Int. J. Miner. Process.

84 (2007) 51 – 58
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijminpro

Gas dispersion measurements in flotation cells

C.O. Gomez ⁎, J.A. Finch
McGill University, Canada
Received 7 June 2006; received in revised form 30 January 2007; accepted 28 March 2007
Available online 12 April 2007

Abstract

Progress in science and engineering relies on accurate and precise measurements. Flotation is no exception. It is arguable that
progress in both fundamental understanding (modeling) and plant practice has been limited by the lack of instruments and sensors
capable of functioning in operating flotation machines. The McGill Mineral Processing group has developed instruments and
procedures to measure three variables in industrial cells: superficial gas velocity, gas-holdup and bubble size distribution. This
communication describes advances on equipment and operating procedures, and introduces a protocol for sensor installation and
documentation that makes possible the correction of measurements to bubble-collection-point conditions.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Flotation; Gas dispersion measurements; Gas velocity; Gas holdup; Bubble size

1. Gas dispersion sensors
Gas dispersion is the collective term for superficial
gas (air) velocity (or gas rate, volumetric air flow rate per
unit cross-sectional area of cell, Jg), gas-holdup
(volumetric fraction of gas in a gas–slurry mix, εg),
and bubble size distribution (Db). The sensors and
devices we have used to measure these variables in
flotation machines have been described in the literature
(Gomez and Finch, 2002). They have been used to
characterize gas dispersion in cells ranging from micro-
units (e.g. 50 mL Hallimond tube variations) to tank cells
up to 160 m3 in volume.
The emphasis here will be on developments since the
first review (Gomez and Finch, 2002) including
integration of the measurements, and use of the units
to characterize the response of cells and circuits. Data
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cesar.gomez@mcgill.ca (C.O. Gomez).
0301-7516/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2007.03.009
from some 20 sites on 5 continents have been collected
to date. The devices, initially designed for stationary
installation in flotation columns, were modified for
sequential measurements in circuits of mechanical
machines. The requirements were for compact, robust
units that could be multiplexed and were adaptable for
on-line measurement. The designs have been refined to
a point that continuous (gas velocity and gas holdup) or
relatively high frequency (bubble size) measurements
are possible within the plant environment on individual
and multiple flotation cells.
1.1. Gas velocity sensor (Fig. 1)
The gas velocity sensor is an automated version of
the inverted graduated cylinder used by plant engineers
in the past, i.e., it is based on the collection of bubbles
from the pulp zone into a vertical tube partially
immersed in the cell (Gomez and Finch, 2002; Gomez
et al., 2003a). The sensor is constructed around a piece
52 C.O. Gomez, J.A. Finch / Int. J. Miner. Process. 84 (2007) 51–58
of PVC plastic tube of 10 cm diameter which is large
enough to minimize bubble-sampling biases common in
small tubes. The collected bubbles rise until they reach
the liquid surface in the tube and burst. If the tube is
closed at the top, the gas accumulates, pressure
increases, and the slurry (and any froth layer) is pushed
down the tube. The signals from pressure sensors are
permanently recorded in a data collection computer. The
rate of descent is related to the superficial gas velocity
and can be monitored by the slope of the pressure
change (Gomez et al., 2003a). The measurement begins
when valve A (Fig. 1a) is closed to accumulate gas
within the tube and pressure increases, and ends when
the tube is full of gas. Simultaneous measurements in
many cells are possible by opening and closing
(manually or automatically using solenoid valves) the
valves on the tubes installed in each cell.
Calculation of the gas velocity from the rate of
pressure change requires the bulk density of the fluid
(aerated pulp) which provides the backpressure to the
gas accumulating in the tube. By including a second
tube (Fig. 1a) with its bottom end closer to the pulp/froth
interface and with valve B closed (i.e., second tube is
always full of air) then, knowing the immersion length
difference between the two tubes, the bulk density can
be calculated from the pressure difference measured
after the first tube fills with gas (this second tube is
referred to as the “bubbler” tube to distinguish from the
original “sensor” tube).
