Professional Documents
Culture Documents
73 Mitteilungen
der Versuchsanstalt fur Wasserbau,
Hydrologie und Glaziologie
Jeffrey G. Whittaker
Anton Schleiss
Ziirich, 1984
Preface
Thus t h e a u t h o r s , D r . J . G . W h i t t a k e r and A. S c h l e i s s , p r o -
vide hydraulic engineers with a very valuable state-of-the-
a r t r e p o r t and c o n t r i b u t e t o a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e s a f e t y o f
s t r u c t u r e s e n d a n g e r e d by s c o u r .
Prof. D r . D. Vischer
- 4 -
CONTENTS
Page
Abstract
1, INTRODUCT ION
2, BACKGROUND
2.1 Jet Behaviour in Air
2.2 Jet Behaviour in Plunge Pool
2.3 Hydraulic Jump Behaviour
3, MODEL T E S T S
3.1 Grain Size Effects
4, SCOUR B Y HORIZONTAL J E T S
4.1 Scour Following a Horizontal Apron
4.2 Scour Following a Stilling Basin
5, SCOUR B Y P L U N G I N G J E T S 38
5.1 Empirical Equations of General Applicability 38
5.2 Semi-empirical Equations of General Applicability 42
5.3 Empirical Equations Specific to Ski-Jump Spill- 45
ways
5.4 General Comments 51
9, REFERENCES 65
Abstract
1, I NTRODUCT I ON
Free overfalls and high and low level outlets are usually
used as spillway options only in connection with arch dams.
Jet range increases as the level of the outlet is lowered. If
the energy of the jet is not dissipated mechanically at the
point of impact with the downstream river channel, scour of
large proportions can occur.
Small t h r o w
distance
e.g. Kariba
SKI-JUMP SPILLWAY
mic pressure of the plunging jet and so break up the rock ma-
trix. These forces are to some extent dependent on the angle
of the fissures. Consequently, scour may occur in some condi-
tions to depths consistent with the end of the plunging jet.
The magnitude of scour decreases with a decrease in the ratio
of jet velocity to fall velocity of the disintegrated material
(Doddiah et al. [131 ) . Lencastre [ 401 and Martins [ 44,451 also
state that scour increases with increasing tailwater depth to
a critical value, and then decreases as tailwater depth in-
creases beyond this value.
Ramos [561 mentions that hillside streams may result from '
2.1.1 Range of J e t
Figure 2
Figure 3
Jet trajectory
parameters.
assuming no energy loss, the median velocity vo at the exit
of the outlet being given by
-
LT = -
h
ZO sin 20 + 2 cos
h
- (?l2 cos20
Ah
-
difference between lip elevation and bucket invert elevation
(Ah R (1 - cos 0))
q q
hb= -c"
1 $ a coefficient characterising
vb 0 J2g ( z 2 - hb) energy losses on the spillway
$I can be determined graphically from figure 4 (given in Gun'ko
et al. [ 2 2 ] ) .
Figure 4
Graphical solution
for determination
of spillway loss 0
co-efficient. 1.00 140 180 220 260 300
(after [ 2 2 ] ) . Spillway l e n g t h [m]
in which
ho flow depth a t l i p of f l i p bucket,
ZO d i f f e r e n c e i n elevation between t h e a x i s of t h e
f r e e j e t a t t h e e x i t point and t h e f r e e s u r f a c e ,
Figure 6 10
T h i s method a s s u m e s t h a t t h e j e t h a s a p a r a b o l i c f o r m , a n d
i n c l u d e s t h e e f f e c t o f a i r r e s i s t a n c e i n f l i g h t . The r a n g e o f
t h e j e t i s g i v e n by
L = - l n ( l + Z k ~ h6 ' )
9 k2
(valid for Z1=O)
k i s d e f i n e d g r a p h i c a l l y i n f i g u r e 7 . LT c a n b e e v a l u a t e d f r o m
equation (2). Interestingly, f o r vo 2 13 m/s, one a t t a i n s t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l l e n g t h . T h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o Gunko's c r i t e r i o n
2
(Fr. < 30) g i v e n h o - 0.6 m [471. L/LT i s a g a i n d e f i n e d g r a p h i -
c a l l y , as shown b e l o w i n f i g u r e 8 .
Figure 7 Figure 8
Z 2 = d i f f e r e n c e i n e l e v a t i o n between t h e f r e e
s u r f a c e and t h e l i p of t h e bucket.
Figure 9
Definition sketch
for downward
oriented jet.
