Chapter two

Society, state and government

Introduction
Society is a broad term that consists of state which in turn consists of government at its heart. Both are
intrinsically interrelated entities. Society represents the totality or the integrated whole system that
consists of other activities as sub systems. Accordingly the economic realm could represent the economic
subsystem, which is part and parcels of the whole system-society. State represents another sub-system,
commonly referred as the political system. The state is concerned with the authoritative decision making
organ in the society. Its decisions are final and acceptable in the society. So, it is influential sub system of
the society. Government is the agent which makes and takes actions on behalf of the state. So,
government is the most important organ of the state.

This lesson is devoted to understanding the key concepts and debates and classifications regarding
society, state and government. Accordingly, society and perspectives of society, state and debates on the
role and typologies of state are briefly presented. In addition the meaning, organs and forms of
government will be discussed.

1. Understanding Society

The English word society emerged in the 15th century and is derived from the French société.
The French word, in turn, had its origin in the Latin societas, a "friendly association with others,"
from socius meaning "companion, associate, comrade or business partner." Implicit in the
meaning of society is that its members share some mutual concern or interest, a common
objective or common characteristics.
There have been debates as to the exact meaning of society. For some society implies a collection of
individuals living in a certain country for the longer period of time. For others, society is meant to mean
more than the collections of individuals. There are two contending views: The atomistic theory and the
organic theory.

Atomistic theory of society is based up on an individualist conception of the society. These

assume that society is a human artifact, constructed by individuals to serve their or purpose. In its
extreme form this can lead to the belief, expressed by Thatcher, that there is no such thing as
society. In other words, all social and political behavior can be understood in terms the choices
made by self-interested individuals without references to collective entities such as society. This

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has often been described as atomistic theory of society, in that it implies that society is nothing
more than a collection of individual units or atoms.
Such a view doesn’t, however, ignore the fact that individuals pursue their interests through the
formation of groups and associations, business, trade unions, clubs, and so forth. This cement
which holds this society together, though self interest, the recognition that private interest
overlap, making possible the construction contracts or voluntary agreement.
An organic theory of society is based up on an organic analogy. Instead of being constructed
by rational individuals to satisfy their personal interest, society may operate as an organic whole,
exhibiting properties more normally associated with living organism-a human being or plant.
This suggests a holistic approach to society, emphasizing that society is complex networks of
relationship which ultimately exist to maintain the whole: the whole is more important than its
individuals parts. This is similar to the functionalist view of society. This assume that all social
activities plays some part in maintaining the basic structure of society.

1. Understanding State
State can be defined as the politically organized society or apolitical system. If we take society as a
system, the state represents one of the sub systems of the society-called the political system. The state can
also be understood as the most supreme organ or institution of the society. The state refers to all
institutions, agencies and agents that operate within a given territorial space, have legitimate power and
authority over us, and can legitimately utilize force as a ultimate sanction against us if we fail to accept its
rules or orders or resist its actions or act against it.

In addition to possessing the power and authority to employ violence legitimately, the state can
be characterized as consisting of a number of agents and offices. Thus, within the state a whole
range of offices and agents-government ministers, judiciary, bureaucrats, army, police, education
and local government-can be identified. In this sense the state is an umbrella term that covers all
offices that make and enforce the collective decisions and rule of a society.

Dear students: states can be classified in to traditional and modern. Traditionally states are those
empire systems which had vast territory and population under their rules. As the territories were
so vast, the rules, even, did not exactly know the boundaries and even the composition and the
size of the peoples were beyond the knowledge of the government or the king. Frontiers, rather

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than fixed borders served as the boundaries-which imply the modern notion of fixed territories.
In addition, there hardly was a sovereign political body in most cases. The king did not have
exclusive control over the citizens as the religious leaders or pops had intruding role in the
society.
Activity: 1

In ancient Ethiopia there were different political systems in different part of the present
Ethiopia. Axumit Empire was one of the traditional political system in Northern
part of Ethiopia. Can you describe about its frontiers, composition of peoples? You
can ask any History Teacher in the Area.

Elements of state

1. People
2. Territory
3. Government
4. Sovereignty
5. Recognition
According to the Montevideo Convention (1933), a state must comprise of 4 essential elements:
1)Territory - A state cannot exist without territory. Territory refers to land, surrounding water up to 3
nautical miles, as well as the air above the land and water. Nomadic settlements did not possess any
permanent territory. Hence, they cannot be called a state.

2) Population - A state fundamentally comprises of a permanent population over which it exercises its
unlimited authority. The nature of the state depends upon the quality and quantity of its population. No
ideal size of population can be stated. Aristotle stated "A population must be large enough to be self-
sufficient, but small enough to be well-governed." A good population makes a good state; a bad one, a
bad state.

3) Government - It is a body of a few people who administer the population and are meant to express the
will of the state. The government has limited power, as opposed to the state's unlimited authority. The
government is subject to change and is bound to obey will of the people as well as state. To equate the
Government with State is a dangerous, yet common mistake.

4) Sovereignty - It is the soul of a state. It implies that the state is independent from external interference,
as well as can maintain integrity within itself. India could not be referred to as a state prior to 1947, as it
did not have an independent government. In this sense, the State is an umbrella term that covers all

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offices that make and enforce the collective decisions and rules of society. (Hague et. al., 1992)Although
the State and the government are used interchangeably, they should not be.

The most significant difference between the State and government is the permanence of the State over
time. The personnel and institutions of the State fulfill their roles on a more permanent basis than the
politicians who form the government of the day.

Origin and Development of the State in the History of Societies

1. The Divine Right Theory

The development of kingship of the ancient Hebrews, who were also military leaders, brought about the
outlines of a formal State. This is characterized by absolute centralized authority, formalized hierarchy,
and specialization of tasks in performance of public duty and written instead of oral communication.

