Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 1

Chapter

21
Functions, Limits, Continuity and
Functions
Differentiability
(6) Fractional part : We know that x  [x]. The
difference between the number ‘x’ and it’s integral
If A and B are two non-empty sets, then a rule f
value ‘[x]’ is called the fractional part of x and is
which associated to each x  A, a unique number
symbolically denoted as {x}. Thus, {x}  x  [x] e.g.,
y  B, is called a function from A to B and we write,
if x = 4.92 then [x] = 4 and {x}= 0.92.
f : A  B. Fractional part of any number is always non-
Some important definitions negative and less than one.

(1) Real numbers : Real numbers are those which

Intervals
are either rational or irrational. The set of real numbers is There are four types of interval:
denoted by R. (1) Open interval : Let a and b be two real numbers
(2) Related quantities : When two quantities are such that a<b, then the set of all real a<x<
such that the change in one is accompanied by the numbers lying strictly between a and (b )
change in other, i.e., if the value of one quantity b is called an open interval and is a b
depends upon the other, then they are called related denoted by ]a, b[ or (a, b). Thus, ]a, b[ Open
quantities. interval
or (a, b)= {x  R : a  x  b}.
(3) Variable: A variable is a symbol which can
(2) Closed interval : Let a and b be two real
assume any value out of a given set of values.
numbers such that a<b, then the axb
(i) Independent variable : A variable which can set of all real numbers lying [ ]
take any arbitrary value, is called independent variable. between a and b including a and a b
(ii) Dependent variable : A variable whose value b is called a closed interval and is Closed interval
depends upon the independent variable is called denoted by [a, b]. Thus, [a, b] =
dependent variable. {x  R : a  x  b}
(4) Constant : A constant is a symbol which does
not change its value, i.e., retains the same value (3) Open-Closed interval : It is denoted by ]a, b] or
throughout a set of mathematical operation. These are (a, b] and ]a, b] or (a, b] = a<xb
{x  R : a  x  b} . ( ]
generally denoted by a, b, c etc. There are two types of a b
constant, absolute constant and arbitrary constant. Open closed
(5) Absolute value : The absolute value of a interval
number x, denoted by |x|, is a number that satisfies the
(4) Closed-Open interval : It is denoted by [a,
conditions
b[ or [a, b) and [a, b[ or [a, b) = {x  R : a a xx<bb}
 x if x  0 [ )
 a b
| x|  0 if x  0 . We also define |x| as follows, Closed open
 x if x  0 interval
 Definition of function
|x|= maximum {x, – x} or |x|= x 2 . (1) Function can be easily defined with the help of
the concept of mapping. Let X and Y be any two non-
empty sets. “A function from X to Y is a rule or
 2 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability
correspondence that assigns to each element of set X, (4) Value of the function : If y  f(x) is a
one and only one element of set Y”. Let the function then to find its values at some value of x, say
correspondence be ‘f’ then mathematically we write x  a, we directly substitute x = a in its given rule
f : X  Y where y  f(x), x  X and y  Y . We say
f(x) and it is denoted by f(a) .
that ‘y’ is the image of ‘x’ under f (or x is the pre image
of y). e.g. If f(x)  x2  1, then f(1)  12  1  2,
Two things should always be kept in mind: f(2)  22  1  5, f(0)  02  1  1 etc.
(i) A mapping f : X  Y is said to be a function if
each element in the set X has its image in set Y. It is
Domain, co-domain and range of function
also possible that there are few elements in set Y which If a function f is defined from a set A to set B then for
are not the images of any element in set X. f : A  B set A is called the domain of function f and set
(ii) Every element in set X should have one and only B is called the co-domain of function f. The set of all f-
one image. That means it is impossible to have more images of the elements of A is called the range of
than one image for a specific element in set X. Functions function f.
can not be multi-valued (A mapping that is multi-valued In other words, we can say
is called
Set Xa relation from
Set YX and Y) e.g. Domain = All possible values of x for which f(x)
Set X Set Y exists.
a 1
b 2 a 1 Range = For all values of x, all possible values of
c b 2 f(x).
3
c 3 Range
Function Function
Set X Set Y Set X Set Y
Domain Co-domain
a 1 a 1
A B
b 2 b 2 f
a p Domain = {a, b, c, d} =
c 3 c 3
b q A
Not function Not function c r Co-domain = {p, q, r, s} =
(2) Testing for a function by vertical line test : d s B
A relation f : A  B is a function or not it can be Range = {p, q, r}
checked by a graph of the relation. If it is possible to (1) Methods for finding domain and range of
draw a vertical line which cuts the given curve at more function
than one point then the given relation is not a function (i) Domain
and when this vertical line means line parallel to Y-axis
cuts the curve at only one point then it is a function. (a) Expression under even root (i.e., square root,
Y (iv) represents a function.
Figure (iii) and Y fourth root etc.)  0. Denominator  0.
If domain of y  f(x) and y  g (x) are D1
X X and D2 respectively then the domain of
O
f(x)  g (x) or f(x).g (x) is D1  D2.
X X
O
Y (i) f(x)
Y (ii) While domain of is D1  D2  {g(x)  0}.
Y Y g(x)
Domain of  
f(x)  D1  {x : f(x)  0}
(ii) Range : Range of y  f(x) is collection of all
X X X O X outputs f(x) corresponding to each real number in
O
Y (iii) Y (iv) the domain.
(a) If domain  finite number of points  range 
(3) Number of functions : Let X and Y be two
finite sets having m and n elements respectively. Then set of corresponding f(x) values.
each element of set X can be associated to any one of n (b) If domain  R or R – [some finite points]. Then
elements of set Y. So, total number of functions from set express x in terms of y. From this find y for x to be
X to set Y is nm . defined (i.e., find the values of y for which x exists).
(c) If domain  a finite interval, find the least and
greatest value for range using monotonicity.

