Chapter 1- Enterprise

Enterprise : Almost any business or organisation can be called an enterprise but the term usually refers to the
process by which new businesses are formed and new products and services created and brought to the market.

Enterprise skills: Skills that allow an individual or organisation to respond effectively to changing market situations,
including problems-solving skills, thinking and acting innovatively and creatively, and understanding the importance
of risk and uncertainty. The definition of enterprise capability used by the Department for Children, School and
Families includes innovation, creativity, risk management, risk taking and a ‘can-do’ attitude.

Entrepreneurs: Individuals who have an idea that they develop buy setting up a new business and encouraging it to
grow. They take the risk and the subsequent profits that come with success or the losses that come with failure.

Characteristics of an entrepreneurs:

 Determination
 Persistence
 Passion
 The ability to spot and take advantage of opportunities
 Relevant skills and expertise
 Vision, creativity and innovation
 Motivation
 Willingness to take risks

Opportunity cost: The ‘real cost’ of taking a particular action or the next best alternative forgone, i.e. the next best
thing that you could have chosen but did not.

Chapter 2: Generating and protecting business ideas

Spotting trends and anticipating their impact

Identifying a market niche

Copying ideas from other countries

Taking a scientific approach (inventing )

Franchising

Franchise : when a business gives another business the right to supply its product or service.

Benefits of operating as a franchise

 Least amount of risk so high chances of survival

 Established
 Maybe easier to gain finance as less risk
 Lower advertising (national)
 Franchisee usually has exclusive right in his or her area, as the franchisor will not sell any other franchises
in the same region
 Relationships with suppliers are likely to have been established by the franchisor.
 Franchisor offers support and training ,
Possible pit falls.

 Costs my be higher
 Is one franchise gets a bad reputation they all do
 Franchise agreement often restricts how the business should be run
 Franchisees are required to sign non-competition clauses, agreeing not to set up competing businesses in
the franchisor’s industry for a significant period after the end of the franchise agreement.
 A % of profits given to franchisor

Copyright : legal protection against copying for authors, composers and artists.

Patent : AN official document granting the holder the right to be the only user or producer of a newly invented
product or process for a specified period.

Trademark: Signs, logo, symbols or words displayed on a company’s products or on its advertising, including sounds
or music, which distinguish its brands from those of it competitors.

Chapter 3 – transforming resources into goods and services.

Resources: the elements that go into producing goods and services.

Factors of production- the four elements – land, labour, capital and enterprise – used in the production of goods
and services.

Improving the efficiency of the factors of production

 Improving the fertility of land

 Using renewable or recyclable resources.
 Greater education and training of the work force
 Increasing the level of investment in capital equipment
 Improvements in entrepreneurial skills and a willingness to take risks by entrepreneurs
 Combining the factors of production in a balanced way
 Extending the overall sale of production

Production : The process whereby resources (factors if production) are converted into a form that is intended to
satisfy the requirements of potential customers.

Output : The finished products resulting from the transformation process.

Primary sector: those organisations involved in extracting raw materials (e.g. farming, fishing, forestry and the
extractive industries such as oil exploration, mining and quarrying)

Secondary sector: Those organisations involved in processing or refining the raw materials from the primary sector
into finished or semi finished products ( e.g. paper mills, oil refineries, textile manufacturers, food processors and
vehicle manufacturers)

Tertiary sector Those organisations involved in providing services to customers and to other businesses, in either
the public or the private sector.

Adding value: the process of increasing the worth of resources by modifying them
Value added: sales revenue minus the cost of bought in materials, components and services.

Chapter 4 -developing business plans

Business plan : a report describing the marketing strategy, operational issues and financial implications
of a business start up

Benefits

 Useful in clarifying objectives and thinking idea thoruhg

 Enables owners to know precisely what needs to be done in order to meet objective
 Essentitial in persuading lenders to invest capital
 Monitor progress.