The institution of kingship required that the king’s rule be legitimate in the minds of his subjects. In order
to give legitimacy to the king’s rule, there was a need to construct a theory that merged politics with
religious beliefs, a doctrine that would give more power and persuasive sanction to the position of king,
which is “divine will”.

The Divine Right Theory was dominant up to the end of the middle Ages. The king was subject to
judgment only by God but not by his subjects or any agency.

2. The Social Contract Theory

This theory gained popularity in the 17th and 18th century. It explained that the State was formed by
means of a social contract of men and women, who lived in a state of nature. State of nature meant that
people lived together without any agency to establish peace and order to settle conflicts. People
possessed natural rights derived from natural law. However, those who recognized this right are few.
Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau are main proponents of the Social Contract
Theory.

Thomas Hobbes

- State of nature and chaos (“the war of all against all”)

- Development of a strong central government for the peace and defense of the people
- If the government no longer protects its citizens, the contract becomes void
- People in a state of nature surrender natural liberties to create sovereignty for a safe, organized
civil society
- Social contract is a result of man’s self-interest and rational thinking
- To establish society by renouncing rights against one another and to grant authority to persons to
enforce the renunciation
- Morality and politics are only possible upon the establishment of an organized society
John Locke

- State of nature is a state of liberty where one could lead the best life without interference from
others and without harming others (Law of Nature)
- Political society where men give up their executive power to the public power of the government
to punish those who go against the law of nature

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 - Political authority must reflect the will of the people or the will of the majority
Jean-Jacques Rousseau

- No one has a natural right to govern others; justified authority is derived from covenants
- Sovereign is formed when free, equal persons come together to form one single body directed
towards the common good (real foundation of society)
- One cannot transfer one’s general will to another

3. The Force Theory

The State came into existence out of conquest, force or coercion. Before the State existed, there were
always leaders strong enough to assert their leadership and power through violence or conquest.
According to history, strong and mighty conquerors have succeeded in consolidating territories into
empire-states. The early Christians regarded the Roman Empire as one established by force.

During the later part of the nineteenth century in Germany, there was a school of thought, which
espoused the idea that force was the essence of the State. There was a strong resurgence during the two
World Wars of this theory when German nationalism reached its peak. In line with this theory, Adolf
Hitler once said, “Only force rules. Force is the first law.”

Thrasymchus of Ancient Greece, Niccolo Machiavelli of the early 16th century and Thomas Hobbes of the
early 17th century believed that “effective power to rule can also legitimately claim to have the authority
to rule”. The consequence of this theory is that power legitimizes itself no matter how wrong and
unjustified this power is in a democratic context.

4. Natural Theory

The State is a natural institution and not an abstract or artificial being. It is a natural system that unifies
its citizens. Under this theory, the State is just like a living organism, which is natural because it has the
capacity to grow, develop and attain a fully civilized life.

The “organic theory” refers to the perspectives of the Ancient Greeks that the State is “man writ large”.
The State is an evolving organism, a living body that evolves into higher forms. In the long course of
social evolution, each individual must become an organic part of a group to fulfill his/her interest and
needs. These aspirations had been progressively met by the family, the clan, the tribe, the nation and
finally, by the complete community of social existence that was best expressed by the State.

5. Patriarchal Theory

In the “Origin of the State”, Robert Lowie proposed that the complexity of social life under State rule
could be explained from a simple origin, an institution that contained the seed, which eventually flowered
into the fully formed State. He referred to these institutions as the associations, which were developed
from small communities like the villages and clans. Further growth and development of the institution led
to the formation of the State.

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6. Instinctive theory

The State was created because of natural inclination of men and women towards political associations. It
is best described by Aristotle’s “man by nature is a political animal”. Men and women interact with
others for their security, self-preservation and economic wellbeing.

The State was created because of man’s predisposition towards political association. It states that “man
by nature is a social being” and that man interacts with others for their security, self-preservation and
economic well-being.

According to Aristotle and Edmund Burke, reason is an attribute that distinguishes man from animals and
that the State is an evolving social organization and is good because it develops man’s rational being,
intensifies man’s political involvement and maximizes citizen’s participation in politics.

7. Economic Theory

The State developed out of men and women’s economic wants. Man in isolation could not procure all the
necessary things that he needed. He had to associate with other men in order to provide themselves with
heir various needs through the exchange of goods and services, which led to societal existence. Thus, the
State was formed.

8. The Marxist theory of the State

According to Marxist theory state is a product of the social division of labor.

So long as this social division of labor is only rudimentary, all members of the society in
turn exercise practically all its functions. There is no state. There are no special state
functions.
The state is a special organ that appears at a certain moment in the historical evolution
of mankind and that is condemned to disappear in the course of this same evolution. It is
born from the division of society into classes and will disappear at the same time that this
division disappears. It is born as an instrument in the hands of the possessing class for
the purpose of maintaining the domination of this class over society, and it will disappear
along with this class domination.

State Structures
In terms of the patterns of power distribution among the central and local or sub-national government,
states can be classified in to two: Unitary state and Federal state

Unitary State
In Unitary states, authority and power are focused exclusively on the central government. All
major policies and principles of administration originate from the center. In Unitary state, local
governments exist only as mere agents of the central authority. The span of their authority, the

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duration of tenure of office and even their very legal existence are determined directly through
continuous legislation by the central government.

In unitary state, the functions, resources, powers and even boundaries of local

governments continuously change at the discretion of the central government.

