as12 -r2,
that is, 6 lines.
In a four-team all-play-all, the combinations for a single match each is as follows.

ab, a<\ ad, be, bil, cd
Problem 5 Twopeople are to bc chosen from a group of ten. How many ways can they be
chosen?
176
Problem 6 ) Find the number ofdiagonals ofa
decagon (10 sides).
Problem 7 ) A bag contains one each ofred, blue,

Taking out three balls
black, and white balls. I take three balls leaves one in the bag..
simultaneously from the bag. How
V
m
w
many ways arc there of doing this?
Problem 8 Fourpeople are being chosen from

a group of six for a relay learn. How
many ways are there of doing (his with
thc following selection methods:

1) Selecting team members with a
sequence for running.
(2) Selecting the members without

deciding any sequence.
<J To find tlie total number of cases when il cannot bccalculated immediately, draw a tree
diagram or table, and count the cases carefully in sequence.
Problem 9 How many combinations of coins can I I How many combinations are
\ there ifchange is allowed?
use if I buy a can of sofl drink for 120
yen from a vending machine? The only

coins that can be used arc 10 yen, 50
yen, and 100 yen, and there should bc
no change.
Further Topics 177

9
Making Predictions from Data
f
The following tabic shows thcaverage air
temperature (in °C) in Hirosaki for March
every yearfrom 1983 lo2004. Thcdales
when the Yoshino ornamental cherry trees
were in full bloom are also shown. Let's
analyze therelationship ofthese two data.

Mt. Iwaki and Hirosaki Park (Aomori Prefecture) r\
Year Average March temperature Full-bloom date Year AverageMarch temperature Full-bloom dale
198<I 1.3 5 6 1995 2.0 •1 21
1985 0.6 •1 26 1996 1.2 1 27
1986 1.2 -1 26 1997 2.3 •1 22
1987 1.3 -1 23 1998 3.3 '1 11
1988 0.9 <l 27 1999 1.3 •1 22
1989 •1.2 A H 2000 1.2 -1 26

1990 3.8 '1 13 2001 1.8 -1 19
1991 1.7 •1 22 2002 1.2 •1 1-1
1992 2.:"> -1 22 2003 1.8 •1 19
1993 2.6 -1 23 2001 2.8 <l 16

1991 1.1 •1 22 2005 1.(1 •1 28
z~\
Trlgge7| prom tne data f0r I984and 2002, what relationship can we say there is
between the average temperature and the cherry blossom full-bloom date?
Il is hard to sec the relation just from looking at the table, so let's / How do we
represent May 6
make a graph. V as a day in April?
M
Problem •] ) Let the average March temperature be ,r°C, and the cherry blossom full-
bloom dale bcllic //lh day ofApril, then mark thepoints inthc graph on
thefollowing page with thepairs of x and y coodinates.
178
1Y\ p,204 Answer
.
_
-2-1 O 1 2 3 A ''
Thc graph above is called acorrelation diagram. Itis also called a scatter plot diagram. Acorrelation diagram
is agraph showing thc relation between two quantities. Based on the correlation diagram you drew in
Problem I, wc will draw astraight line passing asclose aspossible through thc plotted points. We call this
line as(he line ofbest fit. We will use thc line ofbest fit asa guideline tofind the full-bloom date for 2004.
ProWem2 I In the correlation diagram for Problem 1, draw astraight /"We'll compare this\
( with the actual full- J
line, passing asclose possible through the middle ofthe \bloom date. /
points. Find an equation for this straight line. Using this
Problem 3
equation, find the predicted full-bloom date for 2004.
In March 1980, the average temperature in

w
Hirosaki was 0.8 "C. Find a prediction for the
u
cherry blossom full-bloom date this year, using
the equation you found in Problem 2.
In this way, if wecanderive a function best fitting the data in a

correlation diagram, wc can investigate trends in the data and
makevarious predictions. Graphing calculators and computer
spreadsheet software provide functions for deriving equations
in this way.
Further Topics 179

Let's look al correlation for a differentexample.
Trigger| Akiko, who suffers from hay fever every

year, was investigating hay fever, and
found a graph like that on the right.
This graph shows the yearly
data inTokyo for the pollen Pollen count(grains/cm') Sunlight(MJ/m!)
counts ' ofcryptomeria and IOO"0
9.000 A Sunlight o p
hinoki cypress, and the total OOOO
rojo
sunlight' * in July of the fj.coo
?,rexH
previous year. iV/>
What can we see from this J.grjg

Pollen count
?r.io
graph? i ,O0O
r\
Source: Mr. Murayama o( Ihe Japan

Meteorological Association
To find thc relation between pollen count and sunlight, we'll make a correlation diagram.
problem 4 I Answer thc following questions about the relation between pollen count and sunlight.
0) Based on Ihe data in thc following table, draw a correlation diagram for
the relation between thc two quantities.
Year Sunlightin previousJuly Pollen count Year Sunlight in previousJuly Pollen count
1981 11.5 53-1 1991 15.8 2865
1982 17.6 1567 1992 13.5 1001
1983 Il.fi 350 1993 14-6 3751
198-1 13.1 1669 199-1 9.6 •in r\

1985 15.1 2026 1995 17.6 7588
1986 16.0 1603 1996 14.6 972

1987 12.(1 '196 1997 16.2 2808
1988 15.9 2532 1998 16.1 2110

1989 11.3 112 1999 12.5 673
1990 13.7 1812 2000 17.7 -1801
(2) From (he correlation diagram, what can wc say about the relation
between the two quantities? __^_^__
The countof pollen grainsobserved in Iheseasonover a 1cm *area.
* A The energy from the sun convened to heal, in units of M.l/rn .
180
Let's collect data from an experiment, andmake predictions from It.
A baseball or soccer crowd sometimes makes
a giant "wave"by everyone standing with their

hands high in turn.
In your class, try making a wave with different
numbers of people, and from Ihe data collected
predict how long one cycle of a wave lasts.
11 ] Make a wave, standing in a circle, and