Problems

 Often optimistic and have underestimated costs

 Unseen changes in market eg may over

Content

 Details about the business

 Personal information
 Objectives
 Marketing plan
 Production plan
 Fixed assents or non- current asset s
 Financial forecasts
 Details of finance needed and repayment
 Collateral offered
 Long-term plans
 SWOT analysis

Chapter 5 – conducting start-up market research

Marketing : the anticipation and satisfying of customers’ wants in a way that delights consumers and also
meets the needs of the organisation

Market research – the systematic and objective collection, analysis and evaluation of information that is
intended to assist the marketing process.

Primary market research – the collection of information first hand for a specific purpose.

Secondary market research : The use of information that has already been collected for a different
purpose.

Primary market research :

  Experiments
 Observation
 Focus groups
 Surveys
 Test marketing

Secondary market research

 Government publications
 Newspapers
 Magazines
 Company records
 Competitors
 Market research organisations
 Loyalty cards
 The internet

Qualitative market research : The collection of information about the market based on subjective factors
such as opinions and reasons.

Quantative market research : the collection of information about the market based on number s

Sample : a group of respondents or factors whose views or behaviours should be representative of the
target market as a whole

Random sample: a group of respondents in which each member of the target population has an equal
chance of being chosen. Quota sample: a group of respondents comprising several different segments,
each sharing a common feature (e.g. age, gender). The number of interviewees in each classification is
fixed to reflect their percentage in the total target population, but the interviewees are selected non-
randomly by the interviewer

Stratified sample: A group of respondents selected according to particular features (e.g. age, gender).
However, unlike quota sampling the sub-groups and their sizes are chosen specifically.

Problems with samples :

 Samples may be unrepresentative

 There may be bias in questions or in the answers that they encourage
 It may be difficult to locate suitable respondents

Factors influencing the choice of sampling methods

 Costs and the availability of finance

 Time
 The importance of market segment s
 Whether the business is targeting a specific group of customers
 The firm’s understanding of its customer base.
 Chapter 6 – understanding markets

The market L a place where buyers and sellers come together

Local markets  most common form of market for consumer goods. Individuals tend to buy products
within a limited geographical area, close to where they live.

National markets

Physical markets

Non-physical markets

Factors influencing demand for a product

 Price
 Income and wealth of consumers
 Tastes and fashion
 Prices of other goods. Demographic factors (relation to population)
 Marketing and advertising
 Competitors’ actions
 Seasonal factors
 Government action

Market segmentation : the classification of customers or potential customers into groups or sub-
groups( market segments), each of which responds differently to different products or marketing
approaches

Segmentation analysis : where a firm uses quantitative and qualitative data or information to try to
discover the types of consumers who buy its products and why

Demographic segmentation : age, gender, social class, residential

Geographic segmentation

Benefits of market segmentations

 Increase market share

 To assist new product development
 To extend products into new markets
 To identify ways of marketing a product

Drawbacks

 Difficultly in identifying the most important segments for a product

 Reaching the chosen segment with marketing
 Recognizing changes in the segment with marketing
 Recognizing changes in the segments interested in the products
  Meeting the needs of customer s not included in the chosen segment

Market size: the volume of sales of a product or the value of sales of a product

Market growth : the percentage change in sales over a period of time

Factor influencing growth

 Economic growth
 The nature of the product
 Changes in taste
 Social changes
 Fashion
 Market share: the percentage or proportion of the total sales of a product or service achieved by
a firm or a specific brand of a product

Market share = the percentage or proportion of the total sale of a product or service achieved by a firm
or a specific brand of a product

=(sales of one product or brand or company)/(total sales in the market) x 100

Chapter 7 –choosing the right legal structure for the business

Unincorporated business: there is no distinction in law between the individual owner and the business
itself. The identity of the business and the owner is the same. Such businesses tend to be sole traders or
partnerships

Incorporated business: This has a legal identity that is separate from the individual owners. As a result,
these organsiations can own assets, owe money and enter into contracts in their own right. Such
businesses include private limited companies and public limited companies.

Unlimited liability: a situation in which the owners of a business are liable for all the debts that the
business may incur

Limited liability: a situation in which the liability of the owners of a business is limited to the fully paid-up
value of the share capital.