A continuous version of the sensor based on the use of
an orifice has been developed (Fig. 1b) (Torrealba-Vargas
Fig. 1. Schematic of the two versions of the gas velocity sensor.
et al., 2003). In this case the sensor includes two valves
and is operated with valve A closed and valve B open to
direct air to the orifice until a steady state pressure is
reached (rate of air entering the tube from the cell equals
that leaving the tube through the orifice). From a prior
calibration of the flow through the orifice the volumetric
flow of air (and hence Jg after dividing by tube cross-
sectional area) is known. A major advantage is that
measurement of bulk density is not required, but practical
limitations are that different orifices are required to cover
a range in Jg and sometimes froth builds in the tube and
reaches the orifice which biases the measurement of the
steady state pressure. Efforts to solve this latter problem
are in progress.
1.2. Gas-holdup sensor (Fig. 2)
Gas holdup represents the volumetric proportion of
gas in the pulp. The sensor is based on Maxwell's model
that relates the concentration of a non-conducting
dispersed phase to the conductivities of the continuous
phase and the dispersion (Tavera et al., 1996). This
means two measurements, made in two tubes (flow
cells), one that measures the conductivity of aerated
slurry and the second, by inducing a siphon action to
eliminate the bubbles, measures the conductivity of the
air-free slurry (Fig. 2). The ratio of the two signals is used
to solve Maxwell's model to estimate the fraction of non-
conducting phase (i.e., gas holdup) in the dispersion.
The conductivity cells (note Fig. 2) have 3 concentric
conductivity rings the two outer at the same polarity to
 C.O. Gomez, J.A. Finch / Int. J. Miner. Process. 84 (2007) 51–58
Fig. 2. Schematics and picture of the gas-holdup sensor showing details of the open and siphon conductivity cells.
constrain the field inside the cell. Some prior knowledge
of the pulp liquid-phase conductivity, which in plants
with highly saline pulps may reach 100 mS/cm, is
needed to setup the conductivity meter. Fluctuations in
pulp conductivity during measurements are not a
problem since the technique is one of relative difference
between the open and siphon cells, and not absolute
values (Gomez et al., 2003b). The method gives a
continuous signal.
The key for effective operation lies in excluding
bubbles from the siphon cell. The cell design (a conical
bottom) is a consequence of this requirement. The
conical opening hinders entry of rising bubbles, and the
cell contents quickly develop a higher density than the
dispersion outside the cell, generating a flow out
through the bottom opening, replenished by pulp from
the top, which completes the exclusion of bubbles from
the siphon cell. To ensure that no bubbles are entrained
into the cell from the top, the pulp velocity entering the
top of the cell must be lower than the terminal velocity
of the smallest size bubble present in the system. This
condition is met by selecting the bottom-opening size.
1.3. Bubble size measurement (Fig. 3)
Bubble size (Db) measurement is a full characteriza-
tion of the entire size distribution made from images
collected using McGill's unique bubble-viewing cham-
ber (Hernandez-Aguilar et al., 2002). The viewing
chamber (and camera and light source) is mounted on an
aluminum frame to facilitate installation and operation
(Fig. 3). In operation, bubbles are collected via a
sampling tube and directed into a viewing area where
53
they are exposed under pre-set lighting conditions to be
imaged (Fig. 4). Operation follows a sequence of steps
to create a continuous flow of rising bubbles through the
chamber. The unit is initially filled with water through
the top opening (normally plant process water) to
provide the liquid column in which the bubbles rise to
provide a clear image (particles in the slurry do not enter
the unit) for up to several minutes (till particles
dislodged from bursting bubbles cloud the viewing
chamber). As a consequence of its elevated location
above the flotation cell pulp level, the pressure inside the
viewing chamber remains below atmospheric during
operation.