Dear learner, you have to note that unitary structure does not necessarily imply a high degree
of centralization. The freedom of initiative enjoyed by these governments at the grass roots
varies from state to state. In Britain, for example, local governments have a large degree of local
autonomy, and the central government interferes only to a limited extent. In some unitary states,
for example France, local governments are basically local extensions of the central government,
and in most cases the chief local administrator is appointed and removed by the central
government. Elsewhere in the world where uniting states exist, we find, however, that the styles
of local government vary between the two above extremes, but with the central government
always having the final control. The important point to note here is that, because the central
government has the indisputable, sole constitutional authority, whatever duties and autonomy as
may from time to time be delegated to the local governments can subsequently be withdrawn.
This is usually accomplished by the simple legislative act of any regime of the central
government.

Federal States
Dean learner, a growing number of states have adopted a federal form of government. A federal
state is mainly different from a unitary state in that it shares some of its powers to local levels of
governments. This is called devolution of power. Powers and authorities are clearly separated
and divided between the central (federal) and local governments. Usually, these powers are
clearly specified in the constitution. In simple terms, it means that some powers such as foreign
affairs, defense, finance and others are responsibilities delegated to the central (federal)
government. And other powers and authorities are assigned or reserved to local (regional)
governments. Still some of the powers are shared or concurrent powers. Thus, the central
government does not interfere in the administration of local governments. What are not clearly
specified in the constitution are usually mandates of local governments.

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 most large state, with few exceptions like china, is federal. Usually multi-ethnic states do also
adopt the federal structure.

You should note that the form of federalism in all states is not necessarily the same. States apply
different principles and reasons for federation. Similarly, the degree of autonomy exercised at
local (regional) levels is not the same in all cases. In some states, the central government retains
greater degree of power as compared to local governments. In others yet, the local or regional
governments could be very influential and powerful with greater autonomy.
Activity: 2

1. Please identify and discuss the factors which determine the nature of the state
structure?

The advantages of federal system of State structure

 Distribution of power

In a federation, the classical horizontal division of the powers of state (legislative - executive -
judicial) is complemented by a vertical division of power between the state as a whole and the
individual member states. Distribution of power ensures that there are checks and balances,
helping to prevent abuse of power.

 More democracy

Sub-division into smaller political units makes state action clearer and more comprehensible,
thus fostering active participation and co-deter-mination. Furthermore, each citizen has two
opportunities to exer-ci-se the most fundamental democratic right, namely the right to vote; in a
federation, elections are held both for the national parliament and for the parliaments of the
individual member states.

 Leadership opportunities

Political parties have more opportunities to hold power and competition between parties is
encouraged, as they can exercise political responsibility in the individual member states even if
they are in the minority nationally. This gives parties an opportunity to test and prove their
capacity for leadership by offering them a chance to demonstrate how they perform once elected.

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  Proximity to tasks

In a federation, public bodies are closer to regional problems than in a unitary state. There are
no remote, forgotten provinces.

 Citizen-oriented action

Citizens enjoy more rapid access to the public authorities. It is easier for them to contact
politicians and the public authorities than in a unitary state with a remote and anonymous
centre.

 Competition

The states that make up a federation are always competing with one another, making them more
vital. Exchange of experience fosters progress and helps to avoid undesirable developments at
the national level.

 Balance

Mutual control, reciprocal consideration and the need to seek com--pro-mi-ses prevent or at
least hinder extreme positions. Federalism has a balan-cing and thus a stabilising effect.

 Diversity

The division of the country into federal states or Länder guarantees that many economic,
political and cultural centres develop. This provides a more favourable environment to preserve
and develop specific regional, historical, economic and cultural features. This diversity can lead
to more freedom.

The disadvantages of a federal state structure

 Lack of uniformity

The federal states' autonomy necessarily means there are differences between the states.
Diversity is the opposite of uniformity. This can result in some difficulties, for instance, for
school children if a family moves from one federal state to another.

 Complicated

As decisions are taken in many different centres in the Federal Republic,

and power is shared between the Federation and the Länder, it is essential that the various tiers
of government co-operate and show consideration for each other. The different bodies that hold
power exercise mutual oversight and function in a checks-and-balances system. This
interweaving of responsibility is complex and sometimes hard for citizens to understand

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  Time-consuming

The parliaments, governments and administrations of the Federation and the federal states have
to wait for initiatives, decisions or consent from each other and engage in lengthy negotiations in
order to arrive at joint solutions. This can be a time-consuming process.

 Costly

Running individual parliaments, governments and administrations in the Federation and the
Länder is considered, on the whole, to be more expensive than maintaining the corresponding
bodies in a unitary state. It is debatable whether this is indeed a valid assumption, because
Länder institutions could not simply be closed down in a unitary state, but would have to be
replaced. Federal institutions would certainly have to be expanded and mammoth centralised
bodies might not ultimately prove to be cheaper.

Government

A government is the organization, or agency through which a political unit exercises its
authority, controls and administers public policy, and directs and controls the actions of its
members or subjects.

Government comprises the set of legal and political institutions that regulate the
relationships among members of a society and between the society and outsiders.
These institutions have the authority to make decisions for the society on policies
affecting the maintenance of order and the achievement of certain societal goals. This
article provides an overview of the types of government, the ways authority can be
distributed, the divisions of government, and the functions of government. Separate
articles deal with the origins and development of the concept of the state, the theoretical
and practical development of representation, law, and the study of government.

The power of a government over its own citizens varies, depending on the degree to
which it is free of limitations and restraints. The power of a government abroad also
varies, depending on the human and material resources with which it can support its
foreign policy. Governments range in size and scope from clans, tribes, and the shires
of early times to the superpowers and international governments of today. Until recent
times some governments were strong enough to establish empires that ruled not only
their own people but other peoples and states across national, ethnic, and language
boundaries. The present-day counterpart of the empire is the superpower that is able to
lead or dominate other countries through its superior military and economic strength.
Within the modern nation-state, government operates at many different levels, ranging
from villages to cities, counties, provinces, and states.

