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19Th Dec 2003

SEMINAR ON;

“LEAD”

By; Saadullah Ayaz


(M. Phil Environmental Biology)

Department of Biological Sciences


Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad
1. GENERAL
The symbol of lead is “Pb”, derived from its Latin name “Plumbum”. It has an atomic number of
82 and the atomic weight is 207.2.

2. POSITION IN PERIODIC TABLE


Lead is the Eighty Second element in the periodic table. It belongs to Group IV A and 6TH
Period.

3. HISTORY
Lead is known since ancient times and used by mankind. Leads piping bearing the insignia of
the Roman Empire were found in ancient ruins of the civilization. It is believed that the drinking
of water from the lead pipes caused the fall of Roman Empire. Lead was also used in ancient
times in civilizations like Babylon, Greece and Egypt.

4. PROPERTIES
4.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Lead is a solid metal having Gray- blue luster. Its boiling point 1740° C and Melting
point 327.5° C. Lead has a half life of 3.3 hrs. It occurs in two oxidation states of +2 and
+4. Its is soft, extremely malleable and ductile and is a poor conductor of electricity. It is
highly resistant to corrosion.
The lead has a cubic crystal structure with centered faces.
4.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Lead undergoes variety of chemical reactions, resulting in formation of a variety of
compounds, most of these are colored and are used as color pigments in paints and
dyes.
a. Lead reacts with Water to form Lead Oxide (Litharge), which is a yellow pigment.
Pb2+ + H2O PbO + 2H

b. Lead reacts with Oxygen to form Triplumbus tetra- oxide. Which is called “Red
Lead”.
3Pb + 2O2 Pb3O4

c. Triplumbus tetra- oxide reacts with Nitric Acid to form Lead Dioxide, which is
reddish- brown pigment.
Pb3O4 + 4HNO3 2Pb(NO3)2 + PbO + H2O
d. Phumbus Oxylate when heated forms Plumbus Oxide, which is called “Black
Lead”.
2PbC2O4 Pb2O + 3CO2 + CO

5. OCCURRENCE
Lead is relatively abundant in the earth's crust (13 g/ ton, ranking 36th), where it is found in
form of Galena (PbS).
There are two isotopes of lead. One is found very commonly 208Pb. The other isotope of lead is
the 209Pb. Which is radioactive and emits radioactivity in form of beta particles.
United States is a major mine producer and by far the world's leading metal producer. Missouri
is by far the main producing State. The other leading mine producers are Australia and the
former U.S.S.R, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Japan. Recycled lead meets more than
60% of our annual demand.

6. LEAD AS POLLUTANT (TOXICITY)


Lead has a number of uses but many of these are currently being phased out because of
growing awareness of its toxicity as it is causing uncontrolled damage to the environment and
hazardous effects on life. It ranks second in the list of hazardous substances issued by the
U.S. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) in 1999.
Today everyone is exposed to risk of lead contamination. Exposure to lead and lead chemicals
occurs from breathing and inhaling fumes of combusted lead gasoline, drinking water, ingest
contaminated foods or drinking water, and swallowing or touching dust or dirt that contains
lead. The most important source of lead is its use in gasoline (which began in the 1970s).
Other principal sources are lead paints and in soils and dusts containing lead compounds.
Lead may also enter the environment as a by-product of mining and of the industrial
processing of other metals, such as silver, gold, bismuth, etc. Lead may also enter body by
embedded lead projectiles like pellets and bullets and. Lead pellets are reportedly engulfed by
fishes in form of lead pellets used by hunters and enters into the body of prey birds that feed
upon these fishes and thus cycles into the food chain.
6.1. LEAD IN SOILS AND ENVIRONMENT
Lead in the home garden and urban soil environment concerned about elevated lead
levels in the environment, particularly in metropolitan areas. Soil lead levels are highest
around building foundations and within a few feet of busy streets. Although lead in paint
and gasoline is not presently used to any great extent, once lead has been deposited, it
moves very little through the soil and can persist for a long time. Therefore, lead
contamination of soils from these sources continues to be a concern.

