Concrete formworks are subjected to various loads and pressure.

Concrete
formwork loads and pressure calculations are described in this article.

Formworks or molds are considerably important for building constrictions by holding fresh
concrete mixture at place until it get required strength by which the self weight can be sustained.

Generally, there are various loads which are possible to act on formworks. Vertical loads are one
of the most significant loads that act on formworks and are due to the self weight of the
formwork and casted concrete plus live load of worker in addition to their equipment.

Moreover, internal pressures which caused by the behavior of liquid fresh concrete, is acted on
vertical formworks. Furthermore, it is mandatory to provide lateral bracing to achieve stability
against lateral forces for example wind loads.
Table of Contents

 Concrete Formwork Loads and Pressure Calculations

o 1. Vertical Loads on Concrete Formwork
o 2. Lateral Pressure on Concrete Formwork
o 3. Horizontal Loads on Concrete Formworks
o 4. Special Loads on Concrete Formworks

Concrete Formwork Loads and Pressure Calculations

Following are the various types of loads and pressures act on concrete formwork:
 1. Vertical load
2. Lateral pressure of concrete
3. Horizontal loads
4. Special loads

1. Vertical Loads on Concrete Formwork

Vertical loads are exerted on formworks and may consist of dead loads such as formwork dead
load, steel reinforcement embedded in the forms, molded fresh concrete and live loads such as
the weight of workers, equipments, and tools.

It is recommended to compute weight of materials separately in the case of heavy reinforcement

to specify accurate unit weight.

ACI 347-04: Guide to Formwork of Concrete specify that, to allow for workers and their
placing tools such as screeds, vibrators, and hoses, at least 2.4Kpa live load should be used for
the design of horizontal formworks and a minimum live load of 3.6 kPa should be employed in
cases where motorized carts and buggies are utilized.

Furthermore, ACI 347-04 determines combined live and dead load design of not less than 4.8
kPa or 6 kPa if motorized carts are employed.

Finally, formwork selfweight is calculated using unit weight and dimensions of formwork
various parts. The weight of formworks is substantially less than fresh concrete dead load and
construction live load. That is why an allowance is decided as superimposed load per square
meter for form work components during design.

An initial assumption is made between 0.239-0.718 kPa based on experience and checked after
the member is sized. This estimation is depending on the fact that common weight of formworks
is 0.239-0.718 kPa.

2. Lateral Pressure on Concrete Formwork

Internal pressure resulted from accumulated depth of placed concrete is imposed on vertical
formworks such as walls and columns. During vibration and for short period after vibration,
placed fresh concrete close to the top and to a small depth of formwork behaves like a liquid and
impose lateral pressure on the formwork that is equal to the vertical liquid head. Fresh concrete
is granular with internal friction but vibrations eliminate bonds in the mixture and generate liquid
state.

There are different reasons such as placement rate, concrete temperature, and internal frictions
that affect lateral pressure of below vibration controlled depth and make lateral pressure smaller
than liquid pressure head.

When vertical placement is carried out at slow pace, fresh concrete could have time to start
stiffening. Moreover, unless concrete temperature is low, the time to start setting is not short.
Other factors such as pore water movement, creation of friction and other parameters may lead to
decline lateral pressure. Various types of cement, admixtures, cement substitutes, construction
practices might influence level of lateral pressure.

Mostly, concrete lateral distribution pressure, which based on tests, is depicted as shown in
Figure-1. The distribution begins close to the top as a liquid and reaches peak value at lower
level. For design reasons, it is suggested that ultimate pressure is uniform at conservative value.

Figure-1: Typical and Assumed Distribution of Concrete Lateral Pressure on Formworks

Calculation of Lateral Pressure on Concrete Formwork

ACI 347-04 specify that, concrete lateral pressure is computed as per Equation-1 if fresh
concrete slump value is greater than 175 mm and does not placed with normal internal vibration
to a depth of 1.2 m or less.

Where:

P: Lateral pressure of concrete, kPa

 : Density of concrete, Kg/m3

g: Gravitational constant, 9.81 N/kg

h: Depth of fluid or plastic concrete from top of the placement to the point of consideration in the
form, m

However, ACI 347-04 stated that, if concrete slump value is no larger than 175 mm and placed
with normal vibration to a depth of 1.2 m or less, then lateral pressure of concrete is calculated as
follows:

Lateral Pressure on Concrete Formworks for Columns

With a minimum of 30Cw kPa, but in no case greater than .