Algebra of functions
 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 3
(1) Scalar multiplication of a function : Step III : Solve f(x)  f(y). If f(x)  f(y)
(c f)(x)  c f(x), where c is a scalar. The new gives x = y only, then f : A  B is a one-one function
function c f(x) has the domain X f . (or an injection). Otherwise not.
(2) Addition/subtraction of functions If function is given in the form of ordered pairs and
if two ordered pairs do not have same second element
( f  g)(x)  f(x)  g(x). The new function has then function is one-one.
the domain X. If the graph of the function y  f(x) is given and
(3) Multiplication of functions each line parallel to x-axis cuts the given curve at
( fg)(x)  (g f)(x)  f(x)g (x). The product maximum one point then function is one-one. e.g.
function has the domain X.
(4) Division of functions :
 f f(x) X
v (i) 
  (x)  . The new function has the
 g g(x)
domain X, except for the values of x for which
g (x)  0.

 g g(x) (ii) Number of one-one functions (injections) :

(ii) 
  (x)  . The new function has the If A and B are finite sets having m and n elements
 f f(x) Y respectively, then numberYof one-one functions from A
domain X, except for the values of x for which
f(x)  0.  n Pm, if n  m
(5) Equal functions : Two function f and g are said to B =
 (0, 1)
to be equal functions, if and only if
(i) Domain of f = Domain of g X
O
 0X , ifX n  m X
O
f (x) = ax (0 < a <
B (ii) Co-domain of f = Co-domain of g f(x)
(2)=Many-one
ax + function 1): A function f : A  B is
Y b Y
(iii) f(x)  g(x) x  their common domain
said to be a many-one function if two or more elements
of set A have the same image in B.
(6) Real valued function : If R, be the set of real Thus, f : A  B is a many-one function if there
numbers and A, B are subsets of R, then the function exist x, y  A such that x  y but f(x)  f(y).
f : A  B is called a real function or real –valued
In other words, f : A  B is a many-one function if
function. it is not a one-one function.
Kinds of function A B X
g
Y
f b1
a1 x1 y1
(1) One-one function (injection) : A function b2
a2 b3 x2 y2
f : A  B is said to be a one-one function or an a3 x3 y3
a4 b4 y4
injection, if different elements of A have different images b x4
a5 b65 x5 y5
in B. Thus, f : A  B is one-one.
a  b  f(a)  f(b) for all a, b  A  If function is given in the form of set of ordered
pairs and the second element of atleast two ordered
 f(a)  f(b)  a  b for all a, b  A . pairs are same then function is many-one.
e.g. Let f : A  B and g : X  Y be two functions  If the graph of y  f(x) is given and the line
represented by the following diagrams. parallel to x-axis cuts the curve at more than one point
A B X Y then function isYmany-one. Y
f g
a1 b1 x1 y1
a2 b2 x2 y2
b3 y3
a3 x3
b4 y4
a04 x4 y5 X X X X
b5 O f (x) = O
f (x) = |
Clearly, f : A  B is a one-one function. But Y x 2 Y x|
g : X  Y is not one-one function because two distinct (3) Onto function (surjection) : A function
f : A  B is onto if each element of B has its pre-image
elements x1 and x3 have the same image under
in A. Therefore, if f 1(y)  A, y  B then function
function g.
(i) Method to check the injectivity of a function is onto. In other words, Range of f = Co-domain of f. e.g.
The following arrow-diagram shows onto function.
Step I : Take two arbitrary elements x, y (say) in A B X Y
the domain of f. f g
a1 x1 y1
Step II : Put f(x)  f(y). b1
a2 b2 x2 y2
x
a3 b3 x43 y3
 4 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability
3 x1
e.g., (i) (ii) ,x  1 (iii)
x2  5x x1
Number of onto function (surjection) : If A and
3x4  5x  7
B are two sets having m and n elements respectively
(7) Transcendental function : A function which is
such that 1  n  m, then number of onto functions
not algebraic is called a transcendental function. e.g.,
n
trigonometric; inverse trigonometric , exponential and
from A to B is  (1)
r 1
n r n
Cr r m. logarithmic functions are all transcendental functions.
(i) Trigonometric functions : A function is said to
(4) Into function : A function f : A  B is an into be a trigonometric function if it involves circular
function if there exists an element in B having no pre- functions (sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
image in A. cosecant) of variable angles.
(a) Sine function :
In other words, f : A  B is an into function if it is Y (/2,1)
(–
not an onto function e.g. The following arrow-diagram
3/2,1)
shows into function.
A B X Y
X  X
f g – O
a b1 x1 y1