M
You will need to decide
measure thc time for thc wave to go the timing for standing.
one cycle, as you increase thc number
of people from 5, 10, 15, and so on. m

121 With the number of people asx and
the time for one cycle as .'/ seconds,
draw a correlation diagram for tlie
collected data.
3 Draw the line of best fit in Ihe
correlation diagram. And find an
equation for this straight line.
<j
IA Using the equation you found in 3 , find the predicted time for one cycle of a
wave with all of thc students in thc class.
Problem 5 Make a wave with all thcstudents, andcompare with thc time predicted in 14'.
Problem 6 Predict how long one cycle would lake for a wave created by all students in
the school.
Further Topics 181

When Are the Clock Hands Aligned?
Try solving the following problem by different approaches.
Thc hour hand and thc minute hand of a clock arc
aligned at 12 o'clock.Twelve hours later they arc

aligned again in thc same way. In this interval, thc
hands have been aligned a number of times; find the
limes when this occurs.

r\
Approach using equations
Triggerj) Through how many degrees do the hour and minute hands turn per minute?
The hands are aligned when their positions arc thc
same angle from thc 12-o'clock position on the
clock face. From this we can construct equations.
Problem "| Answer the following question if the hands are aligned at x minutes after 1 o'clock.
(J) When thc hands arc aligned, write an expression using %for the position of
each hand as an angle from 12 o'clock on the clock face.
(2) From the angle relation, write an equation.

(3) Solve the equation you wrote in (2), to find the number of minutes after 1
o'clock when thc hands arc aligned.
By creating an equation for the alignment at X minutes after 2 o'clock, x minutes after 3
o'clock, and so on, wc can solve thc original problem.
182
• Approach using a graph
The hour hand turns through 360° in 12 hours. The minute hand turns through 360In
an hour, and from 12 o'clock to the next 12o'clock goes through 12 whole turns.
The following graph represents the movement of the two hands.
(Degrees)
0 12 3 7 8 9 10 11 12(Hours)
Problem 2 In the above diagram, add lines representing the movement of thc minute
hand, to complete the graph.
-
In the above diagram, if wc take the horizontal axis as the .r-axis and thc vertical axis
as the //-axis, we can wrilc equations for the straight lines, using .r and .'/. Solve the
original problems by finding thc .(--coordinates of thc graph intersections.
Problem3 Find the .(-coordinate of intersection A in thc
diagram above, and find how many minutes
after 1 o'clock thc hands arc aligned.
Further Topics 183

The following method is anotherapproach to the problem, using a graph.
Measuring the anglefrom thc 12o'clock position on the clockface, from 12o'clock
to 1o'clock, thc minute hand turns from 0° to 360"in one hour.This movement is tlie
same in each hour. Meanwhile, thc hour hand starts from 0° at 12 o'clock, and 30°at I
o'clock, turning through 30" in each hour.
Let's plot these movements on a graph, and considerthe original problem.

(Degrees)
S~\
50 60 (Minutes)
r>
Problem 4 In the above diagram, add lines representing the movement of the minute hand,
lo complete the graph.
In the abovc diagram, if we take the horizontal axis as the .r-axis and thc vertical axis as
Ihc //-axis and then by finding the .('•coordinates of the intersections, we can solve thc
original problem.
Problem 5 Find the .(--coordinate of intersection B in the
diagram above, and find how many minutes
after 2 o'clock the hands are aligned.
184
<> Let's lookat the original problem from the viewpoint of proportionality.
Suppose the hands arcaligned at x hours and // minutes after 12 o'clock.

Since they are aligned al 12 o'clock, thisis when x = 0 and // = 0.
When x I, the value of // is the lime it takes for llic minute hand lo catch up
with thc hour hand that is 30' ahead. When x = 2. the value of // is the time it
takes for thc minutehand to catch up withthc hour hand that is 60" ahead.
Looking at the problem this way, we see that as the valueof x is multiplied
by 2, 3, and so on, thc valueof // is also multiplied by 2, 3, and so on, so
thai y is proportional to .r.
M
Sincethe handsare aligned again 12 hours later al 12 o'clock, by regarding
12:00 as equivalent to 11:60, wcsee that when x II, // (it).
Problem 6 Draw a graph in Ihc following diagram, showing the relation between x and
// above. Find an equation for .r and //.
.'/
GO A graph passes^
through the
I starting point
50 and (11.60).
40
You will need to~bec1de
the timing for standing.
30
-
20
10
1 2 3 -1 5 G 7 8 9 10 II 12
Problem "J Using the approach abovc, what do we need to do lo solve Ihc original
problem? Explain the method.
Furlher Topics 185

How Many Turns on the Toilet Roll?
Wc use toilet paper by pulling it from a holder. How
many times does thc cardboard core in the roll turn
until the roll is used up?
Consider toilet paper where thc length of the roll is

65 m, and the other dimensions are as shown in thc
diagram on thc right. Total length 65 m

