Introduction

Stainless steels represent the most diverse and complex family of all steels.
The list of their applications is endless: from the harsh environments of the
chemical, oil production and power generation industries to street furniture or
automotive trims without forgetting most cutlery, they are used either for
decorative purposes and/or for their excellent resistance to corrosion.

Stainless steels are stainless because a protective layer spontaneously forms

on their surfaces and reduces the rate of corrosion to almost negligible levels.
Under normal conditions, this layer heals very rapidly if scratched, so that if
stainless steels only suffered from uniform corrosion, they could survive for
literally millions of years (Nature, 2002:415, Newman, p743).
It is generally agreed that stainlessness is obtained for additions of about 12 wt
% of chromium or more, although corrosion rates continuously reduce with
increasing chromium contents from 0 to this limit.

12% Cr-steels are resitant to atmospheric corrosion but are useless in acids
such as HCl or H2SO4 where they exhibit a corrosion rate even greater than
plain carbon steels. As will be discussed later, corrosion resistance can be
greatly enhanced above that of a basic 12% Cr steel by further addition of Cr
and/or use of other alloying elements such as Ni, Mo, N etc.

Corrosion resistance is of course not the only design criterion: materials cost
considerations will typically favour basic, cheaper grades (12%Cr-0.1%C) rather
than heavily alloyed steels. Mechanical properties must also be taken into
account, as must fabrication difficulties (machinability, deformability, weldability,
etc.). The number of grades is therefore seemingly infinite, with a large number
of standard compositions to which manufacturers add their proprietary variants.

These are usually divided in four or five classes on the basis of their
microstructures:

 martensitic or transformable stainless steels

 ferritic stainless steels
 austenitic stainless steels
 duplex stainless steels

to which some add precipitation hardened stainless steels, although they are
themselves divided into martensitic/ferritic/etc. so that they could be included in
the above categorisation.

Corrosion resistance
Iron is not stable in most of the environments in which it is used. Like most non-
noble metals, it does not naturally occur in its elemental form and has to be
extracted from oxides. In service, the tendency is for re-formation of these
oxides. Hence the rust that can be observed on most unprotected steel
components.
Materials scientists and chemists often take recourse to thermodynamics to
quantify and compare the stability of different phases, oxides, etc. In this case
however, thermodynamics alone gives an erroneous representation of the
problem: most stainless steels are used in conditions in which the dissolution of
the metal is energetically favorable.
Instead, they owe their environmental resistance to the formation of a chromium
oxide film which acts as a kinetic barrier: atomic transport through this layer is
so slow, that the steel can be considered inert.

The passive film formed at the surface of stainless steels is extremelly thin (1-2
nm). Its chromium content depends on the bulk content, and in general,
increases with the latter. The overall corrosion resistance is also enhanced as
the chromium content is raised.

Corrosion can nevertheless occur if the passive film breaks down, locally or
uniformly. This can happen by different mechanisms depending on the
conditions of use. The most common types of corrosion are:

 Uniform corrosion of stainless steels can occur in acidic or hot alkaline

solutions. It results in uniform loss which can easily be predicted and
allowed for. As mentionned in the introduction, uniform corrosion is very
slow when the metal is in the passive state.
General corrosion resistance is increased with increasing chromium
content, but other elements can be detrimental. In particular, sulfur in
solid solution is believed to make passivation more difficult (M. Schütze
ed., Corrosion and Environmental Degradation, Wiley-Vch, Chap 3) and
therefore is generally undesirable for good corrosion properties.
Unfortunately, sulfur makes welding considerably easier (D. T. Llewellyn,
Steels: Metallurgy and Applications, 1992, Butterworth-Heinemann) and
also improves machinability. In the case of welding, sulfur appears to
modify the surface tension of the weld pool and therefore alters its shape
significantly. Austenitic grade 316 with sulfur content lower than 0.007 wt
% tend to have a high width-to-depth ratio while higher sulfur contents
lead to a narrower, deeper weld pool (specifying the sulfur content of
316L for welding).
Some of the standard grades contain a quantity of sulfur delibarately
greater than the typical 0.003 that can otherwise routinely be achieved
with modern steel-making processes (the free machining grades).
Nickel significantly improves the general corrosion resistance of stainless
steels, by promoting passivation. The austenitic stainless steels series
therefore possesses a corrosion resistance superior to that of martensitic
or ferritic stainless steels (no nickel), particularly with mineral acids.
 Pitting corrosion is the result of the local destruction of the passive film
and subsequent corrosion of the steel below. It generally occurs in
chloride, halide or bromide solutions. If a fault in the passive layer or a
surface defect results in the local destruction of the former, dissolution of
the steel underneath leads to a build up of positively charged metallic
ions, which in turn causes negatively charges (e.g. chloride ions) to
migrate near the defect. Even in a neutral solution, this can cause the pH
to drop locally to 2 or 3, and can prevent regeneration of the passive
 layer.
In the passive condition, the current density is in the scale of
nanoamperes/cm2; in the pit, however, it may be above 1A/cm2.
Similarly, the concentration in chloride ions can be thousands of times
greater than that in the solution.

Schematic illustration of pitting corrosion.

 The above figure illustrates the process: the anodic dissolution of the
steel leads to introduction of M+ in solution, which causes migration of
Cl- ions. In turn, metal chloride reacts with water following:

 M+Cl- + H2O -> MOH + H+Cl-

 This causes the drop of pH mentioned earlier. The cathodic reaction, on
the surface near the pit follows:

 O2 + 2H2O -> MOH + 4OH-

 While the propagation phenomenon is well understood, the mechanism
of pit initiation is still debated. The initiation of pitting has long been
associated with the presence of MnS inclusions which are difficult to
avoid in the steel making process. It has recently been shown that these
inclusions are surrounded by a Cr depleted region which is believed to
cause the initiation (Nature, 2002:415, Ryan et al, p770).

 The pitting resistance of a stainless steel is affected by its composition.

Increasing the Cr content, or adding Mo or N both enhance the pitting
resistance, though they are not equally potent in this respect. For
comparison purposes, an index is often used to represent the combined
effect of these elements:

 pitting index=Cr+3.3Mo+16N
 where Cr, Mo and N are given in weight percent.
One obvious environment where pitting corrosion is of concern is marine
applications. AISI type 316 (an 18Cr-12Ni austenitic stainless steel with
2-3% Mo) is often the material of choice in this case, although the severe
conditions met in offshore platforms, for example, call for heavily alloyed
 steels with up to 6% Mo (for example 254SMO, Avesta Sheffield).
Use of stainless steels in offshore platforms.
Street furniture is another case where pitting resistance might be
relevant, particularly in colder areas where salt de-icing is common.

 Sensitisation is one of the corrosion mechanisms which causes

widespread problems in austenitic stainless steels, particularly in
welding. This problem can be so severe as to cause grain decohesion,
as shown in the picture below.

Grain decohesion due to intergranular corrosion, photo courtesy M. Shimada (Shimada et al,
Acta Mater., 2002:50, p2331).

 In normal conditions, austenitic stainless steels are given a high-

temperature heat-treatment, often called solution-treatment, which, as its
name indicates, aims at obtaining a single f.c.c. solid solution (austenite).
At lower temperatures however (roughly, 800 C and below), this solution
is not stable: in the basic AISI 304, the carbon content exceeds the
solubility limit in austenite. This is due to the presence of chromium,
which forms stable carbides.

 In austenitic steels, the chromium carbides are M23C6 (see Sourmail,

Mater. Sci. Techn. 2001:17, p1 for more details about this phase), in
which M stands for Cr, Fe and possibly some Mn and Mo if present in the
alloy. Because the formation of these carbides involves long-range
diffusion, it can be avoided by quenching the steel after the solution-
treatment.
 If the steel is subsequently reheated, precipitation of M23C6 may occur.
Because nucleation is considerably easier on grain boundaries, there is a
very strong tendency for localised precipitation. Precipitation on other
defects (twin boundaries, dislocations, inclusions..) does occur, although
after longer exposure at high temperatures. Depending on the
composition, M23C6 may be found on grain boundaries after only a few
minutes at temperatures around 750 C. The range of temperature in
which sensitisation occurs is bounded in the lower temperatures by the
very slow kinetics of diffusion controlled transformations, and in the
higher temperatures, by the fact that chromium depletion is less
pronounced at higher temperatures. As illustrated below, the conditions
in which a steel is sensitised vary with temperature and time.