a1 2 b2 x2 y2
y3 Domain = R
/2,–1) Y : Y
(–function
(b) Cosine
(3/2,– Range = [–1,
a3 b3 x3 y4 1) 1]
(0,1)
(i) Method to find onto or into function
(a) Solve f(x)  y by taking x as a function of y
i.e., g(y) (say). X’  X
O

(b) Now if g(y) is defined for each y  co- 2

Domain = R (–,–1)
y
(,–1) Range = [–1,
domain and g(y)  domain for co-domain, (c) Tangent function : Y
Y
1]

then f(x) is onto and if any one of the above

requirements is not fulfilled, then f(x) is into. – O 
X X
(5) One-one onto function (bijection) : A –3/2 –/2 /2 3/2
function f : A  B is a bijection if it is one-one as well
as onto.
Y
In other words, a function f : A  B is a bijection if Domain = R – {(2n +1) /2|n  I}, Range
(d) Cosecant
=R function :
(i) It is one-one i.e., f(x)  f(y)  x  y for all
x, y  A. Y
C (ii) It is onto i.e., for all y  B , there exists x  A
(–
such that f(x)  y. A B (/2,1)
3/2,1)
y=1
a1 f b1 X X
O y = –1
a2 b2
a3 b3 (–/2,–
(–3/2,–
a4 b4 1)
1)
(e)xSecant
=– x = –
function : Y x= x=

2Domain = R – {(n|n  I}, Range = (– , –1]
2 
Clearly, f is a bijection since it is both injective as
[1,) Y
well as surjective.
Number of one-one onto function (bijection) :
If A and B are finite sets and f : A  B is a bijection, (–2,1) (0, 1) (2,1)

then A and B have the same number of elements. If A X

X O
has n elements, then the number of bijection from A to
B is the total number of arrangements of n items taken (–,–1) (,–1)
all at a time i.e. n!. (f) Cotangent function Y:
(6) Algebraic functions : Functions consisting of x = – x = – Y x = /2 x =
finite number of terms involving powers and roots of the Domain =3R/2– {(2n+1)
/2 /2 |n  I}, Range
3/2
= (– , –1] 
independent variable and the four fundamental [1,)(– (– (/2,0 (3/2,0)
operations +, –, × and  are called algebraic functions. X 3/2,0) /2,0) O )
X