Lead is added to petrol in the form of Tetra- Ethyl Lead (PbEt4) to enhance the quality
of the fuel to be used by the vehicles and reduce engine knocking. Thus the smoke
emitted from such vehicles contain significant amount of lead and causes pollution in
the environment. From this smoke it can enter the ecosystem or the bodies of
organisms.
6.2. EFFECTS OF LEAD TOXICITY ON PLANTS
In general, plants do not absorb or accumulate lead. However, in soils testing high in
lead, it is possible for some lead to be taken up. In such cases plants may readily
absorb lead through their root system, this is observed in plants growing in
contaminated soils that contain nitrogenous lead compounds like Lead Nitrate (PbNO3).
Lead does not readily accumulate in the fruiting parts of vegetable and fruit crops (e.g.,
corn, beans, squash, tomatoes, strawberries, apples). Higher concentrations are more
likely to be found in leafy vegetables (e.g., lettuce) and on the surface of root crops
(e.g., carrots). In this manner the lead enters the ecosystem and food chain passing
from producers to the consumers. The lead has hazardous effects on plant growth and
metabolism.

6.3. LEAD POISONING IN HUMANS

The noxious effects of lead have long been well known, especially as regards acute
forms of poisoning known as “Lead Poisoning”. Reports of lead poisoning date back to
ancient Greece and high levels of lead have been found in ancient Egyptian mummies.
A large amount of the ingested lead passes through the body unabsorbed and is
eliminated in the feces. Adults absorb ~5-15% of ingested lead and retain less than 5%.
Children absorb ~50% and retain ~30%. Once entering the body, lead is not
metabolized and is captured by the liver and blood, and gets settles into the tissues and
notably deposited in blood, in mineral tissues (bones and teeth) and in soft tissues
(kidneys, bone marrow, liver and brain). Some lead is partly excreted in the bile.
The presence of lead in the blood stream (inside the red blood cells and mostly linked to
hemoglobin) provokes anemia. This disease cannot be considered a symptom, but
rather a delayed sign of lead poisoning. Through the blood, lead reaches all other
tissues. Because of its capacity to "mimic" calcium, lead is stored in the bones and
becomes a stable bone component, particularly in the case of insufficient calcium
intake. This lead deposit may be mobilized and return into the blood stream under
particular states of physiological stress (pregnancy, breast-feeding) but also as a
consequence of greater calcium intake in the diet. This stable presence of lead in bones
makes recovery from lead poisoning extremely slow, even when the toxic agent has
been completely eliminated.

Lead can damage practically all tissues, particularly the kidneys and the immune
system. The most deceptive and dangerous form of lead poisoning is that affecting the
nervous system. In adults, lead damage mainly causes peripheral neuropathy, which is
characterized predominantly by de- myelination of the nerve fibers. Intense exposure to
high lead levels causes encephalopathy, with the following symptoms: vertigo,
insomnia, migraine, irritability and even convulsions, seizures and coma. Lower levels of
the metal give rise to lead-induced neuropathy, which mainly affects the developing
brain and provokes behavioral problems and cognitive impairment. Epidemiological
studies have shown a strong correlation between lead levels in blood and bones and
poor performance in attitude tests (IQ or psychometric tests). A similar correlation has
also been found in behavioral studies carried out on animals that had been exposed to
lead immediately after birth. The learning process is based on the creation and
remodeling of synapses and the toxic effect of lead on this process suggests that this
metal specifically damages the synaptic function. Children's high vulnerability to lead is
aggravated by the fact that they are particularly exposed to lead intake, for instance if
they are fed on formula milk prepared with water rich in lead or if they ingest flakes of
lead- based paint.

6.3.1 Action Mechanism


Lead's toxicity is largely due to its capacity to mimic calcium and substitute it in
many of the fundamental cellular processes that depend on calcium. Lead can
cross the cell membrane in various ways. Lead transport through the erythrocyte
membrane is mediated by the anion exchanger in one direction and by the Ca-
ATPase pump in the other. In other tissues, lead permeates the cell membrane
through voltage-dependent or other types of calcium channels.