Where:

Pmax: Maximum lateral pressure of concrete, kPa

Cw: Coefficient of unit weight which is provided in

Cc: Coefficient of chemistry that is provided in

R: Concrete placement rate, m/h

T: Concrete temperature during placing, oC

Lateral Pressure on Concrete Formworks for Walls

Concrete lateral pressure for walls with placement rate, smaller than 2.1 m/h and placement
height is no greater than 4.2 m.

With a minimum of 30Cw kPa, but in no case greater than .

Concrete lateral pressure for walls with placement rate of greater than 2.1 m/h and placement
height exceeds 4.2 m, and for all walls with placement rate of 2.1 to 4.5 m/h.
With a minimum of 30Cw kPa, but in no case greater than .

Table-1: Unit Weight Coefficient, Cw

Density of concrete, Kg/m3 Cw

Cw=0.5[1+(w / 2320 Kg/m3)] but
Less than 2240
not less than 0.80
2240 to 2400 1.0
More than 2400 Cw=w / 2320 Kg/m3

Table-2: Chemistry coefficient, Cc

Type of cement or blend Cc

Type I, II, and III without retarders1 1.0
Type I, II, and III with a retarder1 1.2
Other types or blend containing less than 70 percent slag
1.2
or 40 percent fly ash without retarders1
Other types or blend containing less than 70 percent slag
1.4
or 40 percent fly ash with a retarder1
blend containing more than 70 percent slag or 40 percent
1.4
fly ash

1
Retarders include any admixture, such as a retarder, retarding water reducer, retarding mid-
range water reducing admixture, or high-range water-reducing admixture (superplasticizer),
that delays setting of concrete.

Moreover, for pressure equation utilization, columns are defined as vertical elements with no
plan dimensions surpass 2 m, and walls are vertical elements with at least one plan dimension
larger than 2 m.

Finally, in column forms, internal pressure in transferred to the external tie elements on adjacent
side of the form which used as links between opposite sides of square or circular column.
Furthermore, internal pressure in wall forms is transferred from plywood, studs, or wales to the
tension ties that link two opposite sides of the form.

In addition to provide aforementioned techniques to withstand internal pressures, providing

resisting elements for example braces are essential for resisting external horizontal loads which
tend to overturn wall, column, slab forms as shown in Figure-2 and Figure-3.
 Figure-2: Schematic Bracing in Slab Formworks

Figure-3: Schematic Bracing in Walls Formworks

3. Horizontal Loads on Concrete Formworks

Horizontal loads might result from forces like wind, concrete dumping, equipment starting and
stopping, and inclined supports should be opposed by properly designed braces and shore.

For building construction, assumed value for these loads should not be less than the larger of
either 1.5 KN/m of floor edge or 2% of total dead load spread as uniform load per slab edge
linear meter, these assumptions is specified by ACI 347-04.

Bracing for wall forms should be designed to meet requirements of minimum wind loads of
ASCE 7-10 with adjustments for shorter recurrence intervals which could be found in ASCE 37-
02

For wall forms exposed to elements 0.72 kPa or greater is used as minimum wind design load.
Wall from bracing need to be designed for loads no less than 1.5 KN/m of wall length which is
applied at the top.
4. Special Loads on Concrete Formworks

It is required to design formworks for uncommon construction conditions that could occur such
as reinforcement concentrated loads, unsymmetrical placement of concrete, machine-delivered
concrete impact, uplift, form handling loads.

Constructing walls over spans of slab or beams that could impose different loading pattern before
concrete hardening than that for which the supporting structure is designed for, is an example of
special conditions that should be taken into consideration b form designer.

Wooden formworks are generally used for construction due to its ease of use.
Different criteria for design of wooden formwork and their calculation is discussed .

Formwork is substantially significant temporary construction element in the construction of

structures. It provides necessary support until the concrete member achieves required strength
and can support its own weight in addition to the imposed loads.

There are various materials for example steel, aluminum, fiber composite and wood from which
formworks can be constructed. Manufacturers can produce steel, aluminum, and fiber composite
formworks and can be utilized directly based on the information and specification provided by
the manufacturer.