The time and temperature dependency of sensitisation, after Mayo, Mater. Sci. Eng. A,
1997:232, p129.

 When austenitic stainless steels are welded, any metal which has been
melted usually cools fast enough to prevent carbide formation. However,
in the metal adjacent to the fusion zone, the so-called heat-affected zone
(HAZ), the temperature changes might be such that sensitisation occurs.

 Remedies
 Various solutions can be implemented to avoid sensitisation:

o The first one is obviously to reduce the carbon content of the

material so as to limit the precipitation of M23C6. This approach
defines the AISI L grades, such as 304L and 316L, which have
lower carbon content than their standard counterparts. For both
these steels, the maximum acceptable carbon content is reduced
to 0.03 wt% (from 0.08 for the corresponding standard grades).

The effect of carbon content on the kinetics of sensitisation. After (Gooch, Weld
decay in austenitic stainless steel, The Welding Institute, 1975)

o Another `similar' solution consists in introducing carbide formers

which have an even greater affinity for carbon than chromium.
These include Nb, Ti, V or Ta. Steels containing these elements
(or a combination) are said to be stabilised (with regard to grain
boundary precipitation of M23C6).
Grades 321 (Ti stabilised) and 347 (Nb stabilised) represent the
most common stabilised austenitic stainless steels. In welding
applications, grade 321 is not used as a filler metal because
titanium does not transfer well accross a high temperature arc.
347 is therefore used as a filler metal when joining components
made out of 321 or 347 (the latter being seldom used as parent
material).
To obtain stabilisation, it is not sufficient to add Nb or Ti. A
stabilisation heat-treatment must be performed to ensure
formation of TiC or NbC. This is usually performed by maintaining
the steel for 1 or more hours at temperatures around 900 C. At
lower temperatures, M23C6 may form faster than TiC or NbC.

o In some cases, a solution-treatment can be given to dissolve

carbides which may have formed on grain boundaries, after
welding for example.
 o A variety of other factors impact on the problem, such as grain
size and the nature of the grain boundary. It has been shown that
sensitisation can be avoided by grain boundary engineering
(Shimada et al, Acta Mater., 2002:50, p2331), in which a
thermomechanical treatment produces a microstructure with
mostly low angle grain boundaries. The latters have a lower
energy and are therefore less potent nucleation sites for M23C6.
On the other hand, it appears that increasing the orientation
randomness of the grain boundaries beyond a treshold can also
lead to a reduction in sensitisation (Wasnik et al, Acta Mater.
2002:50, p4587). In this study however, it is possible that the
cause is a grain size reduction rather than a change in the nature
of the grain boundaries.

Mechanism

As explained earlier, sensitisation is caused by the formation of

chromium carbides on grain boundaries. The Cr-rich precipitate draws
chromium from the adjacent matrix, which results in the formation of a
chromium depleted zone. If the chromium content is below 11-12% in this
area, the steel is said to be sensitised.

Schematic illustration of grain boundary chromium carbides precipitation and corresponding

Cr profile.

This short description of the problem hides most of its interesting

complexity. The first difficulty occurs if one considers the phase diagram
austenite/M23C6. This predicts that the chromium content of the
 austenite in equilibrium with M23C6 is only slightly lower than the bulk
composition, which makes sense if one remembers that M23C6 seldom
form more than 1% volume fraction.
The reason why the chromium content locally drops to much lower
values is to be found in the dynamics of the fluxes of elements diffusing
towards the precipitates. This problem is reviewed in details in C. H. Too,
MPhil thesis, 2002 and Sourmail et al, ISIJ Int. 2003:43, p1814.