Once it has penetrated the cytoplasm, lead continues its destructive action by
occupying the calcium binding sites on numerous calcium-dependent proteins.
Lead binds to “Calmodulin”, a protein which in the synaptic terminal acts as a
sensor of free calcium concentration and as a mediator of neurotransmitter
release. Furthermore, it alters the functioning of the enzyme Protein Kinase C, a
virtually ubiquitous protein which is of crucial importance in numerous
physiological functions.
6.3.2 Neurotoxicity
Lead uptake through the blood-brain barrier and into the brain. It acts as a potent
central neurotoxin. In the brain, lead accumulates and sinks in cells and destroys
neuron cells.

The effects of lead on the brain, including mental retardation and cognitive deficit,
are mediated by its interference with three major neurotransmission systems.
Lead directly interferes with the action of glutamate, the brain's essential
excitatory neurotransmitter. Glutamate binds to membrane receptors of different
types. Small concentration of lead can block the specific class of receptors called
“NMDA type” and have effects on memory and learning functions.

Tetraethyl lead, which is used as an anti-knock agent in petrol, is converted in


the body to Tri- Ethyl Lead, which is a more severe neurotoxin than inorganic
lead.

6.3.3 Effects On Children


Because of their behavior and physiology, children are more sensitive than adults
to exposure to lead in a given environment Young children (especially those
living in old houses with lead-based paint) are especially susceptible to its toxic
effects. Poor children and children from racial/ ethnic minority backgrounds are
more likely to have elevated blood lead levels. The dietary exposure that results
in blood levels of concern has been estimated to be 60 micrograms of lead per
day for children.
A child’s chronic exposure to low lead levels can cause developmental and
neurologic problems. Children’s renal, endocrine, and hematic systems may also
be adversely affected by lead poisoning. In particular, the incomplete
development of the blood-brain barrier in fetuses and in very young children (up
to 36 months of age) increases the risk of lead’s entry into the developing
nervous system, which can result in prolonged or permanent neurobehavioral
disorders.
The other effects in children include; diminished intelligence and altered
behavior.
6.3.4 Pregnant Women and Their Developing Fetus
Blood lead readily crosses the placenta, putting the developing fetus at risk. This
is especially important in the neurologic development. The mothers who had
previous elevated exposure to lead may store it in their bones, from which it
could be released during times of calcium stress, such as pregnancy and
lactation.
Pregnant women with elevated blood levels may have an increased chance of
miscarriage, spontaneous abortion or stillbirth, and pre- term labor, and
newborns with low birth weight or neurologic problems. Severe toxicity can cause
sterility, abortion and neonatal mortality and morbidity.
6.3.5 Adults
Workers in occupational settings with sources of lead exposure (e.g., plumbers,
miners, mechanics, and lead smelter/ refinery workers) experience increased
risk. The Hazardous effects can be neurologic and adults may suffer from a
disorder that is called “Attention- Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder”. There are
reports that lead poisoning may have contributed to “van Gogh's” illness and
madness in adults.

6.4 SYMPTOMS OF LEAD POISONING


Poisoning of alimentary areas occurs most frequently and is characterized by abdominal
discomfort and pain. Other symptoms include loss of appetite, anemia, malaise and
irritability. Low levels of lead impair neurotransmission, the immune system functions,
and may increase systolic blood pressure. The major complaint is muscle and joint
pains/weakness and tremors. Headache, dizziness and insomnia are frequently
prominent. Gastritis and liver changes are also usually present. Less common
symptoms are excitation, confusion, hallucinations, distorted perception.
6.5 TREATMENT OF LEAD POISONING
Treatment for lead poisoning relies on drugs that have a chelating effect on the metal;
these are molecules that can bind to lead and form a stable complex, which is then
expelled. The most common drugs used are Calcium-EDTA, dimercaprol (DMSA or
BAL) and Penicillamine (a penicillin derivative which has a chelating, rather than anti-
bacterial, effect).
Treatment with the chelating agent Calcium Ethylenediaminetetracetate and related
compounds have been found to be highly effective in removing absorbed lead from the
tissues of the body.