I— 11.4cm —I r>
4cm 1 Icin
r
As the paper unwinds, one layer is removed for each turn of thc roll. So we can tell
how many times the core has rotated from the number of layers of paper.
To find how many layers, let's cut open Ihe roll as shown below, and lay it flat.
ttJ&^
r\
When the paper is laid flat wc expect to see a

quadrangular prism whose base is a trapezoid.The part
with the layers of paper is tlie base of the quadrangular

prism.
186
The diagram below shows the base ofthe solid formed bycutting
1
open the roll. Letthe width a distance x cm from the upper side AD
be y cm. Write an expression for y in terms of x-
A D
/ xcm
\
B /
From step 1 wc sec that if AB is a siraighl line, DC is also a siraighl line, and therefore
the shape of the base is a trapezoid.
M
Since the total length is 65
m, and the shape of the base

is a trapezoid, let's calculate
the number oflayers ofpaper •*
forming the base, and thus find
the number of turns.
By comparing the volume in the rolled up state with the volume when
the paper is laid out flat, we can find the thickness of the paper, and
based on the result we can determine the number of turns.
65m •
-
y
I 11.4cm
7
/j If we consider the case in which the core has zero diameter, when we
cut open the paper as shown on the previous page, what Is the shape
of the base formed by the layers of paper?
Q Based on the argument above, explain the formula for finding the area
of a circle.
Private Study 187

Traditional Patterns with Tiled Figures
The diagram on thc right shows a traditional C--Î\^\\tP^7\^\]/^/
Japanese pattern known as "hemp leaves". >
We can view this pattern as consisting of a large Vs

number of congruent geometrical shapes laid S~,
together like tiles to fill the plane. Let's look at //7\M (PTf^
several examples.
r\
1 Try drawing the "hemp leaves" pattern.
r\
Look at the following traditional patterns, and

say what shapes are tiled to make them. Hakone marquetry work
(Kanagawa Prefecture)
Basket weave Shippo ("Seven treasures")
X txl X
X X X
>< X
X X X
X X
Kx X X X
188
Let's try tiling congruent figures.
Wecan fill thc planewith congruent triangles thus
(a) \ (b)
We can make variants on thc basic patterns (a) and (b) above to form new tilings.
-
•s Ifwe view (a) as based on parallelograms, which are the basic
parallelograms?
Look for examples of tilings around you, and
analyze them in thc same way as above.
Private Study 189

Reading Braille
The photograph on the right shows the cover of the
Ai-no-kobato Braille Calendar produced by the
Ai-no-kobato Foundation. This has the message
"Wishing you a heartfelt happy new year" written in

Braille as follows.
A TA RA SHI I TO SHI NO A NA TA Nl
•o t o t o t o #0 ot to ot to to to to
oo o t o t • • t o •• •• •:) OO o o o t t o
OO tO 00 09 OO to ot to oo t o t o t o r>
KO KO RO WO KO ME TE O KU Rl MA SU
O t ()• o t oo • •• •• • •• • •() • •
•o to t t • •o •• •• to oo •• ot ot
Ct ot co to ot tt to oo ot oo •• ot
In the above sample,thc tilled black circles represent raised dots.
•• Looking at how Braille works

Braille uses a grid of six dot positions, which arc numbered
o© • o
as shown in the diagram on the right. For example, Japanese @® o o
syllabic 'a' consists of dot number 1only. @® o o
r>
Based on thc abovemessage, let's try to fill in the Braillecharacters for the 50 syllables.
I Enter the characters that appear in the message above in thetable on the
opposite page.
P From the characters entered in step 1, try to predict the rest of the table
(except for the ha-row).
•4 The ha-row is constructed by the same rules you found in step 2. How do
you think the ha-row is constructed?
190
• Syllabic table
A I U E O KA Kl KU KE KO
oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo
oo oo oo oo oo o o o o oo oo o o
oo oo oo oo oo oo oo o o o o o n
SA SHI SU SE SO TA CHI TSU TE TO
oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo o o o o
oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo o o o o
oo OO 00 oo oo o o o o oo oo o o
NA Nl NU NE NO HA HI FU HE HO
OO OO 00 oo oo o o o o o o oo o o
oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo
oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo o o oo
MA Ml MU ME MO YA YU YO
-
oo oo oo oo oo 09 o# 09
oo oo oo oo oo oo oo o#
oo oo oo oo oo •o •• •o
RA Rl RU RE RO WA wo N
oo oo oo oo oo go oo oo
oo oo oo oo oo oo oo
oo oo oo oo oo •o oo • •
What have you discovered about Ihe rules for how the Braille syllabic table is made?
4
to ot to ot t t
5 The Braille numerals are shown ot
Qt OO
t t oo
ot
t t 00
to ot oo
t t oo
on the right. What do you notice
about them?
Look for examples of Braille

6
around you, and try to read it.
Where do you find

Braille used?
Private Study 191

Let's Make a Beam Balance
A beam balance is one type of scale for weighing. You can make one without
special materials as follows.
!1| Rod (wooden dowel)

I
V r>
Clothes peg
— Weight (one-yen
coins in a film case)
Using the beam balance shown above, carry out the following experiment.
1
O Clip an envelope in the clothes peg, and move the weight until the beam
Is horizontal and balances, then mark the position of the weight.
© Put a sheet of notepaper in the envelope, then add more sheets one by
one, each time marking the position of the weight.
From the results of the experiment, consider the following.

2
1 Measure the distances from the fulcrum to the marks, and investigate
the relation to the number of sheets of notepaper. -~>
2 Using the relation you have derived, try making a beam balance which
you can actually use to weight objects.
In Ihc scale museum in Malsumoto many beambalances are on display.
192
••Experimenting with Dice for Random Numbers
The photograph on the right shows dice called
N CO
"random number dice." These dice have iwo
faces each numbered 0 to 9.

ffP
1 Using random numberdice, trythe following experiment.
O On graph paper with 1-mm divisions, y
<J
draw coordinate axes as shown on
the right. Then draw a fan shape with

center at the origin and radius 100
mm, with a central angle of 90°. loomm
© Throwthe large and small dice. f When the smaller die gives 0, this
Using the smaller die for the tens V™*88 asin9|e-di9« number.
digit and the larger die for the units
digit, make a two-digit number. Do
this twice.
@ Takingthe tirst number as the ^.-coordinate and the second number as
the ^-coordinate, plot the point with these coordinates on the graph paper
_
withthe fan shape. Take the value ol the coordinates to be in millimeters.
Repeat steps @ and 0 above and