Sole trader: a business owned by one person. The owner may operate on his or her own or many employ
other people.

Partnership: a form of business in which two or more people operate for the common goal of making
profit

Private limited company: a small to medium sized business that is usually run by the family or the small
group of individuals who own it.

Features of a private limited company

  A private limited company can keep its affairs reasonably private and thus the owners can
determine their own objectives without the pressure to achieve short term profit hat is so
common for public limited companies
 Funded by shares that cannot be sold without the agreement of the other shareholders, which
means that their shares cannot be traded on the stock exchange.
 The share capital of private companies may be less than £50,000 although many have much
higher levels of share capital.
 Ltd generally tend to be limited in size
 Must have Ltd in name.

Public Limited company: a business with limited liability; a share capital of over 50000 ; at least two
directors, a qualified company secretary and , usually, a wide spread of shareholder. It has plc after the
company name.

Disadvantages of plc

 Loss of control as the business moves away from the ownership and support of a family or close
knit group of individuals and becomes responsible to shareholders, including institutional
investors.
 Subjects the business to constant scrutiny by the financial press
 It may cause the business to focus on short term profits for shareholders and maintaining share
prices in order to avoid takeover pressure which detracts from long term decision making
Structure Advantages
Sole trader  Easy and cheap to set up
 Fe w legal formalities
 Able to respond quickly to changes
in circumstances
 Owner takes all the profit and
hence there is good motivation
 Independence
 More privacy than other legal
structures, as financial details do
not have to be published
Partnership  Between them, partners may have
a wide range of skills and
knowledge
 Partners are able to raise greater
amounts of capital than sole
traders
 The pressure on owners is reduced
as cover is available for holidays
and decisions are made jointly
Ltd  Limited liability and the business
has a separate legal identity
 Access to more capital than
unincorporated business
 More privacy than a plc as it is only
required to divulge a limited
amount of financial information
 More flexible than a plc
PLC  Limited liability and the business
has a separate legal identity
 Easier to raise finance as a result of
its stock exchange listing
 Greater scope for new investment
 Can gain positive publicity as a
result of trading on the stock
exchange
 Suppliers tend to be more willing
to offer credit to public limited
companies.
Disadvantages
 Unlimited liability
 Limited collateral to support
applications for loans
 Limited capital for investment and
expansion
 Difficulties when the owner wishes
to go on holiday or is ill
 Limited skills as the owner needs to
be a ‘jack of all trades’
 Control is shared among the
partners
 Arguments are common among
partners
 There is still an absolute shortage of
capital even 20 people can only raise
so much
 Unlimited liability unless limited
partnership
 Shares are less attractive, as they
cannot be traded on the Stock
Exchange and hence could be
difficult to sell
 Less flexible if expansion needs
finance which is more difficult to
raise than for a plc
 There are more legal formalities
than for n incorporated business
 Must publish a great deal of
financial information about its
performance
 Greater scrutiny of activities
 Significant administrative expenses
 Founders of the firm may lose
control if their shareholding falls
below 51%
 A stock exchange listing means
pressure from investors may lead to
more emphasis on short term
financial results, not long term
performance.
 Chapter 8 – raising finance

Ordinary share capital – money given to a company by share folders in return for a share certificate that
gives them part of the company and entitles them to a share of the profits

Features

 Known as risk capital or equity capital. If the business is successful , each shareholder receives a
dividend.
 Ordinary share capital appeals to investors who are prepared to take a risk in return for higher
rewards. If a business foes into liquidation and ceases to exists because it cannot pay its debts,
money invested by shareholders will only be returned to them if every debt has been paid in full.
On the other hand, because profitable companies can borrow at low interest rates, shareholders
can get high returns when things go well.
 In the case of liquidation, the shareholder is protected by the limited liability provided by limited
companies. This means that shareholders can only lose the paid up value of their shares and
cannot be asked to pay any more money
 Ordinary shares are often known as permanent capital, as the business will always have
shareholders who own these shares. For this reason, ordinary share capital is used a as long
term source of finance, to set up the firm in the first place or for major expansion plan that
cannot be financed from other sources.
 For expansion plans, companies will often use a rights issue, where the new shares are sold to
existing shareholders. This reduces the administrative shares are sold to existing shareholders.
This reduces the administrative costs that are an element of issuing ordinary share capital, as the
new shares are often sold in proportion to the existing number of shares.