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Origin

For many thousands of centuries when people were hunter-gatherers and small scale farmers,
humans lived in very small communities.

The development of agriculture resulted in ever increasing population densities. David Christian
explains how this helped result in states with laws and governments:

As farming populations gathered in denser and larger communities, interactions between

different groups increased and the social pressure rose until, in a striking parallel with star
formation, new structures suddenly appeared, together with a new level of complexity. Like
stars, cities and states reorganize and energize the smaller objects within their gravitational
field.

The exact moment and place that the fractional phenomenon of human government developed is
lost in time; however, history does record the formations of very early governments. About 5,000
years ago, the first small city-states appeared. By the third to second millenniums BC, some of
these had developed into larger governed areas: Sumer, Ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley
Civilization, and the Yellow River Civilization.

States formed as the results of a positive feedback loop where population growth results in
increased information exchange which results in innovation which results in increased resources
which results in further population growth. The role of cities in the feedback loop is important.
Cities became the primary conduits for the dramatic increases in information exchange that
allowed for large and densely packed populations to form, and because cities concentrated
knowledge, they also ended up concentrating power. "Increasing population density in farming
regions provided the demographic and physical raw materials used to construct the first cities
and states, and increasing congestion provided much of the motivation for creating states.

Forms of Government

Government is one of the important elements of the state. A state cannot be formed without a
government. The government is changeable and it may be of different forms. Different types of
government can be seen in different states in the world. In different times the thinkers have
classified government in different ways. After going through this chapter, you will understand
forms of governments, and functions of different organs of the governments. Ok, go through this
chapter and have some knowledge on governments.

Classification of government
Ancient classification

In ancient time Aristotle classified government on the basis of the principle of number and the
principle of purpose. On the basis of the principle purpose, the government is of two types-
Normal form of government and the perverted form of government. The Normal form of

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government is one when the ultimate aim of the government is the welfare of the people. The
Perverted form of government is one when the government seeks to promote the personal interest
or the group interest of the rulers. Aristotle considered Aristocracy as the best and the polity as
the most practical form of government.

Modern Classification

Political scientists Montesque, Rousseau, Blunts!! Marriot and Leacock have classified the
government. Of these the classification of Leacock's is accepted as the best. Leacock has
classified Government in the following way:

1. On the basis of the location of sovereign power, government is divided into two classes-
Dictatorship and Democracy.
2. On the basis of the method of acquiring power by the head of the state, the democratic
government may be divided into two divisions: a) Constitutional Monarchy and -b) The
Republic.
3. On the basis of the relation between the Executive and the Legislative, the democratic
government can be divided into two categories: (1) Parliamentary form of Government
and (2) Presidential form of Government.
4. On the basis of distribution of power between the centre and the province, the
government is divided in to two divisions, the Unitary and Federal Government.

Dictatorship

In this system of administration, the sovereign power of the state is vested in the hands of one
person. This system is called the Dictatorship. The Dictator is the head of all powers of the state.
He is the source of supreme power. No body can prevent him from exercising his power. The
ideal of dictatorship is one country, one nation and one leader. All the powers of the state are
centred in the hands of the Dictator. He is not accountable to anybody for his activities. Every
body is compelled to obey his orders. In dictatorial administration there is one political party
under the dictator. The Dictator conducts his administration with the advisors after his likings.
The advisors are responsible to him and their duration of work depends on his satisfaction.
Hitler of Germany, Franco of Spain and Mussolini of Italy were the Dictators.

Merits of Dictatorship

In this system, the Dictator can take quick decision. He is not accountable to anybody, nor does
he have to consult anybody. So, it is possible on his part to take quick decision and work. The
Dictator by his able leadership can lead the underdeveloped country to economic and social
development and progress. Under his leadership he can achieve development in art, literature
and science. The whole country is guided in the same way under the Dictator.

Demerits of Dictatorship

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Under Dictatorship the people do not have independence. It is against personal freedom.
Nobody can make any criticism. The different opinions are suppressed by force. Dictatorship
gives rise to violent nationalism and military power. This system is against internationalism. As
the Dictator is not accountable to anybody, he can do anything, he likes. This is an autocratic
system. This administrative system is temporary. Because with the death of Dictator his rule
ends.

Democracy

Democracy means administration of the people. The administrative system where the sovereign
power of the state is vested in the people, is called Democracy. When people are the sources of
all power and the responsibility of conducting administration is vested to the people, it is called
Democracy. The political scientists have said that in democracy there is a system where all the
people can take part in administration. So it is said that the government or the administrative
system where the opinion of the people are valued most •and the administration is conducted by
the representatives of the people, is called Democracy. The former president of the United States
of America Abraham Lincoln has given a popular definition of democracy. According to him
"Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people." Democracy is of
two types. (1) Direct or pure democracy. (2) Indirect or representative democracy.

Direct Democracy

The administrative system where the citizens directly participate in the administration is called
the direct or pure democracy. In ancient Greece direct democracy was in vogue. In ancient
Greek City-States all the citizens of the state would assemble in a special place to pass law,
assess tax, appoint employees, carry on judgment etc. As the city-state and the population were
small in size, conducting administration directly was possible. There was no necessity for
election or sending representative. But in a hiodern state with vast population, direct democracy
is not possible. But in some cantons of Switzerland direct democracy is still partially in vogue.

Indirect or representative democracy

The administrative system where the citizens do not participate in the administration directly but
run the administration through the elected representatives is called the Indirect or
Representative Democracy. In Indirect Democracy the elected representatives actively
participate in administration. The elected representatives remain responsible to the people for
their activities. In the modern democratic states Indirect Representative democracy is in vogue.
To mean democracy at present is to mean indirect democracy. In modern times, democracy is the
most popular administrative system.