x = –2 x = – x= x=
Y 2
Domain = R – {n|n  I}, Range = R
 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 5
f(x) given by f(x)  k for all x  R is called a
(ii) Inverse trigonometric functions constant function. The domain of the constant function
Table : 21.1 f(x)  k is the complete set of real numbers and the
Definition range of f is the singleton set {k}. The graph of a
Functio constant function is a straight line parallel to x-axis as
Domain Range of the
n shown in figure and it is above or below the x-axis
function
1
y  sin x
according as k is positive or negative. If k = 0, then the
sin1 x [1,1] [ /2,  /2] straight line coincides with x-axis.
 x  siny (10) Identity function : The function defined by
y  cos1 x f(x )  x for all x  R , is Y
cos1 x [–1, 1] [0, ]
 x  cosy called the identity function
1 on R. Clearly, the domain f (x) =
y  tan x
tan x1 (–,) or R (–  /2,  /2) and range of the identity x
 x  tany function is R. X X
1 The graph of the identity O
y  cot x
cot1 x (–,) or R (0, )
 x  coty
function is a straight line
passing through the origin Y
1 and inclined at an angle of
y  cosec x
cosec x 1 R – (–1, 1) [ /2,  /2]  {0} o
 x  cosecy 45 with positive direction of x-axis.
(11) Modulus function : The function defined by
y  sec1 x
sec1 x R – (–1, 1) [0,  ]  [ /2] Y
 x  secy
f (x) =– x f (x) = x
(iii) Exponential function : Let a  1 be a
positive real number. Then f : R  (0, ) defined by X O
X
x
f(x)  a called exponential function. Its domain is R
and range is (0, ) .
Y
 x, when x  0
f(x) | x |  is called the modulus
-x, when x  0
function. The domain of the modulus function is the set
R of all real numbers and the range is the set of all non-
negative real numbers.
Y Y
a>1 a<1
(12) Greatest integer function: Let f(x)  [x],
x
(iv) Logarithmic(0, 1) Let =aa 1f(x) = positive
a
x
function : f(x) be a (0,where
1)
[x] denotes the Y
real number. X ThenO f : (0, )
X  R defined X by greatestX integer less than
3
O
or equal to x. The domain
f(x)  loga x is called logarithmic function. Its domain 2
Y is R and the range is I.
is (0, ) and range is R.Y Y e.g. [1.1] = 1, [2.2] = 2, 1
[– 0.9] X X
a<1 = –1, [– 2.1] = – 3
f(x) = log
Graph ofa when a > 1 O
Y Graph of when –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
x etc. The function f –1
X X
O (1, 0) defined by f(x)  [x] –2
(1, 0) for all x  R , is called –3
X X the greatest integer Y
O
Y f(x) = loga
Graph of when a > 1 function.
x
Y (13) Signum function : The function defined by
Y
Graph of when a < 1
(8) Explicit and implicit functions : A function is | x|
 , x  0 or (0, 1)
said to be explicit if it can be expressed directly in terms f(x)   x
of the independent variable. If the function can not be  0, x  0
expressed directly in terms of the independent variable X X
O
or variables, then the function is said to be implicit. e.g.  1, x  0
y  sin1 x  log x is explicit function, while  (0, –
f(x)   0, x  0 is called Y 1)
x2  y2  xy and x3y2  (a  x)2(b  y)2 are implicit  1, x  0

functions.
the signum function. The domain is R and the range is
(9) Constant function : Let k be a fixed real the set {–1, 0, 1}.
number. Then a function Y

k f (x) =
k
X X
O

Y
 6 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability
(14) Reciprocal function : The function that  
associates each non-zero real Y sec1 x R– (1, 1) [0,  ]   
1  2
f(x) =1/
number x to be reciprocal 1    
x x cosec x R– (1,1)   2 , 2   {0}
 