 Stress corrosion cracking is an important phenomenon often related to

pitting corrosion. It is the result of a combination of corrosion and applied
stress. Under these conditions, a crack can progress alternatively
through dissolution of its tip or mechanical propagation. Stress corrosion
cracking is particularly dangerous because it may take thousands of
hours for a crack to nucleate, but considerably less for it to propagate.
Dramatic examples of catastrophic corrosion by SCC include the
collapse of swimming pools ceilings in 1985 (Switzerland, 12 fatalities),
and 2001, (Netherland, no fatalities), both attributed to SCC of type 304
or 316 austenitic stainless steels. It has been suggested that 6%Mo
austenitic stainless steels should be used in these environments.
NPL's guide to Stress Corrosion Cracking

Phase equilibria

Main phases

As mentioned in the introduction, the designation stainless steel conventionally

implies little more than a 12% Cr content. Most of the stainless steels are based
on the Fe-Cr-C and Fe-Cr-Ni-C systems, but other alloying elements are also
important.

Iron and its alloys can exist in two crystallographic forms (body centred or face-
centred cubic). In pure iron, the f.c.c. structure exists between 910 and 1400 C,
the b.c.c. structure below and above this interval (up to the melting temperature
of 1539 C).
The importance of this phase-transformation in the metallurgy of steels cannot
be overestimated. This transformation allow for a wide range of microstructures
to be achieved by controlled heat-treatment. Mechanical properties are
essentially related to microstructure, and can therefore be obtained in an
extraordinarily large range of strength, toughness, etc.. Stainless steels are
routinely produced with strengths from 100 MPa to largely more than 1GPa.

Knowledge of the relative stability of the b.c.c. and f.c.c. structures of iron alloys
is therefore of prime concern. The history of stainless steels started with a
martensitic grade (12%Cr-0.1%C) in Sheffield, UK and the austenitic 18%Cr-
8%Cr in Germany ( more about the history of stainless steels). For this reason,
and also because they are most often the major alloying elements, Cr and Ni
have long been used as reference to quantify the influence of alloying elements
on the b.c.c.<->f.c.c. phase transition: chromium additions tend to stabilise the
b.c.c. phase, while nickel additions stabilise the f.c.c. one.
Pseudo-binary (isopleth) Fe-Cr diagram for 0.1% C. Chromium additions stabilise the b.c.c. form of
iron, beyond about 18%, Fe-Cr steels no longer undergo the α/γ transition (ferritic stainless steels).

Without carbon, the limit beyond which austenite no longer forms is about 13.5
wt%. However, additions of carbon stabilise the austenite and therefore
increase this limit.
Other alloying elements also affect the stability of austenite/ferrite in one
direction or another. This has led to their classification as α-stabilisers or γ-
stabilisers. The concept of Cr-equivalent (for α-stabilisers) and Ni-equivalent (for
γ-stabilisers) is widely used in conjunction with the Schaeffler diagram to
quantify their roles:
Cr equivalent = (Cr) + 2(Si) + 1.5(Mo) + 5(V) + 5.5(Al) + 1.75(Nb) + 1.5(Ti) +
0.75(W)
Ni equivalent = (Ni) + (Co) + 0.5(Mn) + 0.3(Cu) + 25(N) + 30(C)
All in weight percent.

Schematic Schaeffler diagram. Although primarily intended for use in welding, this diagram is
sometimes used in alloy design as it provides an easy way to estimate the microstructure of a
stainless steel.
Modern thermodynamics calculation tools such as Thermocalc or MTDATA
based on the CALPHAD method allow more rigourous determination of
equilibrium phase diagrams in multicomponent systems.