Merits of democracy

In the system of democratic administration attention is given to the interest of the people. The
representatives are elected by the people and, as they are accountable for their activities, they
are conscious of the welfare of the people. In democratic system all the citizens can equally take

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part in political activities. This principle of equality is the characteristic of democracy.
Democracy safeguards the fundamental rights of the citizens. As a result there is sufficient
opportunity and independence of the citizens for the development of their personality. In this
system the people actively take part in administration and political consciousness is created in
them. To realize the problem of the country by taking part in development activities, discussions
and criticism of government policies and activities, patriotism grows among the citizens.

Demerits of Democracy

In this administrative system there are many political parties. The formation of party, publicity
and election are expensive. This government is not stable as democracy is dependent on
changeable opinions of the people. The political parties spend huge money in the elections.

As there is no stability of this government, it is not possible to materialize long term planning of
development of the state. It is also not possible to maintain the definite continuity, of the
government policy with the change of government. This government fails to take good steps in
emergency as the decision is to be taken through discussion. But in spite of many faults,
democracy is the most prevalent administrative system in the world.

Constitutional Monarchy
A democratic system of administration where the Head of the state gets power through heredity
and remains the head only in name is known as the Constitutional Monarchy. In this system the
real power remains in the hands of the elected representatives of the people, as in Great Britain
where the monarch reigns but does not rule. The monarch is a titular head of state.
Republic

The administrative system where the head of the state gets power through direct or indirect
election of the people, is called a republic; e.g. Bangladesh.

Parliamentary form of Government

The democratic system of administration where the administration is conducted by the council of
ministers and, the council of ministers remain .responsible for their activities to the legislature is
called the cabinet form of government or parliamentary form of government. In this
administrative system the real administrators are the Cabinet Ministers. The head of the council
of ministers is the Prime Minister. The cabinet form of government is there in Great Britain,
India and Canada. The Prime Minister and the other ministers are the members of the
parliament. The ministers are collectively responsible to the legislature for their policies and
activities. The council of ministers will remain in power till the Legislature support them. If the
majority of the members of the Legislature brings the vote of no confidence against the ministers
they resign.

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Merits of Parliamentary form of Government

The main virtue of this government is responsibility. As the members of the majority party in the
Legislature form the ministry, there is little chance of conflict between the legislature and the
administrative department. As the administration is conducted by the elected representatives of
the people, the best law and improved type of administration are possible. In this system the
cabinet is responsible to the legislature. So the ministers cannot be arbitrary in their policies and
activities. If they are arbitrary the ministers are compelled to resign by the vote of no confidence.

This administrative system is easily changeable. The legislature can remove the cabinet
ministers from power if they are considered unfit. Again if the Legislature is against the public
opinion, the Head of the state on the advice of the cabinet ministry can dissolve the parliament.
By this system such as balance can be maintained.

Demerits of Parliamentary form of Government

In this system of administration, there may be arbitrariness of the party. At any time the
government or the cabinet ministry may fall. So, its stability is less. For this reason the
administrative policy and the continuity of long-term works can not be maintained. At times of
emergency quick decisions cannot be taken through unanimity.

Presidential form of government

Presidential form of government is that form of government in. which the administration is not
accountable to the Legislature. President is the real Executive. The president is elected by the
direct or indirect votes of the people. In the United States of America, presidential form of
government is prevalent. In this system all the powers are vested in the hands of the .president.
The president is not a member of the Legislature. He is elected by the people for a fixed term.
The Legislature cannot pass a vote of no-confidence against him. He can only be removed by
impeachment. The president appoints the ministers and they are responsible to him. He can
dismiss any minister at any time.

Merits of the Presidential form of government

In this system the government is comparatively stable. The president cannot be removed except
through impeachment. As a result, long term development plans can be taken and it is possible to
execute them. At times of emergency this system is helpful as the president can take a quick
decision. He does not have to take advice from any body. In this system there is complete
separation of power. So, the Executive, Legislative and Judiciary departments are independent
of each other and can work freely.

Demerits of the Presidential form of government

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The Head of the state is the real Executive. As the president and the ministers are not responsible
to the legislature, they many turn to be autocratic and irresponsible. Some times conflict between
the Executive and the Legislature arises. As the Legislature is not under the control of the
president, he cannot pass law at the time of necessity and it hampers his administration.

Major Functions of Government

 . Maintenance of Authority. One of the principal functions of government is to remain in

power. Governments do not relinquish their authority unless compelled to do so. Many of
the actions of politicians and civil servants can be explained by the need to maintain and
enhance their power.

Every government strives to increase its legitimacy in the eyes of the people. It may identify
itself with ancient traditions, with hope for the future, or with fear of a common enemy. Some
governments employ repression, never relaxing their vigils against real or imagined opponents.
Even democracies, when threatened, are likely to engage in a search for subversives and
"enemies of the people."

When a regime draws its main support from a privileged class or group that decreases in
numbers and strength, when a government becomes ineffective in handling domestic affairs or
countering external threats, or when a society's consensus on the principles and goals of
government evaporates, a government tends to lose authority.

Governments tend, therefore, to foster widespread ideological commitment to the nation through
patriotic ceremonies, propaganda, and civic education; they employ armed forces and
intelligence-gathering organizations for national defense; they maintain police and prison
systems to ensure domestic order; and they undertake the administration of supervisory and
regulatory functions to carry out national goals by establishing various bureaucracies to handle
each complex function.