Whatvaluedoes thisapproach?)
find the value:
V
(Number ot points Inside the fan)
(Total number of points plotted)
Private Study 193

•Practicing Algebraic Calculations V —• p.205 Answer
| Calculate the following.
© 3.r• Ay 2x 3 jr © 'ia2 a r/2 1 6fl
<D (2a I 9/>) + (2« -46) © (7 r'-6*) ( -l.r2 r..t)
2 Calculate thc following.
(0 «I(2.f + 3//) © ( Kir/1 12/>)x( j)

r\
® (9fl 156)-5-( 3) ® (25<72+10<?-<10)-f5
@ 2(2.r l //) I 3(.r -I//) ® 5(fl- /») 1 2( 3fl i -I/O
® 4(3.r2 + 2.r) 2(5.r8-.r) ® 4 4 2
3 Calculate thc following.

© 7aX(-2b) (2) 2xyx(Zy)2
® ( 2<l.r//H( 6.1*) @ |5tf*-r(- 3<?)
9 it,/• --y(ib
ll« . (> ,
® ® lbV-f (-9.r2)x2.r
z^-
'* *
t •.' • ' 'i
Let's try!
r\
Albert has lots of 50-yen and 80-yen postage

stamps at home. He is investigating which
face value amounts he can make with different
combinations. Arc there any amounts over 200
yen that il is not possible to make? Find these
amounts. You only need lo consider multiples
of 10 yen.
194
Practicing Solving Simultaneous Equations 1 V p.205 Answer
Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations.
2.rl•// = 7 .i- I-Ay = 1

®
2.r - // = 1 :t.t- l •!// =5
.i-l-5// = 5 •l.r 3// = 19

® (4)
x 3// - 1 3.r i .// = 11
3x + 2y = 7 2.r-l 5// 16
C6)
Bx + Ay -- 13 3.r + 4// 2-1
u
2 Solve thc following sets of simultaneous equations.
•l.il.//= 5 x - \\\i A
CO (2)
y = 2.r I 1 2x \\y = 1
// = 2.r - 9 2.i- I 7.v - 2

3 ®
// = -2.r + 7 2.r - 3*+ 22
3 Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations.
( x By I 1 7.T Hx l //) = 6
CD ®
( 3(.r il) 2„ -A \ Bx + 2// - 19
<J
(:• Let's try!
The pheasants and rabbits problem described in "Window on math"

on page 40 was solved by Sun Zi using the following method.
(Number ofrabbits) = (Number oflegs) f 2 - (Number ofheads)
(Number ofpheasanls) =(Number ofheads) - (Number ofrabbits)

Explain why this method works.

Solving Problems Using Graphs w p.205 Answer
(in)
Patrick left his house at 10 o'clock, (Librarv) 2500
2000
slopping al a bookstore on the way, and jr,no
then going to the library. The diagram on (B°°kslorc) 1000
500
thc right is a graph showing the relation
10 20 30 40(Minutes)
between the time elapsed since Patrick (10 o'clock)
left home and the distance he has walked.
CO At what speed, inmeters perminute, did Patrick walk from home lothcbookslorc? r\
(2) His sister left home at 10:30,and set off for thc library by bicycle. If her
speed is 12 km/hour, find the time al which she catches up her brother.
2 A water tank has two supply pipes A and B, IC)

' f
A
and one drain pipe.Thc supply pipes A and

200 /
B are turned on at the same time, and start
1 /
Oiling the tank. Four minutes after starting
•
/
to fill (he tank, il is rcali/.cd that thc drain 100
•
pipe is open. The drain pipe is then closed. \

/
Four minutes later supply pipe A is turned •
off. Thc diagram on Ihe right shows a 10 (Minutes)
graph of the relation between thc elapsed r\

time after starling to fill thc tank and the amountof water in (he lank.
CO Al what rate was water supplied from supply pipe A, in liters per minute?
C2) How fasl does water drain from thc drain pipe, in liters per minute? ^
a' *'
O Let's try!
Express trains travel between stations A and B in cither direction in 2 hours 30 minutes.
The first express leaves each station al 6:00 AM, and thereafter trains leave at one-hour
intervals. As the train leaving station A at 8:00AM makes itsjourney, how many limes
docs it meeta traincoming in the opposite direction before reaching station B?
196
•".'•"• tf?!..
••••Practicing Finding Angles n p.205 Ansv/er
1 Answer thc following questions.

CO Find the sum ofthc interior and exterior angles ofanonagon (polygon with nine sides).
(2) How many degrees isan interior angle ofa regular decagon (ten sides)? How
many degrees is an exterior angle?
(3) How many sides docs a polygon have if the sum of the interior angles is 1800"
2 In Ihe following diagrams, find the size of / x.
© C/Zin ® C77 in ©
C
-
HO
in
3 In the following diagrams, find the sizeof / x.
© ®
Let's try! .-jJ!

Using a squaresheet of origami paper, try to Keep the number
of folds as low as
fold an angle of 15°. possiblo!

Proving Geometrical Properties V p.205 Answer
Quadrilateral ABCD in thc diagram on the A

right is a trapezoid, with AD // DC, and
Z ADC —Z ACD- Point E lies on Ihc diagonal
AC such that /. BAC = ^ ADE.
Prove that DC = A E.
r\
2 In n A BCD as shown in the diagram on the right,
thc intersection of the bisector of Z BAD and the
side BC is point K.
Prove that EC-I CD-A I).
3 In the diagram on the right, K and F arc points

on the diagonal BD of £7 A BCD such that
ZBAE = Z DCF. Prove that AECF is a
parallelogram.
r\
' Let's tryl
Thc diagram on the right includes
three congruent squares joined 7

together. Can you find the sum
)Z .- YV Ax
of ihe angles / .r, / .'/, and / z
drawn in the diagram?