However, wood formworks as shown in Figure-1 can be made in the construction site, but is
needs to be designed properly. There are different criteria that must be considered when wood
formwork is designed.

In the following sections, different formwork design criteria will be discussed.

 Fig.1: Wooden Formwork

Table of Contents

 Wooden Formwork Design Criteria for Concrete Construction

o ASD Adjustment Factor for Lumber Stresses
o Factor of Overall Element Size
o Stability Factor for Beam for Wooden Formwork Design
o Column Stability Factor for Wooden Formwork Design
o Factor of Load Duration for Wooden Formwork Design
o Bearing Area Factor for Wooden Formwork Design
o Moisture Factor
o Flat Application Factor
o Safety Factor for Formwork Accessories
o Repetitive Factor of Member Utilization
o Manufactured Wood Products
o Adjustment Factor for Plywood Stresses

Wooden Formwork Design Criteria for Concrete

Construction
Following are the different criteria for design of wooden concrete formwork
  ASD adjustment factor for lumber stresses
 Factor of overall member size
 Stability factor for beam
 Column stability factor
 Factor of load duration
 Bearing area factor
 Moisture factor
 Flat application factor
 Safety factor for formwork accessories
 Repetitive factor of member utilization
 Manufactured wood products
 Adjustment factor for plywood stresses

ASD Adjustment Factor for Lumber Stresses

National design standard for wood construction 2015 recommends various adjustment factors to
adjust reference design values (F) and consequently achieve permissible design values (F’) for
bending stress, shear stress, bearing stress, compression stress, and elastic modulus as follows:

It should be noted that, adjustment factors in the parentheses is employed in case of truss
member. Apart from those factors in the brackets, the adjustment factors will be explained in the
following sections

Factor of Overall Element Size

This factor is denoted as (Cf) and it is demonstrated through tests that the size of the element,
which intended to be constructed, influence the stress that causes failure. Therefore, the member
size should be taken into consideration and this can be done by multiplying basic bending and
compression values by size factor.

Stability Factor for Beam for Wooden Formwork Design

National design specification provided recommendation regarding the value of beam stability
factor (CL). In the case where the compression edge of rectangular bending member is unstable,
the stability factor for beam is calculated as per the equation provided by NDS 3.3.3.8.

Moreover, the national design specification recommends values for beam stability factor may be
taken as 1 for sawn lumber based on lateral support condition and member depth to with ratio
which is provided in Table-1.

Table-1: Beam Stability Factor Based on Depth to Width Ration and Lateral Support
Conditions

Depth to width Beam Stability

Lateral Support Condition
ratio, b?d Factor (CL)
b >= d < 2 Lateral support is not needed 1
Formwork ends should be supported by nailing, or
4>=b/d >2 1
bridging, full depth solid blocking, or other means
Member compression edge must be kept in position by
suitable for its full length to prevent lateral
5 >= b/d >4 1
displacement, and rations should be prevented at the
end bearing point of the element
Compression edge of the member should be kept at its
position by subflooring or other means, lateral
6 >= b/d>5 displacement at end bearing point must be avoided, 1
and at spacing of 20 cm bridging or diagonal cross
bracing or full depth solid block should be provided
Not only does the point of end bearing need to be
supported to prevent rotation but also both
7>=b/d >6 1
compression edge of the member should be kept at
their original position

Column Stability Factor for Wooden Formwork Design

Column stability factor, which is denoted as (Cp) is found out as per the provisions of national
design standard. The value of column stability factor is taken as 1 if lateral displacement of
compression member is avoided in all direction by providing supports throughout the entire
length of the member.

However, if members such as shores or braces are likely to fail in buckling instead of crushing,
the column stability factor reduces the permissible compression stress that is parallel to the
natural lines (grain) in the wood. The following equation is employed to compute column
stability factor.

Where:

Fc*: reference compression design value parallel to natural line on wood (grain) multiply by
applicable adjustment factor apart from Cp, look at section 2.3 of national design specification
for wood construction

c: taken as 0.8 for sawn lumber, 0.85 for round timber poles and plies, and 0.90 for structural
glued laminated timber, structural composite lumber, and cross laminated timber

FcE: is computed by applying the following expressions

Where:

le: is the effective length

le?d: is the larger of slenderness ratio about the possible buckling axis and usually do not surpass
50 apart from short loading during construction and in this case, it can be up to 75.