 Administration. All governments recognize the principle that the public must be
protected and served. The citizen, in effect, surrenders a degree of individual
sovereignty to the government in return for protection of life and property and the
delivery of essential services. Governments supervise the resolution of conflicting
interests, the workings of the political process, the enforcement of laws and rights, and
the monitoring of national income and international trade; they regulate economic and
social relationships among individuals and private organizations; and they carry out
enterprises such as production of military goods, provision of postal services, and
ownership of power utilities and public works. Among the most basic services provided

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 by government are the printing and coining of money, the provision of roads, sewers,
water, education, and social and welfare services.

Functions of organs of the government

To conduct the statecraft the government has to perform different functions. These are generally
divided into three types. These are to create laws, conducting administration and judgment. To
perform these functions well, the government has three organs or departments. These organs are
(1) Legislature (2) Executive and (3) Judiciary.

1. Legislature

The Legislature is an important organ of the government. This organ creates laws for conducting
administration of the State Every state has legislature. Different states have different names of
the legislature. The name of the legislature of the United State of America is Congress. In Grate
Britain its name is Parliament and in Bangladesh it is National Assembly. The legislature may be
unicameral or bicameral. In the bicameral legislature there are Upper House and Lower House.
The Legislature of Great Britain is bicameral. The Legislature of Bangladesh is unicameral.

The Functions of the legislature For performing the activities of the government there are three
departments of which the Legislature is the most important. It is a people's representative
organization. The main function of the Legislature is to create necessary laws of the state. With
this end in view the Legislature makes new laws, amends, changes and annuls old laws. The
members of the Legislature are the public representatives. They create laws and amend them in
the Context of public opinion. In some countries the Legislature makes the constitution. The
Legislature of almost all the countries amends the constitution.

The Legislature controls the executive department. The members of the opposition party of the
Legislature criticises the policy and activity of the government and find out the faults. The
Executive department of the Cabinet form of government remains responsible to the Legislature.
The council of ministers is bound to resign if the Legislature passes a vote of no confidence. The
Legislature also deals with some financial matters. To assess taxes, to pass the budget etc. are
the activities of the Legislatur.

2. Executive Department

The department which takes the responsibility of conducting the administration of the
government is known as the Executive Department. The functions of the Executive Department
are to execute the laws passed by the Legislature. In the broad sense, the Executive department
is formed combining all the employees from the president to the village chawkiders. In the
narrow sense the President and the members of the Council of Ministers form the Executive
Department.

The functions of the Executive Department The main functions of the Executive Department are
to execute the laws and to conduct the administration of the country. The functions of the

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Executive department are to maintain internal law and order, to appoint, transfer and grant
promotion to the government employees. The Executive Department also does the functions of
conducting the foreign policy, to establish relation with other countries, to make international
contacts and perform the diplomatic function also.

The Executive Department forms and controls the defence force for the security of the country.

2. Judicial Department

The department of the government that performs the functions of judgment according to law is
called the Judicial Department. The Judicial Department is necessary to punish the criminal and
to protect the rights of the people. The Judicial Department establishes justice in the state and
passes sentence to the law violators. The Judicial department is formed with all the courts of the
country.

The functions of the Judicial Department The main function of the Judicial Department is to
carry on judgment applying the prevalent laws, of the country. Another function of this
department is to explore the laws and to pass sentence. When the prevalent law is not adequate
to carry on judgment with the help of the prevalent laws, the Judges do that according to their
individual sense of justice, intelligence and good conscience. Sometimes the Executive
Department takes advice from the Supreme Court. Sometime the" court, by proclamation of
orders and prohibition; secure the right of the people.

SOCIETY, STATE AND GOVERNMENT IN ETHIOPIA

Introduction

Ethiopia is said to be the mosaic of diversity. It is a home of diverse ethnic groups enriched by immense linguistic
and religious and cultural experiences. Before the birth of Unified Ethiopia, there were different kingdoms across
all corners of the present Ethiopia. Ethiopia took its present shape by Emperor Minilik the Second. Since then
Ethiopia had experienced different forms and structures of state and governments. Up until the coming to power
of the incumbent government, the diverse nature of the society was not welcomed. The issue of diversity has
gained constitutional recognition and tangible steps have been taken in this regard following the demise of the
Military Government in the Country.

This lesson thus describes the linguistic diversity of Ethiopian society and the various policy dimensions which
had/have been taken with regard to the treatment of diversity. In addition, the nature of state, government and
the sources of government powers are discussed.

Description of Ethiopian Society

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Ethiopia is a multi ethnic state embracing various ethnic groups with many diverse languages together. According
to recent studies there are eighty-three languages and 200 hundred dialects spoken in the country. these can be
broken in to four main groups Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic, and Nilo-Saharan on which three of them has a tracing of
the parent language called Afroasiatic family spoken in Ethiopia are Cushitic and omotic and semetic . The semetic
family includes, Amaharic, Tigrign, Guragena, Argoba, Gafat, selte, zeway.

The cushetic languages are found mainly in the south of the country. Among these, the Afan Oromo, Sidamegna,
Agawinga, Afargna, Saho, konso, Alaba, Derressa, Hadiya, Kambata, Gedeo, Libdo and Burji are some of them.

Similarly The Omotic language group include kaffa, Janjaro, Dorze, Walayta, , Girma, Maji, Gamu, Gofa, Kaficho,
kulo, Konta, Ari, Shaku. And finally, Nilo Sharian Languages group include the following Ethnic group: Majanger,
Anuak, Nuer, , koma, Gumuz, Berta, Kunamas.

In terms of religion, there are Protestants, Catholics, Orthodox, Islam and others.

2. Society, State and Government in the Pre-1990s.

Ethiopia took its present geographic shape since during King Minilike II. The country had been ruled under unitary
state structure since the Minilik Era. Power centralism and bureaucratization remained the fashion of the day
during the three successive governments of Ethiopia, Minelike, Haile Sellassie, The Durgue. During Minilek the
country took its present shape. Following Minilek, Hailessilassie reinforced the power centralism and unitarism
tendency. In addition to unitarism and power centralism, assimilation was the official policies of such rulers.