Although the accuracy of the technique is hard to
establish (there is no ‘gold standard’ against which to
compare) the approach is now widely used, and
continues to evolve as improvements dictated by field
experiences are implemented. The characteristic that
distinguishes the technique is the quality of the images
Fig. 3. Schematics of bubble viewer depicting main components.
54 C.O. Gomez, J.A. Finch / Int. J. Miner. Process. 84 (2007) 51–58
Fig. 4. Bubble viewer in operation.
attained by photographing bubbles against backlighting
(i.e., the bubble shadow is imaged) as they slide up a 15-
degree sloped window. This window spreads the bubbles
into a near monolayer, providing both an unambiguous
plane of focus and reducing bubble overlap and ‘ghost’
images of bubbles in the background.
The measurement involves three steps: image collec-
tion, image processing, and data analysis; progress in
each area has been substantial. In image collection, the
latest cylindrical bubble viewer design and the support
structure automates integration with the video-camera
and light source while facilitating transportation, instal-
lation and cleaning of the unit between measurements.
Safety issues related to window integrity have been
addressed by incorporating a pressure relief valve and
using tempered glass. Software has been developed to
drive the camera for collecting, naming, and storing
images at a user-defined rate and directly in the format
necessary for image processing (lengthy image transfer
and digitization are no longer required). Parameters to
consider during image collection are magnification
(normally 25 pixels/mm in plant work), and image
number and frequency (normally five hundred at a rate of
two every second). Experience has demonstrated that the
most effective way of operating the camera is using a
fixed shutter speed (1/1000 or 1/2000 of a second,
depending on the intensity of the light) in auto-iris mode.
In image processing, software developed at McGill
drives Northern Eclipse, a commercial image analysis
program, to automatically handle all images collected in
one measurement. For every image (for the camera
currently in use, a set of positioned pixels in a matrix of
720 × 535 elements each representing light intensity
through a grayscale value from black 0 to white 255),
properties such as area, perimeter, and minor and major
axes are determined for every object discriminated. The
processing requires the selection of threshold (maximum
grayscale intensity value of a pixel to discriminate objects
from background), and up to six bubble selection criteria
(e.g., minimum major and minor axes size, aspect ratio
range, and shape factor) to establish what objects are
bubbles. In industrial measurements, as the collection of
images advances, solid particles released when the
bubbles burst at the surface of the liquid in the viewing
chamber progressively reduce the background light in-
tensity, and the threshold needs continual adjustment. The
software includes an option to process with a threshold
automatically calculated for every image utilizing an
algorithm based on the picture intensity histogram.
Processing starts by creating a binary image when pixel
intensities are compared to the threshold (pixels with
values below or equal to the threshold are given a value of
1, while those with higher values are given a value of 0).
Groups of adjacent ‘1’ pixels are considered objects. Two-
dimensional properties of individual objects are derived
from the pixel arrangement and converted to sizes using
the magnification. Objects complying with all selection
criteria are accepted as bubbles.
Use of a magnification of 25 pixels/mm means
minimum bubble sizes of around 0.2 mm (smallest
circular object is considered to be 5 pixels in diameter).
As the number of bubbles counted is normally between
five and ten thousand, the information generated in a
single test is massive (an eighteen-column Excel file
with as many rows as bubbles counted). To facilitate
examination of the files, software was developed to
calculate, analyze and display size distributions from the
files stored in a Windows subdirectory. The program
retrieves the data and, based on the equivalent diameter
(diameter of a circle with the same area as that exposed
 C.O. Gomez, J.A. Finch / Int. J. Miner. Process. 84 (2007) 51–58
in the image), sorts the bubbles into frequency
distributions with bin sizes (arithmetic or geometric
intervals) defined by the user. Frequency and cumula-
tive size distributions are displayed in plots with both
linear and logarithmic size scales, and average diameters
such as D10 or D32 are calculated as well. A useful
option for comparison purposes is the simultaneous
display of up to five size distributions, in frequency or
cumulative form.