Well, IX is 45', but
198
•Finding Probabilities *! .. p.205 Answer
1 I throw two dice of different sizes, and take the

number on the larger die as a, and the number on
WA.b)
the smaller die as b- If point A has coordinates (2,a) T
and point B hascoordinates (4, b), find the following A(Z

probabilities.
© Probabilily that the stralglit lineAB is parallel to ihc x-axis

(2) Probability that the straight line AB passes O
_
through the origin
(3) Probability (lint the slope of the straight line AB is -1
',' As shown in the diagram on the right, ABC is an

equilateral triangle of side 1 cm. Point P is at thc
vertexA. For each lime that a coin is tossed, point

P, moves along thc sides of Ihe triangle through
vertices A, B, C in sequence. It moves 2 cm if thc
coin loss is head and 1 cm if coin loss is tail.
© Thecoin is tossed Iwice, and both times arc heads. Now which vertex has the
point P reached?
- (2) If thc coin is tossed three times, find the probabilily that thc final position of
point P is thc vertex B.
Let's try!
•:*?.
Inasetof yes/no questions, wc found thc following tendency in tlie answers tothe questions.
[iJ "Yes" answer is more common. ~x
/Think about sequences'*,
121 A"Yes" or a"No" answer never appears three or \of "Yes" and "No". J
more times consecutively.
There are five questions, and Ido not know ihc answer lo any of them. What / fy
sequenceof yes/noanswers should I give to increasethe likelyproportion ofcorrect answers?

Answers lo chapter summary problems
chapter 2 Simultaneous Equations
ii • •"-" mmmmm •—m —MM -*^—•»
Ctiaptersummaryproblems A p.A\
1 © .v :t. // 2
chapter 1 Calculating with Formulas © x I. // 5
Chaptersummaryproblems A p.22
® x= ]. // ="
7 (1) 2u \ 2b ® Zx .//
@ .r I. J/-9
© V.r 12// (t) \x*
© .i- 2. y <>
2 © (>//<)/> ® 2d lb
@ .r = C>, y —S
® // -3/> © 2.f*-l It
2 it 3, /' -r.
© HI./ 5/i ® 2.i' I :t
3 Eight fill-yen stamps r^
3 © I*'"' @ I"'
Seven Xll-ycn stamps
® I © 9.r 4 M
© 15a-» © 2,i 5 20boys and 16 girls
4 © « ® 4
5 © ff =fr +i Chaptersummaryproblems B p.42

® ii 2m b
7 © .i Id. // 8
Q We can write the sequence of3 consecutive even
© .«• - I. </ - <>
numbers as 2 n 2. 2n, 2.n I 2
2 18 girls and 16 boys
wheren is the middleiniegcr.Thereforc, Ihesum of
these is {2 « - 2) I 2m + (2m-2) (i//

3 A: 12 km/hour
which explains why it is a multiple of 6.
U: 4 km/hour
r>
Chaptersummaryproblems B p.23
chapter 3 Linear Functions
/ © "-'i;' " ® 2.,' 2.r 1 Chaptersunvnaryproblems A p.76
2 © 2.r I Viy ® .i I li// 7 CO ' 3 // M

3 1!)///. on' .«• 2 //I
Zj We can explain Ihis byletting Ihc cenlral © 15
number bc .c; then the sum of the three ® I - '/ £ 17
numbers is (x ?) + .r + (j- + 7) 3.r 2 © !' I •>• +i

© // 2,i- 1
I) Theanswer isdouble thc number used in
© // :i.r I 2
slep 0.
200 Answer
3 © © .'/ 3r
3 Since two sides and ihe included angle are
equal, A APC a A ADIC
© // |u- 1
Tlierefore, BC = DIC
© .'/^ .*,+,
© // .r + 7
cr^»5 Properties ol'Geometrical Figures
Chaptersummaryproblems A—p.145
© .r-4. // = :*
/ In triangles A AUP and A ACP
© ( j1,. 11J AB == AC
4 3930 yen /PAP - /CAP
AI' is a shared side
Chaptersummaryproblems B p.7/ Therefore since 2sides andihe included angle are equal.
/ 11 hours A ABB A ACP
_
Hence PB- PC
amtti 4 Parallel Lines and Congruent Figures 2 0) In triangles A BBC and AKCB
Chaptersummaryproblems A p.107 AB AC
7 / ,i. •-(. *«, /«-m»° |)H \ AB. EC= ÂC
, /.. //. /// I"° Tlierefore DB BC •» Ul
2 © 35' ® r,r,° Since ihe base angles of an
3 © Regular octagon isosceles trianglearc equal,
® 3240* /BBC /KCB 12)
@ Nonagon BC is ashared side (:{)
4 © Hypothesis I'A PB From (1). (21. and (31, since two sides
AM - BM andIhe included angle areequal,
Conclusion / AMP = Z\MV A BBC AKCB
® APAMandAPUM Therefore BK CD
„
© 3 sides arc all equal. © From CD. / FBC = / FCB
Since thc two angles arc equal,.- I' BC
Chaptersummaryproblems B p.108 is an isosceles triangle.
/ © ur © 20" 3 In II ABCD, diagonal AC passes
2 Since 2sides and the included angle arc equal, through thc midpoint of Ul).
AI'AM Al'HM In/ 7A'DC'D. diagonal A'C" passes
Therefore, AP UP through the midpoint of UD.
Therefore, AC, A'C" and BD all
intersect atthe midpoint of Bl>.
Answer 201
4 In triangles AABE and ACDF, since 2 Intriangles ACE and DCB,
opposite sides ofa parallelogram areequal, since all sides of an equilateral triangle
AB-CD Ill are equal,
And since alternate angles ofparallel lines arc equal, AC= DC (1)
/ABK=/CDK (2) CK - CB (2)
By hypothesis, But
/ AKB- /CKD ill)0 ••• CI) /ACK = ZAC\) I /-DCK
Since these are right-angled triangles, with - 00° I / DCK - (3)
the hypotenuse and one acute angle equal, / DCB = / KCB I / DCIC
AABK a A CDF = (ill" I / DCK - (I)