Figure 10
Curves giving
change in jet
parameters with
flight distance.
Figure 11
Plunging jet
parameters.
- at y = Y ~ Ejet
I = 80 % E jet at entry (rectangular)
Ejet = 70 % E jet at entry (round).
-
vz
1 1
vu
Pz
1 1
Pu
Q
- 1 +0.414 y / y k 1+0.507 y/yk+o. 5oo(y/yk) 2
Qu
YSYk E 2
- 1 -0.184 y/yk 1-0.550 y/yk+o.21 7 ( y / y k )
Eu
-
v -~/8 ~ / y ~ - ~ 2~ / y )-I12 (l+r/Ru.yk/y-yk/y) 2
(l+x/~u-
e e
Vz
2 2
-P e-TI16 (x/BU) e - v 2 (r/RU)
Pz
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-
vz
vu FZ- yk/y
Pz
- Y~ I Y (Y ~IY)
Pu
-Q
Qu
1.414 \rx 2 ~ / ~
YLyk
- 0.816\rx 0.667 yk/y
Eu
-
v
e - ~ /(x/B;-
8 yk/y) 2 e -112 (r/Q-yk/y)
2
z
-
P
2
e - ~ / 1 6(x/BU.yk/y) e -114 (r/%-yk/y)
2
Pz
in which
-
vt2
-,I is the velocity head immediately
Ly downstream of the jump.
Garg and Sharma [I81 showed that Q = 100 for Fr- > 4.5, but
found that scour occurred up to FrlZ 6. This is because scour
occurs not only because of excess velocities in the transition
region downstream of the jump (i.e. where a < a2) but also be-
cause of turbulence features C21, 23, 41, 581. It has been found
that macroturbulence decays at a slower rate than velocity
distribution non-uniformities, and so scour is observed even
when the velocity distribution has become uniform. Velocity
pulsations in the flow immediately downstream of an hydraulic
jump have the structure
3, MODEL TESTS
Figure 13
1st Veronese
# / test series 1.
. . . . - - . -
. .. . . . . .. . . . . ..
Figure 14
Veronese
test series 2.
scour depth. This reflects the fact that plunging jets reach
an effective scouring limit that is much more dependent on jet
parameters than on bed material size.
Breusers [5] also suggests that scour depth will become in-
dependent of grain size in the range O.lmrn < d < 0.5 mm, but
seems to infer that this is an absolute rather than a relative
(e.g. to head) feature. He supports this by showing that cri-
tical velocity (assumed to be the most relevant characteristic
of the sediment when analysing scour) becomes independent of
the grain size in that range.
Evaluated
scale
Model t e s t
r e s u 1t
C481
Veronese A [ 771
Veronese B
[771
(limiting eqn. )
Schokl i t s c h 1641
W Y W [481
Smol j a n i n o v [671
Patrashew 1481
I Tschopp-Bisaz 1731
Machado B
[431
(limiting eqn.)
Sediment size ( m m )
-
- - .-
4, SCOUR BY H O R I Z O N T A L J E T S
v-
--
Form 2
Form 3
v-
--
Wavy water, surface
- v
Form 4 -
v-
-
-
Smooth water surface
-
-
v
Form 5
v-
-- Smooth water surface
-
-
v
Form 6
8
Figure 17
Scour as predicted
by Valentin [76].
w = 6-70 Type 4
and w=10.20 Type3 (Ultimate s t a t i c l i m i t )
while for
w = 8.80 Type 4
and w=13.10 Type 3 (Ultimate s t a t i c l i m i t )
crr
Figure 18 Scour following an apron
(after Shalash [63]).
-
% -----
e - - --
Fixed bed
..
I I
.
Moveable bed
where smin = 0.2 Rmin = 0.3 h
This gives
The case where the hydraulic jump does not form over the
erodible bed is covered in the next subsection, where it is
assumed that the hydraulic jump always forms in the stilling
basin.
without a s i l l k = 1.62
with a s i l l k = 1.42-1.53 depending 'on t h e form.
They found that lateral beams set in the stilling basin (but
above the floor) did not decrease scour because, while dissi-
pating some flow energy, they also increased bottom velocities.
where - g i v e s t h e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e weir c r e s t
B2 used a s s p i l l w a y ( i n c l u d i n g p i e r s ) t o t h e down-
stream channel width
-- -
- ---
-- - - --
Floor of weir
F i g u r e 20 Scour f o l l o w i n g a s t i l l i n g b a s i n
( a f t e r S c h o k l i t s c h [ 6 5 , 66 1 ).
