322 Research notes and reports / Annals of Tourism Research 38 (2011) 309–330

used to navigate within it. Finally, results demonstrate that the ideals of charter
tourists are adjusted during the course of the tour to minimize the gap between
expected and enacted experiences, thus subjectively producing a more desirable
journey.
Jakob Lauring: Department of Management, Aarhus School of Busi-
ness, Aarhus University. Haslegaardsvej 10, 8210 Aarhus V. Denmark.
Email: <jala@asb.dk>

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Journal of Travel Research, 38(2), 134–143.

Submitted 28 January 2010. Final version 8 July 2010. Accepted 24 September 2010.

doi:10.1016/j.annals.2010.09.003

Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 322–325, 2011

0160-7383/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Printed in Great Britain

TOUR GUIDES AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Jennifer C.H. Min

Ming Chuan University, Taiwan

INTRODUCTION
Emotional intelligence (EI), which can be instilled, nurtured, or taught through
proper education and training, contributes in a variety of areas of an individual’s
personal and professional life (Goleman, 1998). The term ‘‘emotional intelli-
gence’’ was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer in 1990, who referred to it as
the ability to deal with emotion. Emotionally intelligent individuals may be more
acutely aware of their own feelings as well as the feelings of others, and they
may be better able to identify and communicate their feelings than less emotion-
ally intelligent individuals (Mayer & Salovey, 1993). The ability to manage, regu-
late, and control one’s emotions in order to interact with others effectively is
 Research notes and reports / Annals of Tourism Research 38 (2011) 309–330 323

one of the most essential skills in the tourism industry, which involves high-contact
encounters and significant interaction among customers (Carvelzani, Lee, Locatel-
li, Monti, & Villamira, 2003).
Due to the fact that they act as intermediaries between tourists and an unfamil-
iar environment, tour guides play an important role in the success or failure of a
tour experience; their performance may ultimately shape a tourist’s perception of
the host destination (Zhang & Chow, 2004). Because tour guides have such respon-
sibility for the overall satisfaction and impressions of tourists, the development of
EI skills seems crucial for tour guides. They can use EI skills to both manage their
own performance and to regulate tourists’ moods in order to most appropriately
and effectively interact with them. Nelson and Low (2003) argue that self-assess-
ment methods can be utilized in the initial stages of EI training in order to provide
trainees with a greater awareness of how they think, feel, and behave. Hence, the
aim of this paper is to provide an EI-based training program focusing on tour
guides’ strengths and weaknesses in order to provide them with benefits in both
the personal and interpersonal realms.
The instrument used in this study is the ESAP-CV (Emotional Skills Assessment
Process-Condensed Version) developed by Nelson and Low. EI, as defined by Nel-
son and Low, is a learned ability to identify experience, understand, and express
human emotions in healthy and productive ways. They developed the ESAP to pro-
vide a psychologically sound yet practically sequential EI measure appropriate for
academic use and career development. The 104 skill statements constitute six EI
variables which are categorized as three dimensions: interpersonal skills (Assertion),
self management skills (Drive Strength, Time Management, Change Orientation, and
Commitment Ethic), and intrapersonal skills (Stress Management). The present study
adopted a Chinese translation of the ESAP-CV. With regard to the applicability
of each item to the current study, interviews were conducted to collect the opin-
ions of eight experts, including academics, practitioners, and a government offi-
cial, in order to make items applicable to tour guides.
The primary methodology of simple additive weighting (SAW), one of the most
popular and widely used in multiple attribute decision making (MADM), is em-
ployed to rank the alternatives of training needs. The SAW method’s formula is dis-
cussed below:
X
n
ei ¼ wj rij
j¼1

where wj represents decision weights and rij represents criteria weights. A final
appraisal score ei for each alternative i is computed by multiplying the jth criterion
significance weight wj by the standardized outcome score of alternative i on crite-
rion j. The assumption for using the SAW in decision making is that the relative
significance attached to one criterion is independent from the significance
attached to other criteria; in other words, evaluation criteria are preferentially
independent from each other.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The data were collected from a sample of 380 members of the Taiwan Tourist
Guide Association. Using the SAW method, the ranking of competencies among par-
ticipants in the study are (from most to least competent): (1) Drive Strength
(Weight = 56.13), (2) Stress Management (Weight = 39.40), (3) Assertion (Weight =
37.25), (4) Commitment Ethic (Weight = 32.59), (5) Time Management (Weight = 30.88),
and (6) Change Orientation (Weight = 19.49). The high ranking of Drive Strength indi-
cates that tour guides are generally skilled in goal achievement. The skills Stress Man-
324 Research notes and reports / Annals of Tourism Research 38 (2011) 309–330