r>
Therefore, AK = CK (II From CI) and (I),
AndJta*/ AEF = zCKK 9(l°.andihcse /ACK /DCB (15)
arcequal aliemate angles, A IC 7/ CK ••• (5) From (|), (2), and (5), since two sides
Since one pair of opposite sides arc and ihe included angle are equal,
parallel and Ihe same length, AECF is a A ACK s A DCB
parallelogram. And therefore, AK - |)H
5 (i) 90° © 30° ® 1(1(1°

chapter 6 - Probability
i 'Chaptersummaryproblems B p. 146 Chaptersummaryproblems A p.166
7 j] By hypothesis, 7 CO Aliscflandl>i\id,AlisoiiandETnv^llrendiardDa\id,
KK = DIC. AK ICC Brendiand Earnest,Ccliaand David,Ccliaand Eimest
Since'thc diagonals intersect at their

midpoints, ADCF is a parallelogram.
© I
2 © Six ways © \ rs
2| From (j | AD 77 PC, AD PC 3 J
And since A I) = DB 4 Examples: "odd", "even", "a multiple of four", and so on
DB // PC, DB IX
Since one pairof oppositesides are Chaptersummaryproblems B p.167

parallel and the same length, DBCF is a
/ 12
parallelogram.
Therefore, DF // BC. DF BC
2 Drawing a 2 and a 3lis more likely.
Since E is Ihe midpointof DF,
DK // BC. DIC - jBC 3 I
202 Answer
Geometrical FiguresMaintaining a ConslantAngle
Answers t
Questions
p.!47~15Q
Triggei^ -rne |)a,|, js par, 0f ncjrc|c
•• Mufliprying and dividing po\'/ers of ri p.14 hit-** 1
Trigs*) 0) 7 © :\ r.iiv. 2
•1 (a1)' = a' x a* Xa1 = «" <?* *.t»3 (jj /AI'B = ///
(U / APB> /«
r,.iv, 2 Since </' t </' I, wc can sec [3] /AI'B< ///
thatr/° = 1. TW") In all cases, / ABB is equal lo / C•

m>m4 If approaches / ABT.
mi SimultaneousEquations ol Ihe Form A = !!=(' imimB ThccxlerioranglcofquadrilateralAPBCa!«nex P.
u p.44 w-6 © Draw diagonals AB and CPof

Tri99«) Adults: 100 yen. child: 50 yen quadrilateral APBC.
By Iheinscribed angle theorem,
"*~2 © .«• 2. II l /ACB /ABB
© .1=2, //= 2 iPCB" /PAU

And from thc relation between interior
| | Graphs In Step Form p.49 and exterior angles ofa triangle,
rntta 1 Example: Rail faresand similar / ABIC / ABP I / BAB
/ACB I /BCB
Graph ol x a h p. 78
= /ACB
mm 1 o ©
y © /ABIC I /APB- 180°
3 From ©.since i ACB / APE .
. ACB ' • APB 180"
<J mm 7 Extend BO, and let C bc the inlcrseciion
•I 0 2 I'
wilh Ihc circlc.Sincc OB I BT,
2
/ ABT 90" t C'BA
'I
Hut ACAB isa right-angled triangle, and therefore
II
t. ACB 90* • C'BA
Therefore .- ABT / ACB
|Conditions lor a Rectangle, Rhombus, and Square
From the inscribed angle theorem,
p.134
t ACB . ACB
© (§), fO © :b\ Oi
/ ABT = / ACB
© (6\ @) © ®. ©
Answer 203
•• Probabilityof anEvenlKW Occurring p.168 »«w«5 10x9-5-2 —'18 Answer 2(1 ways
"•*«6 10X0*2 Ifi
This 45 also includes Ihc sides of the decagon,

mm1 J and thereforeIhc number of diagonals is
•15 in :i.ri Answer 35
•H Equations with Threo Unknowns p |70~I73 mm7 4 X 3X2*6' I Answer | ways
,ri^> .r I. // I. z= 3 (Since there is one ball left in ihc bag, wc
mm) The sum of .r and // is 2 more than Ihc can also find (he answer from Ihe number
sum of.)'and c. This means thai '/ is 2 of ways illis can happen, i.e. 4.)
11Hire 11 Kin x. MM8 0 6x5x4x3 :i(i(l

/~N
""•«2 .»• - i. // i. z :i Answcr .'Kill ways
»«v-3 ;i) Subtract (3) from (1). © :«i(i : (I X3X2) IS