Table 3 Table of v a l u e s of a
Stilling basin f o r m R
- h'
-
H
a
H
-- - - -
- - - - --
-----
-.
- - - - I -H- - -
1.5 0.36
-- -- - ----f---
---- --- -- - -
-- - - - H 2.5 0.30
- p-
--
-- -- - - - ---- - - f - - - - angl e
----- -
--- - H 1 :28.5 2.5 0.26
1 I ,,
h 1 :19,,,
0.26 I." 2.5 -
I
- I
I
m
/
1 :14.3 2.5 - 0.28
-- --
- 37 -
C o n t i n u a t i o n Table 3
S t i l l i n g basin form -
R
H
-
h'
H ci
---- --- -- -- -- - -
- - A
---f --
1.5 0.039 0.30
I"' 1.5 0.057 0.23
( w i t h Rehbock d e n t a t e d s i l l )
----- -- -- -- --
--- -- ----
1.5 0.057 0.18
1
- --
-
-----
- ---I- --
1.5 0.029 0.35
- - -- -- H
1.5 0.057 0.28
1.5 0.086 0.24
I
- 1 4
1
Z=l.OH
i=O.l5H 1.5 - 0.30
I Z=1.5H
i=0.275 H 1.5 - 0.04
--
b
Discharge management Left Irr~rr~ediately R i ght Deepest
bank downstream o f scour
end o f apron
Hay and White [30] show that aeration of the flow reduces
scour. For a stilling basin with only an end sill, a bulk air
concentration of 15 -20 % reduces scour by 5 to 10 %. However,
as appurtenances are added to the stilling basin, the effect
is reduced. With a complicated,basin, scour is reduced with
or without air entrainment in the spillway flow.
5, SCOUR BY PLUNGING J E T S
K u X u u R a [ 381
Semi - Mi k h a l ev [48 I
ernpi r ic a l
M i r t s k h u l a v a A,B,C [49]
Zvorykin e t a l . [821
-
Table 5 Classification of plunging
jet scour formulae.
and the distance of the point of maximum scour from the free
overfall as
where q = s p e c i f i c d i s c h a r g e a t s e c t i o n of impact
and q, = i n i t i a l s p e c i f i c d i s c h a r g e of t h e j e t
dm = median diameter of bed m a t e r i a l ,
h2 = 0.48 N (37)
Machado [43]
(dgO d e f i n e d i n m)
in which
c, is a coefficient reflecting aeration
of the j e t i n f l i g h t .
in which ~l
= value of i n s t a n t a n e o u s maximum v e l o c i t i e s
r e l a t i v e t o t h e average v e l o c i t i e s
q = 2.0 f o r prototypes
a . n d 0 = 1.5 f o r models
w = f a l l v e l o c i t y of p a r t i c l e s , and may be
c a l c u l a t e d from
1.75 y
y s = s p e c i £ i c g r a v i t y of p a r t i c l e s
y = s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of w a t e r / a i r mixture
Figure 22
Definition diagram for scour
parameters of Mirtskhulava et
al. [49].
Equation (40) is valid in the range 5 < vu < 25 m/s, and for
dgo > 2 mrn. For smaller diameters dgO,( ( 3 ~ 7v,(2 B,) )/w - 7.5 (2B
must be multiplied by a factor nl (evaluated by Mirtskhulava
4
et al. [491 experimentally) and which is given by figure 23.
(dgo in mm)
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Sediment size [mml Mirtskhulava et al. [491
further present an equation
Figure 23 Correction factor nl for scour of rock beds. This
Rf can be s e t = 0 ,
y sin 0'(0.6b2+0.2c2)
in which 6 = a n g l e t h e p l a n e o f t h e b l o c k s makes
with t h e h o r i z o n t a l .
Dolomite
$
a
A ndesite
.-
.-U
Limestone Granite ~rystalline
Jschists
-
o
Q
Q
Argillite schists Rhyolite
1 sin 0'
-IU1 I 1- 0.215 cot 0'
1 x 2 I
and
where
Zvmykin eX d . [ti21
Zvorykin et al. [82] included in the development of their
equation an empirical determination of the distance travelled
by the plunging jet. Their equation is
in which va = admissable (non-erosive) velocity,
a = angle of internal friction, and
-
Conditions Ei Xi
where
Tahaimvvich [70]
Taraimovich [ 7 0 ] states that the time for formation of the
maximum scouring depth during construction and operation of
spillways ranges from two to seven seasons of passage of maxi-
mum discharges. The maximum scouring depth during a season
varies from 27 % to 6 5 % of the total scour depth.
where @
, is the upstream angle of the
scour hole side.