Advantages

 Limited liability encourages shareholders to invest in the business, as it restricts the amount of
money they can lose
 it is not necessary to pay shareholders a dividend if the business cannot afford these payments.
This contrasts sharply with loans- interest must be paid on these , regardless of the success or
failure of the business
 bringing new shareholders into a small business can add further expertise. This usually applies
when the additional share capital is being provided by a business angel or venture capitalist
 increasing ordinary share capital can make it easier to borrow more funds from a bank, as the
share capital can help to pay for assets that can be used as collateral.
 It is permanent, so the business will never be required to gather together sufficient funds to
repay it; the money stays permanently in the business.

Disadvantages

 In profitable year shareholders will expect good dividends and this is likely to be more expensive
than the interest charged on a loan
  The original aims of the business may be lost as new shareholders may not have the same values
as the original owners
 As the business grows through this source of finance, it is probable that the percentage
shareholding of the original owner(s) will decline. This can ultimately lead to a smaller share of
the profit and even a loss of control of the business.

Loan capital = money received by an organisation in return for the organization’s agreement to pay
interest during the period of the loan and to repay the loan within an agreed time.

Advantages of a bank loan

 The interest rate and therefore the repayments are fixed in advance, making it easy to budget
the schedule for repayments.
 Interest rates are normally lower because of the security provided, although it is possible to get
unsecured loans at a higher interest charge if the business cannot provide collateral.
 The size of the loan and the period of repayment can be organised to match the exact needs of
the firm

Disadvantages

 The size of the loan may be limited by the amount of collateral that can be provided rather than
by the amount of money needed by the business
 There is less flexibility in a bank loan , so the business will tend to pay interest for the agreed
period, even if it gets into a position where it can pay off the loan early. It may be possible to
repay the loan earlier but a fee must be paid for doing this.
 Loans are more expensive than alternatives such as personal finance. This is particularly true for
stat ups which are charged higher rates of interest because they are unable to provide the
guarantees that the bank prefers.

Bank overdrafts : when a bank allows an indivual or organisation to overspend its current account in the
bank up to an agreed limit and for a stated time period.

Advantages

 Flexible
 Short term
 Interest only paid on the amount of the overdraft being used rather than the maximum level
allowed
 They are particularly useful to sessasonal businesses, which are likely to experience some cash
flow problems at certain times of the year
 Security is not usually required

Disadvantages

 Interest rates charged are usually higher than for a loan

 Banks can demand immediate repayment
  Cash flow forecasts and other evidence are usually needed to show the bank manager why an
overdraft is needed

Venture capital: finance that is provided to small or medium sized firms that seek growth nut which may
be considered as risky by typical share buyers or other lenders.

Other sources

 Personal savings
 Mortgages
 Borrowing privately from friends and family
 Selling private assets

Capital expenditure = this is spending on items that can be used time and time again (fixed assets). Long
time may be needed before these items generate enough profit to pay for themselves.

Revenue expenditure = this is spending on current, day-today costs such as the purchase of raw
materials and payment of wages. Such expenditure provides a quick return, so the company should rely
for this one a sort term source of finance, usually repayable within 1year.

Choosing a source of finance should be decided with the following in mind

 Legal structure of business

 Use of finance
 Amount required
 Firm’s profit levels
 Level of risk
 Views of the owners

Chapter 9 – Locating the business.