© For example, substitute the value of Answer I!> ways
'/ into (I) lo find Ihc value of X. miw'9 Fourcombinalions:
'••>•"'4 .i : !l. U \. i •• 12 10-ycn coins
'"""S © ,r 2, // II. ^ 5 7 10-yen coins and 1 50-yen coin
© .* 2. // - \, i :t 2 10-ycncoins Mid 2 50-ycn coins
"""6 « 111. h Kl. e 71 2 10-ycncoins and I 100-ycncoin

r*v« 7 por example, subtract 3, the sum of ,i and
'/ from 0 to get -3, Ihc value of ^. r^'rgpretfefons from Data p.l78~!8l
"""8 .1 I. // I. i 1 When Iheaverage March temperature is
high,the cherry blossom opens earlier.
Finding Die Number of Cases p. 174 ~ 177 MM 1
rN
"JFÎ 12 matches
nmm 1 Since each team plays every team but Omitted (The actual full NoctiidtewisApril 2S.)
itself, wc can find Ihe answer from **J Ifihe total sunlight inJuly ofthe previous year was
(number of learns - I) X (number of learns) high, there isatendency for ahigh pollencount.
*--*«4 (I) Omitted
'"»'- 2 Entriesal> and In inihe lablearc nowseen as Ihcsame, © Ifthctotal sunlight in July of Ihc
sowecan divide llic total entries inllic lable by2. previous year is higher, Ihcrc is a
12 ': 2 — li Answer li matches tendency for a higher pollen count.
"-a 7X6*2 21 Answer 21 dots MlM 5
"•'"4 fi x .| 2(1 Answer 2(1 numbers mm 6
204 Answer
Practicing Finding Angles p. 197
Answers to Supplementary Problems
1 © Sum of interior angles:-" 1260°
Sum of exterior angles:-".'{(id"
Practicing Algebraic Calculations p. 194 © Interiorangle: •••111°. exteriorangle: •••:!«)"

1 © .»• In © 6«' I 5a ® 12 sides
© l,t I 5/i (4) ll.r-.r 2 © 125' © 30* © 50'
2 © «.«• I 12/y © 12,/ !)/« 3 © «0» © 57° © 78°
© 3« i 5 A © .W I2« S @ 72° © 25° © Km'
© 7,i I(I// © „ i 3A
® 2.r' I I0.r :o:

/.I' I .'/ Proving Geometrical Properties p. 198
I
1 In AABC and ADEA
u 3 © "•'''/' © I8.r//3
AC DA
© in © fir/
^MCA /KAI)
3«
© © l.r zttAC /KDA
4
A A IK' ADKA
Practicing Solving Simultaneous Equations p. 195 HI" HA
1 © .. 2. it = :i 2 AADE is an isosceles triangle

© .r 3, .'/ I Tlierefore. HA III-: CD
© x lo. // :t Al) DC
© .»• i. // i BR i kc
© .i I. It = 2 CD I KC
© .«• «. .'/ I) 3 Since A ABE ACDF.

2 © .< 3. </ 7 AlC CF U)
® .r n. // :i /AKK /CKK
_
© .. I. ,/ I AK // CK (21
© .« 8. i/ 2 From (1) and (2), wc can say lhat AECF is
,'} «0 .«• li. u I a parallelogram.
© .1 3. // 2
Finding Probabilities
Solving Problems UsingGraphs p. 199

p 196 i i
••:«) li ©
w 12
:3
| © 50m/mimiic ©
2 © 15 0/minute © 30 I'/minute 2 © Vertex II © «
Answer 205
hulux
i£ (Converse) 119
1'fflMb (Llnoar luncllon) 50 0OO*p»I II II I

'/ / X
y=ax\-b I II II I Imp.., ()()()
/
^0 I iolH (Conclusion) 101
Q< X ) <"*«« I || |( I
t
• IJjjjH (Linear oxprosslon) 7
• nieDft (Inscribed anglo) 142 111 (Term) 6
3X' \(-2x)\(-5 )
n
af§](s)(Congruenco(s)) 94,95
[ka-ko]
• 8? (Solution) 26
• 9Wi (Exterior anglo) 82 [sa-so]
frift (Alternalo angles) 87
W%Z (Probability) 155
P 11
'7X%i (Degree)
x' -I- 2xy' I 4

• man 31 4- 4
(Addition and subtraction, Melhod ol)
WI£ (Slope) 57 2 3 —> ol an expression r^
y=ax-\-b £112 (Hypotenuse) 120
IS5E (Hypolhosis) 101

WYM (Troo diagram) 161
( X X) mv"M
-—o
t O
O-
(Function) 48 -— o
"—• x
206
S$£ (Elimination) 28 • 5£$ (Definition) 112
ffllft (Proof) 90 • fKiZJ(Base) 112
Wft- (Intercepl) 56 • JEH (Theorem) 114
IsJI&ft (Corresponding angles) 87
y—ax+b
/
<c
/° X
IfiH^CvS/^SUlA (Equally likely) 157

fc)#l (Diagonal) 124
(•TjWHfl (Similar lorms) 8
2x' I-a--I 3x' -3

-
• fcljjlft (Vertically opposite angles) 86

• ft?< (Solve) 26
[nn-no]
P*9ft (Interiorangles) 82
• itXiti (Substitution) 32
• %i\U (Opposite sides) 124
27tV^f5\li!i 26
(Linear equation In two unknowns)
3#-l 2i/=24
SS'ifijV. (Polynomial) 6
23H-5. 3a'+,\ab-\ 1 [ha-ho]
- -Will: (Monomial) 6 Z7ABCD 124
2... ±-tf $£i£(DMa (Ralo of change) 52
Jfiffl (Apex) 112

y=ax \ b
ffifi (Base angle) 112
<- Apei 66
(Graph ol on equation)
1 t t 26
Onso BftM Baso nng'o (Simultaneous equations)
207
About Wasan
"' •
Japanese mathematicians made their own independent advances duringthe

Edo period. Their work is called "wasan".
Let's look at thc work of Seki Kowa, a distinguished practitioner of "wasan'
Seki Kowa
o
Seki Kowa (c. 1642 - 1708), also
known as Seki Takakazu, laid the
foundation for thc development of
mathematics in the Edo period.
( He is hailed as the "Saint" of
- "wasan". Among his achievements
is his work on k.
Katsuyosanpo (Wasan Research