2. Sensor installation
The literature includes several reports of measure-
ments performed during the development stage of the
sensors. As the sensors became more robust and reliable
for use in industrial cells, simultaneous measurements to
characterize gas dispersion demonstrated that an instal-
lation strategy was necessary. Because the volume of a
Fig. 5. Location of the sensors and relevant lengths and distances for calculation and correction of gas dispersion parameters.
55
mass of gas depends on its pressure and temperature, gas
dispersion measurements will be affected by the location
and geometry of the sensors. At the same time, as the
conditions existing at the measurement points are not the
same for the three sensors (and are different from those
prevailing within the flotation cell at the bubble-
collection point), corrections are necessary. In bubble
size determination, for example, diameters are measured
from images of bubbles in the bubble viewer which
operates under vacuum; bubbles are larger than their
sizes in the cell. A similar situation occurs with the
measurement of gas velocity where a volume of gas is
accumulated under variable pressure at conditions
different from those existing at the location where
bubbles enter the tube. Corrections to common condi-
tions are straightforward for bubble size and gas velocity
by applying Boyle's law, given that air behaves as an
ideal gas under flotation conditions.
56 C.O. Gomez, J.A. Finch / Int. J. Miner. Process. 84 (2007) 51–58
Installation of the gas dispersion sensors during cell
characterization exercises requires careful documenta-
tion to be effective; integration of the gas dispersion
results with metallurgical data requires information
collected at the same time under strictly controlled
conditions. An adequate response to the non-homoge-
neity of gas dispersion in industrial cells is to locate all
sensors as close together as possible.
Respecting the inevitable restrictions imposed by
local situations, it is recommended that sensors are
operated through the same sampling port, to collect
bubbles from the same radial position at the same depth
(Fig. 5) to facilitate correction of measurements to cell
conditions. In general, similar results are obtained at the
same radial distance, but relative distance to baffles or to
the feed entrance, or different impeller rotation direction
in two cells may lead to different values. In the case of
depth, installation must be carefully selected consider-
ing that there will be only one position where the three
gas dispersion parameters will be known (reference
plane in Fig. 5 at the middle ring of the gas-holdup open
cell). Although gas velocity and bubble size can be
easily corrected to different depths our current inability
to do the same for gas holdup makes this reference depth
unique. No method has been found to correct a gas
holdup resulting from the flow of a swarm of different
diameter bubbles.
To try to have all sensors sampling the same bubble
population, the gas velocity sensor and the bubble
viewer are installed with the bottom end of their
sampling tubes immersed to the same depth as that of
the open cell of the gas-holdup sensor (Fig. 5). The
second tube (bubbler) used to measure the bulk density
(required for the dispersion above the bottom end of the
gas velocity sensor tube) is installed at about 0.25 m
below the interface (or about 0.5 m below the cell lip if
froth depth is unknown), with a recommended minimum
immersed length difference (HBD) of 0.5 m.
Calculations and corrections of the measurements
require some of the distances indicated in Fig. 5: 1) total
length of the Jg sensor tube (HL); 2) length of the sensor
tube above the cell overflow (HO); 3) immersed length
difference between the Jg sensor and bubbler tubes
(HBD); 4) distance between the middle ring and the
bottom end of the open cell in the gas-holdup sensor
(HE); 5) total length of the bubble viewer collection tube
(H1); 6) vertical distance between camera focal point
and bottom of bubble viewer (H2); 7) vertical distance
between camera focal point and water level in the
bubble viewer (H3); and 8), froth depth. There is a small
variation (a few cm) in H3 during measurement as more
bubbles accumulate at the top of the bubble viewer; it is
our practice to use an average of the distance before and
after images are collected.