is called the reciprocal X X

function. The domain and O
range of the reciprocal Even and Odd function
function are both equal to (1) Even function : If we put (–x) in place of x in
R  {0} i.e., the set of all Y
non-zero real numbers. The graph is as shown. the given function and if f( x)  f(x) , x 
(15) Power function : A function f : R  R defined domain then function f(x) is called even function. e.g.
by, f(x)  x ,   R is called a power function. f(x)  ex  e x , f(x)  x2, f(x)  x sinx,
Table : 21. 2 Domain and Range of Some Standard f(x)  cosx, f(x)  x2 cosx all are even functions.
Functions (2) Odd function : If we put (–x) in place of x in the
Function Domain Range given function and if f( x)   f(x), x  domain
Polynomial function R R
Identity function x R R then f(x) is called odd function. e.g., f(x)  e x  e x ,
Constant function K R {K}
f(x)  sinx, f(x)  x 3 , f(x)  x cosx,
Reciprocal function
1 R0 R0 f(x)  x2 sinx all are odd functions.
x Properties of even and odd function
 The graph of even function is always symmetric
2
x ,| x | R R+
{0} with respect to y-axis. The graph of odd function is
3
x , x| x | R R always symmetric with respect to origin.
 The product of two even functions is an even
Signum function R {1, 0, 1}
function.
x | x | R R+ {0}  The sum and difference of two even functions is an
x | x| R R– {0} even function.
 The sum and difference of two odd functions is an
[x] R I
odd function.
x  [x] R [0, 1)  The product of two odd functions is an even
x [0, ) [0, ] function.
x
 The product of an even and an odd function is an
a R R+
odd function. It is not essential that every function is
log x R+ R even or odd. It is possible to have some functions which
[1, 1] are neither even nor odd function. e.g. f(x) = x2+ x3,
sinx R
f(x) = loge x, f(x) = ex.
cosx R [1, 1]
 The sum of even and odd function is neither even
R– nor odd function.
tanx   3  R  Zero function f(x) = 0 is the only function which is
 ,  ,... even and odd both.
 2 2 
R– Periodic function
cotx {0,   ,  2 ,...} R
A function is said to be periodic function if its each
R– value is repeated after a definite interval. So a function
  3  f(x) will be periodic if a positive real number T exist such
secx  ,  ,... R –(–1, 1)
 2 2  that, f(x  T )  f(x) , x  domain. Here the least
R– positive value of T is called the period of the function.
cosecx  0,   ,  2 ,... R – (–1, 1)
Composite function
   
sin1 x [1, 1]  2 , 2 If f : A  B and g : B  C are two function then
  the composite function of f and g,
cos1 x [1, 1] [0,  ] gof A  C will be defined as
    gof(x)  g[ f(x)],x  A
tan1 x R  , 
(1) Properties of composition of function :
 2 2
D (i) f is even, g is even  fog even function.
cot1 x R (0,  )
 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 7
E (ii) f is odd, g is odd  fog is odd
Let y  f(x) be a function of x. If at x  a, f(x)
function.
takes indeterminate form, then we consider the values
(iii) f is even, g is odd  fog is even function.
of the function which are very near to ‘a’. If these values
(iv) f is odd, g is even  fog is even tend to a definite unique number as x tends to ‘a’, then
function. the unique number so obtained is called the limit of
(v) Composite of functions is not commutative i.e., lim f(x) .
fog gof . f(x) at x  a and we write it as x a
(vi) Composite of functions is associative i.e., (1) Left hand and right hand limit : Consider the
( fog)oh fo(goh ) values of the functions at the points which are very near
(vii) If f:A B is bijection and g: B  A is to a on the left of a. If these values tend to a definite
unique number as x tends to a, then the unique number
inverse of f. Then fog I B and gof  I A . so obtained is called left-hand limit of f(x) at x  a
where, I A and I B are identity functions on the and symbolically we write it as f(a  0) 
sets A and B respectively.
lim f(x)  lim f(a  h) .
(viii) If f : A  B and g : B  C are two bijections, x  a h 0
then gof : A  C is bijection and
Similarly we can define right-hand limit of f(x) at
(gof)1  ( f 1og1).
xa which is expressed as f(a  0)  lim f(x)
(ix) fog gof but if, fog gof then either x a
1 1
f  g or g  f also,  lim f(a  h) .
h 0
( fog) (x)  (gof) (x)  (x).
(x) gof(x) is simply the g-image of f(x), where f(x) is (2) Method for finding L.H.L. and R.H.L.
f-image of elements x  A. (i) For finding right hand limit (R.H.L.) of the
(xi) Function gof will exist only when range of f is function, we write x + h in place of x, while for left hand
the subset of domain of g. limit (L.H.L.) we write x – h in place of x.
(xii) fog does not exist if range of g is not a subset (ii) Then we replace x by ‘a’ in the function so
of domain of f. obtained.
(xiii) fog and gof may not be always defined. F (iii) Lastly we find limit h  0 .
(xiv) If both f and g are one-one, then fog and gof
are also one-one. lim f(x) exists when,
(3) Existence of limit : x a
(xv) If both f and g are onto, then gof is onto.
Inverse function G (i) lim f(x) and lim f(x) exist i.e. L.H.L. and
x a xa
If f : A  B be a one-one onto (bijection) function, R.H.L. both exists.
then the mapping f 1
: B  A which associates each (ii) lim f(x)  lim f(x) i.e. L.H.L. = R.H.L.
x a x a
element b B with element a  A, such that
f(a)  b, is called the inverse function of the function Fundamental theorems on limits
f : A  B.
The following theorems are very useful for
f 1 : B  A, f 1(b)  a  f(a)  b f(x)  l and lim g(x)  m
evaluation of limits if xlim
0 x 0
In terms of ordered pairs inverse function is defined
(l and m are real numbers) then
as f 1  (b, a) if (a, b)  f .
(1) xlim( f(x)  g(x))  l  m (Sum rule)
For the existence of inverse function, it should be a
one-one and onto.
Properties of Inverse function : (2) xlim( f(x)  g(x))  l  m (Difference rule)
a
(1) Inverse of a bijection is also a bijection function.
(2) Inverse of a bijection is unique.
lim( f(x).g(x)) 
(3) x l.m (Product
(3) (f–1)–1= f a
(4) If f and g are two bijections such that (gof) exists rule)
then (gof)–1 = f–1og–1.
(4) xlim k f(x)  k.l (Constant
(5) If f : A  B is a bijection then f–1. B  A is an a
inverse function of f. f–1of = IA and fof–1 = IB. Here IA, is multiple rule)
an identity function on set A, and IB, is an identity
function on set B. f(x) l
(5) lim  ,m 0 (Quotient rule)
x a g(x) m
Limits
Limit of a function
 8 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability

(6) If xlim f(x)   or  , then lim 1  0 (iii) lim

sin1 x
 1  lim
x
a x a f(x) x 0 sin1 x
x 0 x
(7) xlim log{f(x)}  log{lim f(x)} tan1 x x
a x a (iv) lim  1  lim
x 0 x x 0 tan1 x
(8) If f(x)  g(x) for all x, then
lim f(x)  lim g(x) sinx0 
x a x a
(v) lim  (vi)
x 0 x 180
lim g(x) limcosx  1
(9) lim[ f(x)]g(x)  {lim f(x)}xa x0
x a x a
sin(x  a)
(10) If p and q are integers, then (vii) lim 1 (viii)
x a xa
lim( f(x))p / q  l p / q, provided (l) p/q
is a real
x a tan(x  a)
number. lim 1
x a xa
lim f(g(x)) 
(11) If x f(lim g(x))  f(m)
a x a (ix) lim sin1 x  sin1 a, | a|  1
x a
provided ‘f ’ is continuous at g(x)  m. e.g.
limln[f(x)]  ln(l), only if l  0. (x) limcos1 x  cos1 a; | a|  1
x a
x a

(xi) lim tan1 x  tan1 a;    a  

Methods of evaluation of limits xa

We shall divide the problems of evaluation of limits sinx cosx

(xii) lim  lim 0
in five categories. x  x x  x
(1) Algebraic limits : Let f(x) be an algebraic sin1 / x
(xiii) lim 1
lim f(x) is
function and ‘a’ be a real number. Then x a
x  1 / x
known as an algebraic limit. (3) Logarithmic limits : To evaluate the
(i) Direct substitution method : If by direct logarithmic limits we use following formulae
substitution of the point in the given expression we get x2 x3
a finite number, then the number obtained is the limit of (i) log(1  x)  x    ............to
the given expression. 2 3
(ii) Factorisation method : In this method, where 1  x  1 and expansion is true only if base is
numerator and denominator are factorised. The e.
common factors are cancelled and the rest outputs the log(1  x)
results. (ii) lim 1
x 0 x
(iii) Rationalisation method : Rationalisation is
1 1 (iii) xlim loge x  1
followed when we have fractional powers (like , e
2 3
log(1  x)
etc.) on expressions in numerator or denominator or in (iv) lim  1
both. After rationalisation the terms are factorised which x 0 x
on cancellation gives the result.
loga(1  x)
(iv) Based on the form when x   : In this case (v) xlim
0
 loga e, a  0,  1
expression should be expressed as a function 1/x and x
then after removing indeterminate form, (if it is there) (4) Exponential limits
1 (i) Based on series expansion
replace by 0.
x x x2 x3
We use e  1  x    ..........
...
(2) Trigonometric limits : To evaluate 2! 3 !
trigonometric limit the following results are very To evaluate the exponential limits we use the
important. following results
sinx x
(i) lim  1  lim ex  1 ax  1
x 0 x x 0 sinx (a) lim 1 (b) lim  loge a
x 0 x x 0 x
tanx x
(ii) lim  1  lim ex  1
x 0 x x 0 tanx (c) lim   (  0)
x 0 x
 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 9
(ii) Based on the form 1 : To evaluate the The word ‘continuous’ means without any break or
exponential form 1 we use the following results. gap. If the graph of a function has no break or gap or
jump, then it is said to be continuous.
(a) If xlim f(x)  lim g(x)  0 , then
a x a A function which is not continuous is called a
discontinuous function. While studying graphs of
f (x)
lim functions, we see that graphs of functions sinx , x,
lim{1  f(x)} 1 / g(x)
ex a g(x) or when
x a cosx , ex etc. are continuous but greatest integer
function [x] has break at every integral point, so it is not
lim f(x)  1 and lim g(x)   .
x a x a 1
continuous. Similarly tanx, cotx, secx , etc. are
x
Then lim{f(x)}g(x)  lim[1  f(x)  1]g(x) =
x a x a also discontinuous function.
lim ( f (x)1)g(x) Continuous function
ex a Y Y
(b) lim(1  x)1 / x  e (c) (0, 1)
x 0
x f (x) =
 1 –  2
lim 1    e X X x X
x   x –2 – /2 O /2
x
lim(1  x)1 / x  e   (0,–
(d)
x 0
(e) lim 1    e 1) y = sinx
x   x Y