Seki Kowa
Institute, Kyoto) contains the works (Koju Collection, Toyama Prefecture)
of Seki Kowa collected by his pupil.
Thc photograph below shows part of
Ihe calculation of it.
^
Geometry Fill in the boxes with words or symbols to complete the
following statements.
' ' Parallel lines •Congruence

and angles
fropeitn • ol vertical anyli s :87 Properties ol congruent figures -+95
Corresponding and
• Verlical angles are angles are equal.
L
Halation between parallel lines -+89 Z~\

.iiiii angles
I
• If two straight lines are parallel, then
corresponding angles and alternate
angles are I I.
i Isosceles I
If corresponding angles or alternate triangles
angles are equal, the two straight lines Properliosol isosceles : 114,115
are I triangles
• The base angles are
The bisector of the

apex IsIhe I
bisector of the base.
Inluririi rind exlonoi an |liss ol i\ ; 91
Conditions lor an isosceles triangle

• The sum ot the interior angles of a triangle is /~\
• +118
• z\a\ z\b = [ • Twoangles of the triangle are
• Circles
Inscribed angle theorem >142

• The size of an inscribed
Inter 101 and exlerioi angles ol —>83.85 angle intercepting a
.1 polygon particular arcof Ihe /
circle Is f_ |, /
^Jlhe 1 ,/ yZ/0\ \ \
• The sum of the interior anglesof a polygon
wilh 71 sides is 180° x | |. and is [
central angle for that \L
• The sum of the exterior anglesof a polygon Is arc. \
_ _ J
'Parallelograms
Conditions for congruent triangles • : 97 Properties ol a parallelogram '• 124

| are equal.
Both pairs of opposite sides are
Both pairs of opposite angles are
! I I"
The diagonals intersect at
their!
1
and the Included angle are
^J U equal.
and the angles at each end are

equal.
Conditions lor a parallelogram ' 131

• Both pairsof opposite sides are
• Both pairs of opposite are equal.
Conditions for congruent right- -+ 121 j are equal.

Both pairs of opposite
angled triangles
w
The hypotenuse and one are
equal.
The | |Intersect attheir midpoints.
The hypotenuse and another

are equal.
One pair of | 1are parallel and their

lengths are equal.
^N
©*m*. im&i&tta&itmnik&mmr mm #fu>» 2j a^mm

7^,
tHg|ISîaa*£ilRU %ftLtzi><DXto
©*&<D\*imz>O^X<Dt'<X(D%te\i, ^$&A&rHI =*&**«,
^TOAAir«^l<&l
t373-0033 »HJ^*fflHfi!S*Wr69-l
TEL:0276-33-7711

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MATHEMATICS

2< Using Simultaneous Equations - 36

4 Parallel Lines and Congruent Figures

2(l Congruent Figures ^

Alps and mountain

Playtime problems 45,79.151

Independent Research 186

Milachl Kamine leisure land

Contents of the Chapters

Opening These give an overview ofthe content covered by the section.

Practical example for understanding the content

A problem tocheck if youhave correctly understood

A problem for a better understanding of the content

A problem for which a calculator is useful

* * Further description relating to the term in a footnote

At the end ol each chapter...

Write inyour exercise books:

• The useful techniques you have

Appendix* Furlher Topics Theselook at furtherdevelopments of material you

The following arefurlher development topics.

Multiplying and Dividing Powers of a 14

The sections labeled 'Development'' arenotpart ofthe formal curriculum requirements,

Triggers Let-S p|ay a number guessing game!

1 Write the number you first thought of in O

4 1 — Calculating with Formulas

Why is the answer always the same? Write x for the

to © asexpressions in ,X\ and try to seewhy.

Right! How did

If youchange the number written in 0,

Is theresult in © always thesame, just as

1 — Calculating with Formulas 5

Let's look at the number of terms and the number of variables In

Monomials and Polynomials

Expressions consisting only of a product of letters and

An expression such as 2.r I 5, 3ffz I '\<ih I 1 v5>

which is the sum of a number of monomials, is called a Polynomials

^H£l) Since we can write .'{.{•* 2x 5as: I Think ofmore examples X

3x' +( -2x)-f ( -S)

check -| Name the terms ofthe polynomial 2x'~ <l.r I !{.

Prabliffl 1 Name the terms ofthe following polynomials.

6 1—Calculating v/ith Formulas

Trigger* |n the following monomials, how many letters are multiplied?

The number of letters multiplied in a monomial is calledthe degree of the monomial.

Thedegree of 3«A is 2 3ab ~ 3x a x b

The degree of -|.r*.»/ is 3 -4x*y - -tfx x x * x y

Check 2 Give the degrees of the following monomials

(^^^2) The degree of (lie polynomial

check 3 What isthe degree ofthe polynomial 2X2 3«l' + f>?

Problem 1 Give the degrees of the following polynomials.

(3) ,rb al> I la @ s2/3 ' l

Trigger* j^ the following calculations.

For example, in 5.r I 7// 3.r T 6//,

As shown on the right, we can combine similar

JHLD 0 !">.!• +7// 3.r I(i.v Rearrange theorder of terms

•l.r2i2.f-5.f + G/ Remember that l.i-'

Check "| Collect similar terms inthe following expressions.

Problem "\ Collect similar terms in thefollowing expressions.

CO 8« 76-3// i .r)/> (2) x2 r>.r x 3.ra

(3) \ab to nb I 2a (4) -Jx + ;> // - 2x +-y//

{^fl^2) Adding polynomials

check 2 Calculate the following:

Problem 2 Calculate the following:

Problem 3 Forthese two polynomials, answer the following questions:

Trigger^ Let's calculate A (x + 2)

The degree of -|.r.»/ is 3 -4xy - -tfx x x * x y