The lead can be extracted from soils of the dumping sites by adopting the modern
techniques of phyto- remediation, in which the toxic substances are extracted by making
use of plant species like Sesbania drummondii. This shrub specie can accumulate lead
upto 1% of its weight, in form of granules in its epidermis upto the central axis (V. S.
Shivendra 2002).
6.6 PRECAUTIONS
Precautionary measures to avoid exposure to lead must be taken. The use of lead and
its compounds must be minimized accordingly. Such toxic compounds must not be used
or dumped in open sites as to avoid their entry in to the plant system.

A single exposure can get in your bones and linger indefinitely. Efforts must be taken to
minimize the exposure to lead contamination, but for people and workers living in the
contaminated environments, protective suiting can be safely used to avoid the hazards
of lead toxicity. Using face-shields or vented glasses can protect the eyes. Gloves,
coveralls or other full body clothing, shall be worn during working in such conditions.
Protective Equipment

The proper disposal of lead compounds is utmost important to avoid the chances of
lead toxicity. For such cases all the local and federal laws should be strictly observed.
Such compounds should be handled with extreme care and must be buried in a landfill
site approved for the disposal of chemical and other hazardous wastes.

7. USES
Besides its toxic effects, lead is widely used in modern days in and find extensive industrial
and domestic uses. The major reasons beings its physical properties life corrosion resistance
and high mealibility and ductility.
a. Lead is added to petrol in the form of Tetra- Ethyl Lead (PbEt4) with an anti-knocking
function. Still today, over 90% of all gasoline sold in Africa and the Middle East is still
leaded, while over 30% of Asian and Latin American gasoline is also leaded.
b. Nowadays its is used as flashing to seal the gaps between the chimney and the roofs.
c. Lead alloyed with tin is used as solder.
d. Lead sheets and pipes are used principally for the construction of equipment for storing
and handling sulphuric acid.
e. Today's major use of lead is in lead-acid storage batteries. The electrical systems of
vehicles, ships, and aircrafts.
f. Lead is employed in accumulators and ammunitions like pellets, bullets and war- heads
in rockets and missiles.
g. It is widely used in hospitals as anti- radiation shields to block X- ray and gamma
radiation. It is employed to shield against nuclear radiation both in permanent
installations and when nuclear material is being transported.
h. Lead is widely used in paint industry in form of colored pigments like, C.I. Pigment
Yellow 46, Lead Monoxide, Lead Oxide Yellow, Lead Protoxide, Litharge Yellow L-28
and Yellow Lead Ocher.
i. Non- transportation uses for lead include increasing use for sound- proofing in office
buildings, schools, and hotels.

REFRENCES
Zakrzewski, S. Principles of Environmental Toxicology, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
1991.
Blaylock, M, J. Berti, W. R. Cunningham, S. D. Environmental Science Technology. 1997, 860-865.

Harward Public Health Review, 2002.

Holmgren, G.G., M.W. Meyer, R.L. Chaney, and R.B. Daniels. 1993. Cadmium, Lead, Copper, and Nickel
in Agricultural Soils of the United States of America. Journal of Environmental Quality 22:335-348.

Rolfe, G.L., A. Haney, and K.A. Reinbold. 1977. Environmental Contamination by Lead and other Heavy
Metals. Vol.2. Ecosystem Analysis. Institute for Environmental Studies. University of Illinois, Urbana-
Champaign. 112pp.

Carrington, C.D. and P.M. Bolger. 1992. An Assessment of the Hazards of Lead in Food. Regulatory
Toxicology and Pharmacology 16:265-272.

RECOMMENDED WEB SITES


www.chemcases.com; www.usgs.com; www. actwin.com; www.ussci.maine.uk;

www.useb. cas. cb; www aec.army.mil; www.chelatetherapyonline.com; www.incowatch.ca

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