Matim B 1461
Martins [46] evaluated the following empirical equation from
prototype observations. The equation is
Table 7 P r o t o t y p e o b s e r v a t i o n s of s c o u r .
F i g u r e 27 Prototype scours.
v i d e s a r e a s o n a b l e upper e n v e l o p e f o r t h e s m a l l e r p r o t o t y p e
scour v a l u e s observed.
E q u a t i o n s ( 6 4 ) and ( 6 5 ) b o t h n e g l e c t t h e i n E l u e n c e of- s e -
diment on t h e s c o u r p r o c e s s . However, Akhmeuov [ l ] conunents
t h a t f r a c t u r e d r o c k s d i s i n t e g r a t e w i t h i n t h e s c o u r h o l e due
t o flow a c t i o n . Thus t h e s c o u r i n g p r o c e s s c o u l d be l i k e n e d to
- -
t h a t i n non-cohesive m a t e r i a l , w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l i m i t i n g
s i z e a s p e c t s n o t e d i n s u b - s e c t i o n 3.1.
The following relationship is presented in reference [ll] for
estimating the probable depth of scour below a ski-jump bucket.
I
rn k
C rd-
rd 2 4
k ,0
E C N
-4 I
C Cn
-4 rn Cn
E4
C rd
o n
-4 a
r n w a
rn 0
3
u urn
.
rn 3 m
-4 0 Cn
a
-GI
h4
rd
H
-
U C H
0
rd
d
- aE6dO
h U
4rnH
Q)
4 J 0 -
In the model tests (perfor-
c u m
-4 C a, med at a scale of 1:75), the
3 H b
O k bed was modelled as moveable,
a, 0
kS U
a, 4J with characteristic diameters
4J 3
w w 0 dg5, d50 and d15 of 35, 28 and
rdOk
V
MPI R I (66) 58
Chian (65 58
Martins B (64 68
Taraimovich (62) Assume a, = 30' 68
Machado General e q u a t i o n (eqn. (38) ) 84
L i m i t i n g e q u a t i o n (equ.(39)) 149
M i k h a l ev
Kotoul as
(49)
(31 )
I A e r a t i on c o n s i d e r e d negl i-
gible f o r j e t i n f l i g h t
117
136
1
M irtskhulava Non-cohesive ( e q n . ( 4 0 ) ) 163'
e t al. Rock-scour (eqn.(46)) 304
Assume D = 2.76 m 170
Rubinstein (50) and E = 0.8
b
Table 8
Veronese B (18) 78
Table 9
1- h ' a n d htd
d Sediment size
Pressure
Specific discharge
Velocity
x direction (horizontal)
D i s t a n c e from o u t l e t o f f l o w t o s t a r t o f s c o u r h o l e
D i s t a n c e from o u t l e t of f l o w t o p o i n t o f maximum s c o u r
y d i r e c t i o n ( v e r t i c a l ) / D e s c e n d i n g l e n g t h of p l u n g i n g
j e t t o bottom o f s c o u r h o l e
Core l e n g t h o f j e t
B T o t a l c r e s t w i d t h of s p i l l w a y
Bdown J e t w i d t h a t e n t r y p o i n t t o downstream p l u n g e p o o l
B~ J e t w i d t h on s p i l l w a y
Cv Turbulence c o n s t a n t
Cr F a c t o r f o r r e f l e c t i n g a e r a t i o n of j e t i n f l i g h t
D Diameter o f a s p h e r e w i t h volume e q u a l t o t h a t o f a
j o i n t i n g block
E Energy / W i d t h between d e n t a t e s i n a d e n t a t e d s i l l
E~ Energy l o s s
Fr Froude number ( v / a )
H D i s t a n c e from w a t e r l e v e l u p s t r e a m t o s t i l l i n g b a s i n
floor
Factor of Martins
Discharge
Spillway length
A coefficient
X Coefficient of Rubinstein
1 At section 1
2 At section 2
a Admissable
c Critical
h Horizontal
R Lateral
m Mean
t Excess
v Vertical
[411 .
Lipay ,I.E , 1967. On the Vanishing of Intensive Ma-
Pustovit,V.F. croturbulence in Open Channel Below Hyd-
raulic Outlet Structure. 12th Congress
of the I.A.H.R., Fort Collins.
[50] Mirtskhu1a~a~T.E.
1967. Alguns Problemas da Erosao nos
Leitos dos Rios. Moscow. (Trans. No 443
do L.N.E.C.).