Second phases

In most grades of stainless steels, alloying elements are present in quantities

sufficient to cause precipitation of second phases. Most often the stable
carbides, nitrides or intermetallics are of little relevance as they tend to follow a
long and complex precipitation sequence.
This is because the kinetics of precipitation are largely controlled by nucleation,
and nucleation itself is not necessarily easier for the most stable precipitates.
From the Fe-Cr diagram presented earlier, it appears that typical martensitic
steels should exhibit ferrite and M23C6 in equilibrium at 600 C (for example). In
practice, this carbide is only found after relatively long ageing. Intermediate
phases are, in order, cementite, M2X and M7C3 to finally obtain M23C6.
These sequences are far more complex in heavily alloyed ferritic or austenitic
stainless steels such as those used in the power generation industry.
Considerable research work is being devoted to predicting quantitatively the
precipitation sequences in such alloys. This is mainly because their life
expectancy (about 30 years) vastly exceeds the length of laboratory tests.

 Modelling precipitation sequences in power plant steels, Part I

 Simultaneous alloy carbide sequence in power plant steels
 Review: Precipitation in Creep-Resistant Austenitic Stainless Steels
 Modelling simultaneous precipitation reactions in austenitic stainless
steels

Martensite formation

Most stainless steels have a high hardenability, meaning that reconstructive

austenite to (ferrite + carbides) transformation is unlikely to happen unless the
steel is cooled particularly slowly.
The most important features of these alloys are therefore the martensite start
(Ms) and finish temperatures (Mf). For martensitic steels, the range [Mf-Ms]
should be above the room temperature to ensure fully martensitic structure. On
the contrary, the [Ms-Mf] range of austenitic stainless steels is often well below
0 C, which is why austenitic steels are used in cryogenic applications. Cold
work can cause martensitic transformation to an extent with depends on the
deformation and on the alloying composition. Heavily alloyed austenitic steels
with up to 20% Cr and 25% Ni are fully stable.

The mechanisms of martensite nucleation are reasonably well understood and

there are a number of models which predicts the Ms temperature with an
acceptable accuracy.

Categories
On the basis of their main microstructural features, grades of stainless steels
are typically divided into four categories:

 Martensitic stainless steels, typified by AISI types 410/420/440 contain

about 12% Cr and 0.1% C in its basic composition, leading to a fully
martensitic structure at room temperature.
 Ferritic stainless steels contain larger amounts of Cr which stabilise the
ferritic structure.
 Austenitic stainless steels, such as AISI type 304 typically contain 18%
Cr and 8% Ni which stabilises the austenitic structure. The large
susbtitutional content depresses the martensitic transformation
temperatures well below 0 C.
 Duplex stainless steels, whose microstructure is approximately made up
of 50/50 ferrite/austenite.

Martensitic Stainless Steels

These steels still undergo the b.c.c./f.c.c. transformation of iron, although the
range of austenite stability is reduced.
As for conventional steels, mechanical properties can be considerably altered
by heat-treatments. Typical heat-treatments consist of austenitisation at a
temperature suitable for dissolution of carbides. Stainless steels have a high
hardenability, that is to say, reconstructive transformations are considerably
slowed by the presence of Cr, so that a fully martensitic structure can be
achieved without a severe quench. Oil or water quenching are nevertheless
used with large sections so as to ensure martensite formation throughout.

Typical compositions cover 12 to 18 Cr and 0.1 to 1.2 C (wt%). As with other

martensitic steels, a balance must be sought between hardness and toughness.
An untempered martensitic structure typically has high hardness/yield strength
but a low toughness and ductility (although the exact values depend on the
carbon content). In many conditions, these are used after a tempering treatment
between 600 and 750 C, which result in a lower hardness but improved
toughness.
In some applications such as cutlery, surgical intruments etc., high strength is
desirable and toughness/ductility of little concern. A lower temperature
tempering is then used to retain most of the strength. AISI type 420 (0.15-0.4C,
1.0Mn, 1.0Si, 0.04P, 0.03S, 12-14Cr all max wt%) is a typical composition for
such applications. Its proof strength in quenched and tempered condition can
be in excess of 1.2 GPa. For type 440C tempered at 300 C, the proof strength
can reach about 2 GPa.