2.1 Emperor Hailessilassie

Ethiopia took its present geographic shape since during King Minilike II. The country had been ruled under unitary
state structure since the Minilik Era. Power centralism and bureaucratization remained the fashion of the day
during the three successive governments of Ethiopia, Minelike, Haile Sellassie, The Durgue. During Minilek the
country took its present shape. Following Minilek, Hailessilassie reinforced the power centralism and unitarism
tendency.

The emperor pursued assimilation policy, too. The assimilation policy was aimed at creating unified and
homogeneous society. Diversity had been considered as some thing a curse for the country. In order to realize the
homogenization project of the king, official cultures was imposed from above. One of the instruments that the king
employed to effect the project was religion. Orthodox Religion was presented as the state religion. As indicated in
the 1931 and 1955 constitutions, orthodox Christianity was officially declared as the state religion. The church was
used as instrument to serve the Christianization project of the king. In addition moral education had served the
same purpose. Another policy instrument which was employed by the emperor to effect the homogenization
project was the Language policy. Amharic was selected to be the official language of the country. The language was

Society, State and government Page 19

to be used as the sole language, with the exception of English, schools, media, courts and the entire civil service
work.

During the Emperor time, the political system was monarchical. The king claimed to be the legitimate ruler of the
country. For that matter the king claimed to be elected of God! He acted as if he had Devine power too. As result,
the peoples were morally forced to accept his kingship with out questioning.

Under such monarchical system, there were attempts to introduce the legislative body, judiciary and councils of
ministers in the executive. The bi cameral legislative organ was considered to be a great innovation of the time
.Despite the introduction of bicameral legislative bodies, however, these houses were not law making organs in
the strict sense of law making. Indeed their role was limited to advisory bodies. With regard to judiciary, the
administrative tribunals and the regular courts were introduced as independent organs. However, the king was
also at the apex of the court system-called the Emperor Chilot where the king himself used to review judicial
decisions. With regard to the executive, the king was both head of the state and government as indicated in 1931
constitutions. These constitutions stipulated about the council of ministers with out the prime minister. As result
the king was both head of the state and government. After this constitutions was amended, the prime minister
was introduced but had no significant power, As indicated in 1931 and the Revised constitutions, the king had
unchecked power to appoint and dismisses any official.

2.2. The Durgue Era

Following the demise of the Emperor due to the revolution, the Military government held the state power. Force
remained to be the best instrument in its entire life time. The government ruled the country without constitutions
for about 13 years. The country remained a Unitary Republic with the coming power of Mengistue Hailemariam as
the chief head of the state, as stipulated by the 1987 constitutions. Despite there existed the prime minister as the
head of the government its roles, survival and functions were circumscribed as the head of the state had monopoly
of power. Mengistue Hailemariam was both the chair man of the Party which totally controlled the parliament- the
National shengo. The constitutions had recognized the Workers Party of Ethiopia/WPE/ as the only legal party to
operate as the vanguard party. As the result multipart system was not legally allowed to operate in the political
system.

Due to the notion of ``democractice centralism`` Mengistu Hailemariam emerged as the only person with un -
checked power. Provisions related to human rights and national rights, yet the provisions had paper value than
that of practical value. Among some of the provisions, the recognition of the equality of Nationalities and

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introduction of self-governing units could be mentioned. The PDRE constitution for the firs time in the history of
Ethiopia had recognized the equality of nationalities at least in principle.

The incorporation of equality of nationalities as right would indicate that the government had recognized the need
to ,at least in principle, accept the fact that Ethiopia society is diverse. What was remaining was the
institutionalization of diversity through different mechanism such as self government, special representation and
other linguistic and cultural rights.

The other sweeping measure was the divorce between the Orthodox Church with the state. Soon after the military
took political power, the marriage between the state and the church had put to an end. However, as many
scholars put it, socialism was introduced and assumed the official religion of the state.

In general, the response of the state in the society was aimed at the creation of the mono-culture or homogeneity.
Diversity was not appreciated .it was some thing to be subdued. The adoption of unitary state, imposition of
official culture-language and religion …etc reflected the intention of the rulers to eliminate diversity than
accommodation of diversity. The official policy of the government to introduce secularism had failed to serve its
purposes. The separation principle, in deed was motivated by replacing religion by socialism. Both Christianity and
Islam and their variants were undermined .and that was the indication that the regime was not intended to
appreciate religious diversity.

3. State, Government and Society in the Post 1990s

Since the demise of the Durgue regimes and the coming into power of the Current government, the relation
between the society and the state have undergone radical transformation. The introduction of democracy, federal
state structure, the move towards multiculturalism and the adoption of parliamentary form of the government are
some of the major shifts and departures form the past. As indicated above the previous regimes focused on
unitarism, centralism, assimilation or mono-culturalism.

The constitution starts with the sovereign power that Nations, Nationality and Peoples of Ethiopia has clearly
indicated the commitment towards accommodating diversity. In light of this sprit, the constitutions have taken up
significant policy measures to accommodate diversity. These provisions of the constitutions could be categorized in
to four major policy frameworks: self –government rights, language rights, special representation rights and
cultural rights.

Society, State and government Page 21

Self government rights: the adoption of federalism is primarily aimed at empowering nations, nationalities and
peoples of Ethiopia. The constitution provides that each Nation, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia have the
right to administer them selves at different level of the government. Accordingly nine regions are established on
the basis of language, identity, consent of the people and the settlement patterns. As the country is the home of
more than eighty linguistic groups, each group has the right to claim self government rights as per the provisions of
the constitutions.