3. Calculation and correction of gas dispersion
measurements
3.1. Gas velocity
Operation of the double-tube sensor provides the data
for calculating gas velocity. The data, pressure vs. time
in both tubes, is processed to derive the slope dp / dt
(normally an average of five values) and then to derive
the average of pressures p1 and p2 when both tubes are
full of air. The bulk density is first calculated from
averages of the pressures p1 and p2, and the immersed
length difference between the sensor and bubbler tubes
(HBD):
p1  p2
ρb ¼ ð1Þ
HBD
The gas velocity calculation is based on the following
equation relating this variable to the slope of the pressure
vs. time curve when the gas is accumulating in the tube.
This equation was obtained applying a mass balance to
the tube volume filled with gas (a cylinder with variable
volume and pressure), and using the ideal gas equation to
relate mass to pressure and volume, and the weight of a
column of fluid to relate pressure to volume:
Patm þ ρb HL dp
Jg;L ¼ ðcm=sÞ ð2Þ
ρb ½Patm þ ρb ðHL  HO Þ dt
Distances (defined in Fig. 5) are measured in cm,
while pressures pi are manometric and Pi are absolutes,
both in cm H2O. The calculated gas velocity Jg.L
corresponds to that entering the sensor tube at a depth
(HL − HO). To correct the measured gas velocity to a
different location (different hydrostatic pressure) Boy-
le's law is used. To calculate, for example, the gas
velocity at the reference plane (Jg,ref) the following
equation is used:
PL Patm þ p1
Jg;ref ¼ Jg;L ¼ Jg;L ð3Þ
Pref Patm þ p1  ρb HE
In plant measurements, gas velocities at the reference
plane are typically about 3% larger than the values
obtained from Eq. (2).
3.2. Gas holdup
Gas holdup is calculated utilizing Maxwell's equa-
tion (Eq. (4)) with averages of the conductivity k over
 C.O. Gomez, J.A. Finch / Int. J. Miner. Process. 84 (2007) 51–58
time (typically 5 min) for both the open and siphon cells,
which measure the conductivity of the dispersion
(bubbles plus pulp) kd, and pulp only kp, respectively:
1  kkdp
eg ¼
1 þ 0:5 kkdp
3.3. Bubble size
In the case of bubble size, images are collected at the
point where the focal plane of the camera meets the
sloped window (a vertical distance H3 from the gas–
liquid interface in the bubble viewer); at this point the
absolute pressure is below atmospheric. To correct
bubble sizes to the cell reference plane, the pressure in
the bubble viewer PBV needs to be measured, or in its
absence, estimated from equalizing two hydrostatic
pressures at the bubble-collection point, namely that
from the air-water column inside the bubble viewer and
collection tube (water density assumed), and that from
the pulp and froth column in the cell:
PBV þ ρH2 O ðH1 þ H2 þ H3 Þ ¼ Patm þ p1
The pressure p1 is known (measured to estimate the
bulk density) and with distances H1, H2, and H3 the
pressure in the bubble viewer can be calculated:
PBV ¼ Patm þ p1  ρH2 O ðH1 þ H2 þ H3 Þ
Once PBV is known, measured bubble sizes Db,image
can be corrected to reference conditions (Db,ref) again
using Boyle's law:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3 Pimage PBV þ ρH2 O H3
Db;ref ¼ Db;image ¼ Db;image
3
Pref Patm þ p1  ρb H3
In plant measurements, bubble sizes at the reference
plane are about 8% smaller than the values obtained
directly from image analysis.
Although the volume of gases is also affected by
temperature, no corrections for this variable are nor-
mally applied because gas temperature differences are
usually not large. If large temperature differences are
detected between the gas in the pulp and that accu-
mulated during the measurement of Jg or Db, then a
temperature correction in Eqs. (2), (3) and (7) has to be
considered. It is recommended that pulp tempera-
tures be measured in case results from cells in differ-
ent banks, circuits and plants need to be compared or
related.