The table below shows the composition and typical use of AISI standard
martensitic grades:

Standard grades of martensitic stainless steels. Comparison of grade specifications .

AISI
N Comments/Applica
grad C Mn Si Cr Mo P S
i tions
e

The basic
composition. Used
11.5
0. 0.0 0.0 for cutlery, steam
410 0.15 1.0 - - -
5 4 3 and gas turbine
13.0
blades and buckets,
bushings..More.

Addition of sulphur
for machinability,
12.0
1.2 1. 0.0 0.1 used for screws,
416 0.15 - - 0.60
5 0 4 5 gears etc. 416 Se
14.0
replaces suplhur by
selenium. More

0.15 12.0 Dental and surgical

1. 0.0 0.0
420 - 1.0 - - - instruments, cutlery..
0 4 3
0.40 14.0 More

15.0 Enhanced corrosion

1. 1.25 0.0 0.0
431 0.20 1.0 - - resistance, high
0 -2.0 4 3
17.0 strength. More

Ball bearings and

0.60 16.0
440 1. 0.0 0.0 races, gage blocks,
- 1.0 - - 0.75
A 0 4 3 molds and dies,
0.75 18.0
cutlery, More

0.75 16.0
440 1. 0.0 0.0 As 440A, higher
- 1.0 - - 0.75
B 0 4 3 hardness
0.95 18.0

440 0.95 1.0 1. 16.0 - 0.75 0.0 0.0

As 440B, higher
C - 0 - 4 3
 1.20 18.0 hardness

In additions to the standard grades, a large number of alloyed martensitic

stainless steels have been developed for moderately high temperature
applications. Most common additions include Mo, V and Nb. These lead to a
complex precipitation sequence. A small amount (up to 2 wt%) of Ni is added
which improves the toughness.
The 12Cr-Mo-V-Nb steels are used in the power generation industry, for steam
turbine blades operating at temperatures around 600 C. Current research
focusses on achieving service temperatures of 630-650 C under a stress of 30
MPa.

Ferritic stainless steels

Ferritic stainless steels: contain typically more chromium and/or less carbon
than the martensitic grades. Both changes act towards stabilisation of ferrite
against austenite so that ferrite is stable at all temperatures. Therefore, ferritic
stainless steels cannot be hardened by heat-treatments as is the case of
martensitic ones. They exhibit lower strength but higher ductility/toughness.
Typical application may include appliances, automotive and architectural trim
(i.e. decorative purposes), as the cheapest stainless steels are found in this
family (aisi 409).

Some standard grades of ferritic stainless steels. Comparison of grade specifications .

AISI
Comments/Applicatio
grad C Mn Si Cr Mo P S
ns
e

0.0 11.5-
405 1.0 1.0 - 0.04 0.03 0.1-0.3 Al
8 14.5

0.0 10.5- 0.04 0.04

409 1.0 1.0 - (6xC) Ti min
8 11.75 5 5

0.1 14.0-
429 1.0 1.0 - 0.04 0.03
2 16.0

0.1 16.0-
430 1.0 1.0 - 0.04 0.03
2 18.0

0.2 23.0-
446 1.5 1.0 - 0.04 0.03 0.25 N
0 27.0
High chromium ferritic stainless steels such as 446 are sensible to the so-called
'475 C embrittlement', which is caused by the decomposition of the Fe-Cr solid
solution in two phases, Fe and Cr-rich respectively. Around 475 C and below,
and for Cr contents greater than about 25 wt%, this decomposition is spinodal
and typically exhibits wavelength below 10 nm. As the decomposition occurs, a
continuous increase of hardness is observed: for example, the hardness of an
Fe-28Cr steel can increase by more than 300 Hv over an exposure 10,000 at
450 C (Ishikawa et al., Mater. Trans. JIM, 36:1995, p16-22). This results in a
severe drop of impact toughness and ductility.
Addition of Ni appear to accelerate the spinodal decomposition and raise the
maximum temperature at which it is observed. When post-weld heat-treatment
is not possible, welding of ferritic stainless steels is usually done with a metal
filler containing Ni, and there is therefore the possibility of weld embrittlement.

