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Ohm’s law relates the current (I) and the applied voltage (V) to the
material resistance (R) as follows:
V=IR
3 © Copyright 2010 Keithley Instruments, Inc.
A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE | www.keIthley.com
A
R
L
Current Source ρ = resistivity (Ω-cm)
R = resistance: V/I (Ω)
Voltmeter
V A = cross-sectional area of
L
sample (cm2)
L = distance between two
A
leads of voltmeter (cm)
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Conduction Band
Energy
Energy Gap
Energy Gap
Valence Band
Valence Band
Valence Band
V
1. Source current (I) through the
L
sample using one pair of leads.
w
• Thermoelectric Voltages
• Johnson Noise
V V
RLead RLead
RLead RLead
RSample
RSample
Thermoelectric Voltages
Voltmeter Voltmeter
Copper Test Leads
Copper Test Leads
Metal A V
Metal A V
VEMF VEMF
I+ VM+ I- VM-
R R
VM VM VEMF IR (VEMF IR )
VM IR
2 2
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Johnson Noise
• Reduce by:
1. reduce the measurement bandwidth –digital filtering (averaging
readings) or analog filtering
2. reduce temperature of the device
3. reduce the sample resistance (usually not practical)
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A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE | www.keIthley.com
To measure these very small voltage drops, use a sensitive voltmeter such
as a nanovoltmeter.
Verify the product specifications to
Model 2182A Nanovoltmeter make sure the measurement
resolution and accuracy will be
able to perform the sensitive
measurement of your application.
Current Source
Continued……
Model 2182A
• Use a sensitive voltmeter, such as a Nanovoltmeter
nanovoltmeter, to measure the low
voltages
V
R
3. Calculating the resistivity
using Ohm’s Law and
geometrical considerations
I
21 © Copyright 2010 Keithley Instruments, Inc.
A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE | www.keIthley.com
LO
Volume Resistivity is a measure of the leakage
current directly through a material. A
HI
Test Procedure for Volume Resistivity:
1. Please sample between 2 electrodes of area (A). Electrode t
Sample
2. Apply potential difference (V) between the 2
HI
electrodes.
Voltage
Source
3. Wait specified time (60 seconds) and measure LO
current (I) using sensitive ammeter.
V A
4. Calculate resistivity based on the area of the
electrodes and thickness of the sample (t). Units
are Ω-cm. I t
22 © Copyright 2010 Keithley Instruments, Inc.
A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE | www.keIthley.com
Electrode
HI HI V w
L
Sample w A
LO
I L
LO
• Electrification Time
• Test Voltage
• Background Currents
• Electrostatic Interference
• Humidity
24 © Copyright 2010 Keithley Instruments, Inc.
A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE | www.keIthley.com
•Apply 250V
•Wait 60s 250V Step Response of Antistatic Bag
•Measure Current
•Calculate Resistivity
At 5 s, current=
1.5x10-10
At 60 s, current=
2.5x10-12
Test Voltage
Background Currents
Background currents can be equal or greater than the current stimulated by the
applied voltage.
Positive Voltage
Applied and
Exponential
Current Measured.
Negative Voltage
Applied and
Exponential
Current Measured.
Electrodes
• Has good contact to the material: paint on electrodes or use flat metal
plates with conductive rubber
• Should be much lower resistance than the sample and should not
contaminate the sample
Test
Sample
HI
HI Voltage
Ammeter A Source
LO
LO 0V Ring
Guard
8009
Resistivity
Test Fixture
6524
Software
6517B Electrometer/
Voltage Source
Shield
HI
HI
Ammeter Voltage
Sample Source
LO
LO
2. Use the same electrification time for each test to compare results
3. Use the same applied voltage for test comparisons Model 6517B
Model 8009
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A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE | www.keIthley.com
Test Procedure:
HI LO
1. Place probes in center of wafer.
2. Source current from probes 1 to 4.
3. Measure voltage between probes 2 and 3.
4. Calculate resistivity: HI LO
V Measure
V
Voltage
Source Current
Between 2
tk From 1 To 4 And 3
ln 2 I
4-Point
Where: Collinear
ρ= volume resistivity (ohm-cm) 1 2 3 4
Probe
V=voltage measured between 2 and 3
I=source current (A)
t = sample thickness (cm) Wafer
k=correction factor
38 © Copyright 2010 Keithley Instruments, Inc.
A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE | www.keIthley.com
3. Instrumentation
RL=Lead Resistance
HI LO
V RC=Contact Resistance
RL1 RL2 RL3 RL4 RS=Semiconductor Resistance
1 2 3 4
RC1 RC2 RC3 RC4 Only the voltage drop due to RS2 is
V
measured by the voltmeter.
RS1 RS2 RS3
Measure Voltage
Between 2 And 3
40 © Copyright 2010 Keithley Instruments, Inc.
A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE | www.keIthley.com
OR
Use a SourceMeter which can source the current and measure the voltage
drop.
ALSO
AC
LO
Voltmeter Common
Mode
Current
V RV
i When the resistance of the
RIN
Contact AC sample, RS2, becomes on the
Resistance same order of magnitude as
HI LO
1 4
the isolation spec (input LO to
2 3
chassis) of the current source
RC1 RC2 RC3 RC4
and voltmeter, then common
RS1 RS2 RS3 mode current will flow
affecting the measurement
Sample Resistance accuracy.
44 © Copyright 2010 Keithley Instruments, Inc.
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Voltmeter
V
HI LO
X1 X1
Buffer Buffer
HI LO HI LO
1 2 3 4
RC1 RC2 RC3 RC4
•Calculate resistivity
46 © Copyright 2010 Keithley Instruments, Inc.
A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE | www.keIthley.com
• vdp configuration is
useful for measuring
Force
very small samples Current
1
B
• Easy to measure Hall
voltage using an 4 2
electromagnet to apply Measure
3 Voltage
the B field
V
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
V3 V7
4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3
V1
V6
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
V4 V8
4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3
V2
1 2 3 4
Choose a switch system that will 1
not degrade the measurements. Current
Source
Wait at least
20 seconds
for a settled
measurement
Summary
Reference Materials
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