x  , if a  1 Discontinuous function
 lim a   i.e., a   , if a  1 and
x 
0 , if a  1
a  0 if a  1 . Y
Y
(5) L-Hospital’s rule : If f(x) and g(x) be two 3
functions of x such that 2
1
(i) xlim f(x)  lim g(x)  0
a x a X X’ X
O O
– – – 1 2 3
(ii) Both are continuous at xa f(x)= 1/x 3 2 1 –
1
(iii) Both are differentiable at x  a .
–
y = [x]
Continuity of a function at a point 2
–
(iv) f ' (x) and g' (x) are continuous at the point 3
Y’
f(x) f ' (x) A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point
x  a , then lim
x a g(x)
 lim
x  a g' (x)
provided that x  a of its domain if and only if it satisfies the
following three conditions :
g'(a)  0 .
(1) f(a) exists. (‘a’ lies in the domain of f)
The above rule is also applicable if xlim f(x)  
a
(2)
lim f(x) exist i.e. lim f(x)  lim f(x) or
x a x a x a
and xlim g(x)  . R.H.L. = L.H.L.
a

f '(x) (3) xlim f(x)  f(a) (limit equals the value of

If lim assumes the indeterminate form 0 a
x a g' (x) 0 function).

or  and f '(x), g'(x) satisfy all the condition Cauchy’s definition of continuity : A function f
embodied in L’ Hospital rule, we can repeat the is said to be continuous at a point a of its domain D if
f ' (x) f '(x) for every   0 there exists   0 (dependent on  )
application of this rule on to get, lim
g'(x) x a g' (x) such that | x  a|  | f(x)  f(a)|  .
f "(x) Comparing this definition with the definition of limit
= lim . Sometimes it may be
x a g"(x)
we find that f(x) is continuous at xa lim f(x)
if x
necessary to repeat this process a number of times till a
our goal of evaluating limit is achieved. exists and is equal to f(a) i.e., if

Continuity lim f(x)  f(a)  lim f(x) .

x a x a
Introduction
Continuity from left and right
 10 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability
Function f(x) is said to be Let us consider the function f(x) | x  1| , which
lim f(x)  f(a) can be graphically shown,
(1) Left continuous at x = a if Y
x a

(2) Right continuous at x  a if xlim f(x)  f(a) .

 a
f (x)=– f (x) = x – 1
Thus a function f(x) is continuous at a point x+1
x  a if it is left continuous as well as right continuous f ' (x)= –1 f ' (x) =
1
at x  a.
X
Properties of continuous functions : Let f(x) O 1 2 3