Austenitic stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels: these stainless steels owe their name to their f.c.c.
crystallographic structure. Typical compositions in the early 20th century were
18Cr-8Ni. The austenite in these alloys was only stable because of the relatively
large carbon content, and modern equivalent usually contain up to 10.5 Ni.
These steels are often in metastable conditions at room temperature or below,
and while the reconstructive formation of ferrite is not of concern, the formation
of martensite can be. Most grades have a martensite start temperature (Ms)
well below 0 C. However, cold work can result in formation of martensite at
temperatures higher than Ms (this result in the sample becoming magnetic,
while a fully austenitic structure is not). The impact of deformation on the
stability of the material is conveniently quantified by the M d,30 temperature, the
temperature at which the structure is 50% martensitic for 30% deformation.

The presence of nickel improves considerably the corrosion resistance when

compared to the martensitic and ferritic grades.
AISI type 304 is the basic 18/8 austenitic stainless steel, so widely used that it
accounts for about 50% of all stainless steel production. Other standard grades
have different preferred applications; for example, type 316 which contains up
to 3 % Mo, offers an improved corrosion resistance, in particular, improved
pitting corrosion resistance, which makes it a material of choice for many
marine applications (off-shore platforms etc..), but also for coastal environments
(more on stainless steels in architecture).
In severe conditions however, 316 is not sufficient and special steels such as
254 SMO are used (example: steels used in offshore oil platforms), which
contain up to 6% Mo.

The AISI 300 series and other examples of heat resistant austenitic stainless steels; E1250 is
Esshete 1250 (Corus), 254SMO is trademark Avesta Sheffield.

C Si Mn
AISI
ma ma ma Cr Ni Mo Ti Nb Al V
grade
x. x. x.
 16-
301 0.15 1.00 2.00 6-8
18

17- 8-
302 0.15 1.00 2.00
19 10

17.5 8-
304 0.08 1.00 2.00
-20 10.5

24- 19-
310 0.25 1.50 2.00
26 22

2.0
16- 10-
316 0.08 1.00 2.00 -
18 14
3.0

5 x
17- 9- %C
321 0.08 1.00 2.00
19 12 min
.

10 x
17- 9-
347 0.08 1.00 2.00 %C
19 13
min.

0.2
E 1250 0.1 0.5 6.0 15.0 10.0
5

20/25-
0.05 1.0 1.0 20.0 25.0 0.7
Nb

~1. ~0.1 ~0.2

A 286 0.05 1.0 1.0 15.0 26.0 1.2
9 8 5

18.5 17.5
254SM 6- ~1. ~0.1 ~0.2
0.02 0.8 1.0 - -
O 6.5 9 8 5
20.5 18.5

Duplex stainless steels

Duplex stainless steels: duplex stainless steel typically contain 50% austenite
and 50% ferrite. This confers them properties intermediate between the two
types of steels:

 a typical strength about twice that of austenitic grades, but lower than
martensitic grades,
  a better toughness than ferritic stainless steels, but lower than
austenitics,

 because of the high chromium content of the standard grades, the

corrosion resistance is superior to that of the standard 304 and 316.

Only one duplex steel has an AISI designation (329) so that ASTM numbers are
more currently used to reffer to different grades. The archetypal stainless steel,
type 2205, contains 22-23Cr, 4.5-6.5Ni and 3-3.5Mo. This grade represents
80% of all duplex stainless steel use.

Duplex stainless steels suffer from the 475 C embrittlement described earlier for
ferritic stainless steels and are therefore mostly confined to applications below
300 C.

 Some information on duplex stainless steels at Stainless Steel World

 A presentation of the different grades of stainless steels.

References
 D. N. Wasnik et al., Resistance to sensitization and intergranular
corrosion through extreme randomization of grain boundaries, Acta
Materialia, 2002:50, p4587-4601.
 M. Shimada et al., Optimization of grain boundary character distribution
for intergranular corrosion resistant 304 stainless steel by twin-induced
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