Main factors influencing business location

 Technology
o With the development of communication technologies such as mobile phones, personal
computers and the internet, it is becoming increasingly feasible for people to work from
home or in locations that are away from centralised office, distribution or production
bases. This types of working arrangement is known as teleworking.
 Cost of factors of production
o Businesses often try to find least-cost site (the business location that allows a firm to
minimize its costs (and hence its selling price)).
o Land costs
o Labour costs
o Transport costs
 Infrastructure
 o The network of utilities such as transport links, sewerage, telecommunications systems,
health services and educational facilities.
 The market
 Qualitative factors
o Convenience (for business owner)
o USP
o Quality of life
o Inertia
 Unwillingness to move
 Desire of the owner’s family to remain in the same place for personal reasons
 Difficulties in building up a new customer base in a new location
 Loyalty to its existing labour force
 A desire to keep the same locally based suppliers
 A fear of change
 Lower morale and productivity before the relocation, as a result of some stage
probably losing their jobs
 The cost of relocation
 Transitional difficulties while adjusting to the new location and processes

The key factors that a small firm should consider were found to be:

 Demographic factors – i.e. whether the local population matched the business’ target market
 The economic wealth of the local area and whether it could support the number of businesses
located in the vicinity
 Pedestrian traffic flow during opening times
 Parking factors – cost and time
 Competitors’ locations
 Location history – did the indivual site have a good track record of successful business activity?
 Council policies, such as limiting certain business activities (nightclubs) to certain areas of town.

Chapter 10 – Employing people

Reasons for employing people.

 Meet demand
 Skills
 Seasonal demand
 Expansion

Types of employee

 Permanent
 Temporary of fixed contract employs
 Employees on zero-hour contract
 Employment agency staff
  Self-employment freelancers, consultants and contractors.

Advantages of part time workers include

 Efficient way to keep costs down

 Flexibility
 Maybe more motivated , absenteeism and stress may be reduced and productivity may increase
 Availability of part time work may create a wider peel of candidates for recruitment
 Opportunity to work part time may mean the business is able to retain valued employees.

Draw back and difficulties of employing people

 Cost
 Meeting the range of employment legislation requirements
 Managing staff
 Employee absence

Chapter 11 – Calculating costs, revenue and profits

Price = the amount paid by a consumer to purchase one unit of a product

Total revenue = the income received form an organization’s activities ( a.k.a. income, revenue, sales
revenue, sales turnover, turnover) = price per unit x quantity sold)

Profit = the difference between the income of a business and its total costs = total revenue – total costs

Fixed costs = costs that do not vary directly with output n the short run

Variable costs = costs that vary directly with output in the short run

Total costs = the sum of fixed costs and variable costs

Fixed costs Variable costs
Machinery Raw material
Rent Wages and operatives/ direct labour
Salaries Power
Administration
Vehicles
Marketing
Lighting and heating

Chapter 12 – Using breakeven analysis to make decisions

Contribution per unit = sp –vc

Total contribution = the difference between total revenue and total variable cost. = cpu x q =revenue –
total variable costs

Breakeven analysis = study of the relationship between total costs and total revenue to identify the
output at which a business breaks even

Breakeven output = the level of output at which total sales revenue is equal to total costs of production.

Calculating breakeven output.

 Using table
 Using formula  breakeven output =(fc)/(CpU) or (fc)/(sp-vc/u)

Usefulness of breakeven analysis

 Used to calculate how long it will take to reach the level of output needed to make a profit. Will
help to assess whether or not the business is viable
 Simple, straightforward way of discovering whether a business plan is likely to succeed
financially.
 Usually, a start up will use breakeven analysis to plan not only its expected results but also a
‘best case’ scenario and a ‘worst case’ scenario. This allows the entrepreneur to see the
maximum possible profit and minimum profit. This information can indicate the level of risk
involved in the start up
 What if?

Strengths of BEA

 Shows the different levels of profit arising from the various levels of output and sales that might
be achieved
 Calculations are quick and easy to complete, thus saving businesses time.
 Foresee future changes
  Target profit level.

Weaknesses

 Unreliable as forecast
 Sales unlikely to be exactly the same as output
 Sp may change as more is purchased
 FC may not stay the same as output changes.,.
 Assume that VC per unit are always the same ignoring factors such as buying in bulk.