57
4. Concluding statements
Sensors for measuring superficial gas velocity, gas-
holdup and bubble size distribution in industrial flotation
ð4Þ machines have been refined to a point that continuous
(in the case of the gas velocity and gas holdup) or rela-
tively high frequency measurements are possible within
the plant environment on individual and multiple flotation
cells. Hardware and software improvements have simpli-
fied measurement and reduced the time required for data
processing. The techniques will continue to evolve as
modifications dictated by use are put into effect.
As the sensors have become more robust and reliable,
simultaneous measurements were practiced to better
characterize cell response to changes in operating
conditions. In response to the non-homogeneity of gas
dispersion in industrial cells an installation protocol,
which requires careful documentation to be effective,
was necessary to integrate measurements in one cell and
to compare with those collected in different units.
Gas dispersion measurements are affected by sensor
location and geometry. Because the volume of a mass of
gas depends on its pressure and temperature, corrections
ð5Þ are necessary. Conditions existing at the measurement
points are not the same for the three sensors, and are
different again from those prevailing within the cell at
the bubble-collection point. Corrections are straightfor-
ward for bubble size and gas velocity by applying
Boyle's law, considering that air behaves as an ideal gas
ð6Þ
under flotation conditions. However, no method is
available to correct gas holdup to conditions different
from those existing at the measuring point. This makes
the location of the gas-holdup sensor the reference point.
Standardization of sensor installation and correction
procedures has taken the technique to a stage where it
can be effectively transferred to operations. Units have
ð7Þ been supplied to several groups along with training.
Work will continue towards our long-term goal,
establishing a relationship between gas dispersion mea-
surements, notably bubble surface area flux, and metal-
lurgical performance.
Acknowledgements
The effort and dedication of current and former
graduate students, Dr. Alejandro Uribe-Salas, Dr.
Francisco Tavera, Franklin Cortes-Lopez, Ralph
Dahlke, Marta Bailey, Dr. Jose Hernandez-Aguilar, Dr.
Jorge Torrealba-Vargas, Helin Girgin, Jason Doucet,
Claudio Acuña and Davin Knuutila in the development
and testing of these sensors is gratefully recognized.
Funding for sensor development is from two Natural
58 C.O. Gomez, J.A. Finch / Int. J. Miner. Process. 84 (2007) 51–58
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
grants; one sponsored by Noranda, Inco, Falconbridge,
Teck Cominco, COREM and SGS Lakefield Research,
and the other by Amira International under the P9N
project, and is greatly appreciated.
References
Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A., 2002. Gas dispersion measurements in
flotation machines. CIM Bulletin 95 (1066), 73–38.
Gomez, C.O., Torrealba-Vargas, J.A., Dahlke, R., Finch, J.A., 2003a.
Measurement of gas velocity in industrial flotation cells.
In: Lorenzen, L., Bradshaw, D.J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the XXII
International Mineral Processing Congress, pp. 1703–1713.
Gomez, C.O., Cortes-Lopez, F., Finch, J.A., 2003b. Industrial testing
of a gas holdup sensor for flotation systems. Minerals Engineering
3, 1703–1713.
Hernandez-Aguilar, J.R., Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A., 2002. A technique
for the direct measurement of bubble size distribution in industrial
flotation cells. Proceedings 34th Annual Meeting of the Canadian
Mineral Processors. CIM, pp. 389–402.
Tavera, F.J., Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A., 1996. Novel gas holdup probe
and application in flotation columns. Trans. Instn Min. Metall
(Sec. C: Mineral Process. Extr. Metall.), 105, pp. C99–C104.
Torrealba-Vargas, J.A., Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A., 2003. Continuous
air rate measurement in flotation cells: a step towards gas
distribution management. In: Gomez, C.O., Barahona, C. (Eds.),
Proceedings Copper 2003. Mineral Processing, vol. 3, pp. 91–102.