The second major policy is the language policy. Unlike the previous governments, the constitutions have
recognized all language of NNP. And the selection of language for respective state is left to the decision of the
concerned states. Amharic has become the working language, not the official language, of the federal government.
This is departure from the past. So, every cultural group has the right to use its language for education, media,
courts and civil service.

The third major policy of the state is the special representation rights that Nations and Nationality and Peoples
have. It is provided that at least every cultural group is represented by one person in the House of Federation. Of
course the number of the representatives increases based on a million people difference

The other important provision that aims at creating multicultural society is the special attention given to the place
of culture. The value of culture is appreciated to the extent that the government does have responsibility to
preserve culture and arts in the society. In addition, special exemption right has been given to the customary and
religious courts.

The success of multiculturalism lays on the readiness and commitment of citizens to recognize diversity, appreciate
diversity, respect diversity and institutionalizing diversity. Cultural exclusivism /or narrow nationalism could disturb
inter-cultural communication and movements of citizens which could be detrimental to the working of federalism
in the country

Dynamics of Ethiopian regimes and government

Few African countries have had such a long, varied, and troubled history as Ethiopia. The Ethiopian state
originated in the Aksumite kingdom, a trading state that emerged about the first century A.D. The Askumites
perfected a written language; maintained relations with the Byzantine Empire, Egypt, and the Arabs; and,
in the mid-fourth century, embraced Christianity. After the rise of Islam in the seventh century, the Aksumite
kingdom became internationally isolated as Arabs gradually gained control of maritime trade in the Red
Sea. By the early twelfth century, the successors of the Aksumites had expanded southward and had
established a new capital and a line of kings called the Zagwe. A new dynastycalled "Solomon" line, which
came to power about 1270, continued this territorial expansion and pursued a more aggressive foreign
policy.

Ethiopia's modern period (1855 to the present)--represented by the reigns of Tewodros II, Yohannis IV,
Menelik II, Zawditu, and Haile Selassie I; by the Marxist regime of Mengistu Haile Mariam; and, since
mid-1991, by the Transitional Government of Ethiopia -has been been characterized by nation-building as

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 well as by warfare. Tewodros II started the process of recreating a cohesive Ethiopian state by
incorporating Shewa into his empire and by suppressing revolts in the country's other provinces. Yohannis
IV battled to keep Ethiopia free from foreign domination and to retard the growing power of the Shewan
king, Menelik. Eventually, Menelik became emperor and used military force to more than double Ethiopia's
size. He also defeated an Italian invasion force that sought to colonize the country.

Struggles over succession to the throne characterized the reign of Zawditu--struggles won by Haile
Selassie, the next ruler. After becoming emperor in 1930, Haile Selassie embarked on a nationwide
modernization program. However, the 1935-36 Italo-Ethiopian war halted his efforts and forced him into
exile. After returning to Addis Ababa in 1941, Haile Selassie undertook further military and political
changes and sought to encourage social and economic development. Although he did initiate a number of
fundamental reforms, the emperor was essentially an autocrat, who to a great extent relied on political
manipulation and military force to remain in power and to preserve the Ethiopian state. Even after an
unsuccessful 1960 coup attempt led by the Imperial Bodyguard, Haile Selassie failed to pursue the political
and economic policies necessary to improve the lives of most Ethiopians.

In 1974 a group of disgruntled military personnel overthrew the Ethiopian monarchy. Eventually, Mengistu
Haile Mariam, who participated in the coup against Haile Selassie, emerged at the head of a Marxist
military dictatorship. Almost immediately, the Mengistu regime unleashed a military and political reign of
terror against its real and imagined opponents. It also pursued socialist economic policies that reduced
agricultural productivity and helped bring on famine, resulting in the deaths of untold tens of thousands of
people. Thousands more fled or perished as a result of government schemes to villagize the peasantry and
to relocate peasants from drought-prone areas of the north to better-watered lands in the south and
southwest.

Aside from internal dissent, which was harshly suppressed, the regime faced armed insurgencies in the
northern part of the country. The longest-running of these was in Eritrea, where the Eritrean People's
Liberation Front (EPLF) and its predecessors had been fighting control by the central government since
1961. In the mid-1970s, a second major insurgency arose in Tigray, where the Tigray People's Liberation
Front (TPLF), opposed not only the policies of the military government but also the very existence of the
government itself.

In foreign affairs, the regime aligned itself with the Soviet Union. As long as the Soviet Union and its allies
provided support to Ethiopia's armed forces, the Mengistu government remained secure. In the late 1980s,
however, Soviet support waned, a major factor in undermining the ability of government forces to prosecute
the wars against the Eritreans and the Tigray. Gradually, the insurgent movements gained the upper hand.
By May 1991, the EPLF controlled almost all of Eritrea, and , the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary
Democratic Front (EPRDF), had overrun much of the center of the country. Faced with impending defeat,
on May 21 Mengistu fled into exile in Zimbabwe; the caretaker government he left behind collapsed a week
later. The EPLF completed its sweep of Eritrea on May 24 and 25, and a few days later EPLF chairman
Issaias Afwerki announced the formation of the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE). Meanwhile, on
May 27-28, EPRDF forces marched into Addis Ababa and assumed control of the national government.
Government of Ethiopia after 1991 takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary republic, whereby the
Prime Minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. The prime minister is
chosen by the parliament. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of
parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. They are governed under the
constitution of 1994.There is a bicameral parliament made of the house of federation and House of Peoples
Representatives. The house of federation has members chosen by the state assemblies to serve five year terms. The
house of people's representatives are elected by direct election, who in turn elect the president for a six year term.
There are two self governing administrations, the country's capital Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa

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