agement, Assertion, Commitment Ethic and Time Management have similar performance at
the EI levels. The present study also found that Change Orientation is the weakest skill
area, indicating that tour guides have a potential problem area which needs to be im-
proved upon. The findings have implications for emotional learning, and it is recom-
mended that more teaching should be given concerning Change Orientation.
Enhancement of the abilities of Time Management, Commitment Ethic, Assertion, and
Stress Management is also recommended.
The content of a standardized EI training course for tour guides should start
with enhancing abilities and skills to help the trainees feel good about choosing
healthy ways to make personal changes. Change Orientation, according to Nelson
and Low (2003), is defined by how much individuals are content with their present
behavior, and the amount of change required or desired for them to progress
towards effectiveness in the different areas of their lives. In this study, the EI ability
of Change Orientation is found to be deficient, suggesting that tour guides tend to
lack strong convictions concerning the need to make personal changes. Focus
group discussions and peer interviews can be used in training sessions to promote
self-awareness and the desire to make necessary changes.
EI training courses for tour guides should also include specific content to
strengthen their Time Management and Commitment Ethic, which are categorized
as self management skills. It is argued that effective self management is crucial
to high levels of career success (Nelson & Low, 2003). Developing the ability of
time management means learning to view time as a valuable resource. Opportu-
nities should be given to tour guides to reflect on their thoughts about time and
its value, as well as talking about how they plan their daily lives and set priorities
to accomplish their daily goals with minimum stress. Meanwhile, course content
can increase tour guides’ Commitment Ethic, or their inward promise to finish what
they start and take pride in the successful completion of tasks. Commitment Ethic is
motivated by purpose and emotion; therefore, value clarification and decision
making are prerequisite skills for developing this ability (Nelson & Low, 2003).
Activities should be included that help tour guides dedicate their energy and ef-
fort to accomplishing meaningful goals, which will increase their self-esteem and
pride.
Course content may also incorporate the relatively high EI skill areas of Assertion,
Stress Management, and Drive Strength. Assertion, according to Nelson and Low
(2003), is essential to healthy relationships and personal confidence. To strength-
en the skills of Assertion, tour guides should recognize that deferential responses to
tourists’ demands and challenges, which delay the decision making process, are
hurtful to both them and others. They can practice communicating in an assertive
manner that respects the feelings and needs of all parties. Trainers may include
role-plays and problem-solving activities that practice win-win propositions in nego-
tiating situations. Using the first-person singular pronoun ‘‘I’’ in the activities is
the starting point for practicing assertive communication.
Effective stress management refers to one’s self-control when unpleasant or
stressful situations arise. This ability demands that one controls the intensity of
one’s emotions and uses mental constructs to deal with stressful situations. These
skills are necessary for one to be healthy, perform well, and be satisfied with his or
her life (Nelson & Low, 2003). Tour guides are encouraged to talk about their
sources of stress and some of the related self-destructive behaviors. The key to
improving Drive Strength is to focus and direct personal energy and effort toward
accomplishing goals that enhance self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-responsibility
(Nelson & Low, 2003). Courses designed to allow tour guides to recall their
achievements in the past and set future goals are positive practices for them.
One limitation of this work is that the tour guides’ EI skills were not compared
with those of the general public. Additional examination of tour guides’ EI re-
quires increased scrutiny to assess how their levels of EI variables compare to
 Research notes and reports / Annals of Tourism Research 38 (2011) 309–330 325

those of the general public. Moreover, the relationship between EI and demo-
graphic characteristics merits further investigation. Certainly, EI alone is not a
predictor of success, but it is a foundational component of success (Goleman,
1998). The results of this study contribute to existing tourism literature by indi-
cating what EI levels tour guides currently possess and helping tourism authori-
ties identify priority training needs within a defined amount of time and resource
investment.

Acknowledgement—This study was supported by the National Science Council of the Republic
of China, Grant No: NSC 99-2410-H-130-045.

Jennifer C. H. Min: Associate Professor, Department of International

Business, Ming Chuan University, Taipei, Taiwan. Email <jmin@mail.
mcu.edu.tw>

REFERENCES
Carvelzani, A. S., Lee, I. A., Locatelli, V., Monti, G., & Villamira, M. A. (2003).
Emotional intelligence and tourist services: The tour operator as a mediator
between tourists and residents. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism
Administration, 4(4), 1–24.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence.
Intelligence, 17(4), 433–442.
Nelson, D. B., & Low, G. R. (2003). Emotional intelligence: Achieving academic and
career excellence. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition,
and Personality, 9(3), 185–211.
Zhang, H. Q., & Chow, I. (2004). Application of importance-performance model in
tour guides’ performance: Evidence from mainland Chinese outbound visitors
in Hong Kong. Tourism Management, 25(1), 81–91.

Received 18 March 2010; revised 3 September 2010; accepted for publication 30 September
2010
doi:10.1016/j.annals.2010.09.005
Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 325–330, 2011
0160-7383/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Printed in Great Britain

THE QUEST FOR A NEW

MULTIDISCIPLINARY TOURISM MODEL

Alexia M. Tzortzaki
Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Greece
Athanassios Mihiotis,
George M. Agiomirgianakis
Hellenic Open University, Greece

The issue of identifying a new, sustainable, competitive strategy for tourism is

critically important for countries, such as Greece, which have become competi-