and g(x) be two continuous functions at x  a. Then Which show f(x) is not differentiable at x  1 .
(i) A function f(x) is said to be everywhere Since, f(x) has sharp edge at x  1.
continuous if it is continuous on the entire real line R i.e.
(, ) . (i) Right hand derivative : Right hand derivative
e.g., polynomial function, ex,
of f(x) at x  a , denoted by f ' (a  0) or f '(a) ,
sinx, cosx, constant, xn, | x  a| etc.
(ii) Integral function of a continuous function is a f(a  h)  f(a)
is the lim .
continuous function. h 0 h
(iii) If g(x) is continuous at x = a and f(x) is
(ii) Left hand derivative : Left hand derivative of
continuous at x = g(a) then (fog) (x) is continuous at
xa . f(x) at x  a, denoted by f ' (a  0) or f '(a) ,
(iv) If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval [a,b] f(a  h)  f(a)
then it is bounded on this interval. is the lim .
h 0 h
(v) If f(x) is a continuous function defined on [a, b]
such that f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs, then there (iii) A function f(x) is said to be differentiable
is atleast one value of x for which f(x) vanishes. i.e. if
(finitely) at x = a if f ' (a  0)  f ' (a  0) = finite
f(a) > 0, f(b) < 0  c  (a, b) such that f(c) = 0.
f(a  h)  f(a) f(a  h)  f(a)
Discontinuous function i.e., lim  lim =
h 0 h h 0 h
(1) Discontinuous function : A function ‘f’ which finite and the common limit is called the derivative of
is not continuous at a point x  a in its domain is said f(x) at x  a, denoted by f '(a) . Clearly,
to be discontinuous there at. The point ‘a’ is called a f(x)  f(a)
point of discontinuity of the function. f ' (a)  lim {x  a from the left as well
The discontinuity may arise due to any of the
x a xa
following situations. as from the right}.

(i) lim f(x) or lim f(x) or both may not exist

Some standard results on differentiability
x a x a
(1) Every polynomial function is differentiable at
(ii) lim f(x) as well as lim f(x) may exist, but each x R .
x a x a
are unequal. (2) The exponential function ax , a  0 is

(iii) lim f(x) as well as lim f(x) both may differentiable at each x R .
x a x a
exist, but either of the two or both may not be equal to (3) Every constant function is differentiable at each
f(a) . x R .
(4) The logarithmic function is differentiable at each
Differentiability point in its domain.
Differentiability of a function at a point (5) Trigonometric and inverse trigonometric
functions are differentiable in their domains.
The function, f(x) is differentiable at point P, iff
(6) The sum, difference, product and quotient of two
there exists a unique tangent at point P. In other words, differentiable functions is differentiable.
f(x) is differentiable at a point P iff the curve does
(7) The composition of differentiable function is a
not have P as a corner point. i.e., "the function is not differentiable function.
differentiable at those points on which function has
jumps (or holes) and sharp edges.”
 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 11
function.

 If the domain of the function is in one quadrant

then the trigonometrical functions are always one-
one.
 If trigonometrical function changes its sign in two
consecutive quadrants then it is one-one but if it does
not change the sign then it is many one.
 In three consecutive quadrants trigonometrical
functions are always many one.
 Any function, which is entirely increasing or
decreasing in the whole of a domain, is one-one.
 Any continuous function f(x), which has at least
one local maximum or local minimum, is many-one.
 Any polynomial function f : R  R is onto if degree
of f is odd and into if degree of f is even.
 An into function can be made onto by redefining
the co-domain as the range of the original function.
1
 If f(x) is periodic with period T then is also
f(x)
periodic with same period T.
 If f(x) is periodic with period T, f(x) is also
periodic with same period T.
 Period of x  [x] is 1. Period of algebraic
functions x , x 2, x3  5 etc. doesn't exist.

 lim f(x) does not exist, then we can not

If x a
remove this discontinuity. So this become a non-
removable discontinuity or essential discontinuity.
 If f is continuous at x = c and g is discontinuous
at x = c, then
(a) f +g and f – g are discontinuous
(b) f.g may be continuous
 If f and g are discontinuous at x = c, then f + g, f
– g and fg may still be continuous.
 Point functions (domain and range consists one
value only) is not a continuous function.
 If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is
continuous also at that point.
i.e., Differentiability  Continuity, but the
converse need not be true.
 If a function ‘f’ is not differentiable but is
continuous at x = a, it geometrically implies a
sharp corner or kink at x = a.
 If f(x) and g(x) both are not differentiable at x = a
then the product function f(x).g(x) can still be
differentiable at x = a.
 If f(x) is differentiable at x = a and g(x) is not
differentiable at x = a then the sum function f(x)+
g(x) is also not differentiable at x = a.
 If f(x) and g(x) both are not differentiable at x =
a, then the sum function may be a differentiable