Chapter 13- using cash flow forecasting

Cash flow = the amounts of money flowing into and out of a business over a period of time

Cash inflows : receipts of cash , typically arising from sales of items, payments by debtors, loans received,
rent charged, sale of assets and interest received

Cash outflows = payments of cash typically arising from the purchase of items , payments to creditors,
loan repaid or given, rental payments, purchase of assets and interest payments.

Net cash flow = the sum of cash inflows to an organisation minus the sum of cash outflows over a period
of time.

Cash flow cycle: The regular pattern of inflows and outflows of cash within a business.

Sources for cash flow forecasting

 Previous forecasts
 Cash flow statements (a description of how cash flowed into and out of a business during a
particular period of time )
 Consumer research
 Study of similar businesses such as competitors
 Establishing the level of resources needed
 Banks
 Consultants
 The cash flow forecast itself

Potential problems that may cause inaccuracy in a cash flow forecast include the following

 Changes in the economy

 Changes in consumer tastes
 Inaccurate market research
 Competition
 Uncertainty

Structure

Jan February March April May June

 Opening 0 300 (220) 1060 440 70
balance

Sales 2000 3600 5000 3300 3750 5000

income
Borrowings 6000 0 0 0 0 0
Total inflows 8000 3600 5000 3300 3750 5000

Materials 4000 1500 1100 1150 1500 1800

Wages 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200
Other costs 1500 420 420 570 420 420
Total 7700 4120 3720 3920 4120 4420
outflows

Net monthly 300 (520) 1280 (620) (370) 580

balance
Closing 300 (220) 1060 440 70 650
balance

Net cash flow = cash inflows – cash outflows

Closing balance= opening balance + net cash flow

The main reasons for forecasting cash flow are therefore as follows

 To identify potential cash flow problems in advance

 To guide the firm towards appropriate action
 To make sure that there is sufficient cash available to pay suppliers and creditors and to
make other payments
 To provide evidence in support of a request for financial assistance (i.e. asking a bank for an
overdraft)
 To avoid the possibility of the company being forced out of business (into liquidation 
liquidity = the ability to convert an asset into cash with loss or delay) because of a
forthcoming shortage of money
 To identify the possibility of holding too much cash

Chapter 14 – Setting budgets.

Budget : an agreed plan establishing, in numerical or financial terms, the policy to be pursued and the
anticipated outcomes of that policy,

Management accounting: The production and use of financial and accounting information for internal
purposes of planning, review and control. It is based on predictions of what will happen and analysis of
the actual outcomes in comparison to the original plans.
Income budget: shows the agreed, planned income of a business (or division of a business) over a
period of time. It may also be described as a revenue budget or sales budget,

Expenditure budget: Shows the agreed, planned expenditure of a business (or division of a business)
over a period of time.

Profit budget: shows the agreed, planned profit of a business (or division of a business) over a period of
time.

Expenditure budgets include:

 Raw materials/ components

 Labour costs
 Marketing expenditure
 Administration costs
 Rent
 Capital costs
 Premises
 Furniture and office equipment
 Vehicles
 Insurance
 Legal costs
 Salaries and payroll taxes, such as employers’ national insurance contributions
 Cleaning and other services
Methods if setting a budget.

 Budgeting according to company objectives  the more ambitious the objectives, the greater
the budget that needs to be allocated.
 Budgeting according to competitors’ spending  In order to stay competitive, a business may
have to match the spending of its rival.
 Setting the budget as a percentage of sales revenue
 Zero budgeting/ budgeting based on expected outcomes
 Budgeting according to last year’s budget allocation

Reasons for setting budgets

 To gain financial support

 To ensure that a business does not overspend
 To establish priorities
 To encourage delegation and responsibility and the motivate staff
 To assign responsibility
 To improve efficiency

Problems of setting budgets

 Managers may not know enough about the division or department

 There may be problems in gathering information
 There may be unforeseen changes
 The level of inflation (prices rises) is not easy to predict
 Budget may be imposed
 Setting a budget can be time consuming.