Factor of Load Duration for Wooden Formwork Design

It is demonstrated through tests that, the ultimate load which is carried by wood in short duration
is massively greater than the maximum load that is supported by wood in normal duration. This
property of wood is adjusted and arranged by applying load duration factor. Table-2 provides
load duration factor for certain cumulative maximum load duration.

It is worth mentioning that, the load duration factor for most formworks is taken as 1.15, but if
different parts of the formworks are reutilized for larger cumulative durations then load duration
factor need to be decreased appropriately for the formwork.

Table-2: Load Duration Factor Employed for Provided Cumulative Maximum Load
Duration

Duration of loading Load duration factor, CD

Load duration > 10 years 0.9
2 months < load duration ? 10 years 1.0
7 days < load duration ? 2 months 1.15
load duration < 7 days 1.25
Wind/ earthquake 1.6
Impact 2.2

Bearing Area Factor for Wooden Formwork Design

This factor is utilized to increase concentrated load design values on wood perpendicular to grain
or natural lines of wood. As per national design specification for wood construction, the bearing
area factor is employed to bearings of any length at the end of the member, and to all bearing that
6 inch or more in length at any other location.

If the above conditions are reached, then the factor is computed using the following formula
otherwise it is 1.

Where:

lb: is the bearing length measure parallel to wood grain.

Moisture Factor

If wood lost about thirty percent of its moisture content, its strength will increase. The essential
design values have been established for a wood with moisture content of nineteen percent or
smaller.

However, this moisture content might be increased because wood could expose to external
conditions. In this case moisture factor need to be applied to adjust the design values.

Flat Application Factor

When 50.8cm to 101.6 cm thick wood is subjected to loading on its wide face, it will deflect
around weak axis. In this situation, the stress which causes failure will be larger by small
amount. Therefore, flat use factor (Cfu) is used to adjust basic design values of bending stress.
Table 3 provided flat use factor.

Table-3: Flat Use Factor

Width, mm Thickness
50.8mm and 76.2mm 101.6mm
50.8 and 76.2 1 —
101.8 1.1 1
127 1.1 1.05
152.4 1.15 1.05
203.2 1.15 1.05
254 and wider 1.2 1.1

Safety Factor for Formwork Accessories

Hangers, anchors, and ties are examples of accessories which are employed in formwork. These
accessories are commonly manufactured from steel and either ultimate or allowable strength of
such tools are provided by producers.

So, if the ultimate strength is given, then it should be multiplied by safety factor to achieve
permissible strength. Minimum safety factors for accessory are provided by ACI 347-04 and
shown in Table 4.

Table-4: Minimum Safety Factor used for Accessory Formwork

Accessory Type of construction Safety factor

Form tie All applications 2
Form hangers All applications 2
Formwork supporting form
Form anchor weight and concrete pressure 2
only
Formwork supports form
Form anchor weight, concrete, construction 3
live load, and impact
Anchoring inserts used as Precast concrete panel when
2
form ties employed as a formwork

Repetitive Factor of Member Utilization

Bending design values is multiplied by repetitive use factor if minimum three lumbers with
thickness of 5.08cm to 10.18cm are employed like plans, joists, studs, rafters, decking, or other
similar members with maximum spacing of 60.96cm and connected to each other by an element
that can withstand design loads.

Flooring, sheathing, subflooring are examples of members, which can withstand and distribute
design load, may be used to connect lumbers. Generally, the repetitive use factor which is
employed is 1.15.

Manufactured Wood Products

There are different manufactured wood products that may be used in the construction of
formworks for example laminated veneer lumber (Figure 2 and Figure 3), parallel strand lumber
(Figure 4 and Figure 5), laminated strand lumber (Figure 6).
 Fig.2: Laminated Veneer Lumber

Fig.3: Laminated Veneer Lumber Used to Construct Formwork

 Fig.4: Parallel Strand Lumber

Fig.5: Parallel Strand Lumber Used in Formwork

 Fig.6: Laminated Strand Lumber

Adjustment Factor for Plywood Stresses

There are three adjustment factors namely: load duration, wet use, and experience factor which
are applied to permissible stress values provided by The Engineered Wood association. The load
duration factor is the same as of wood while both experience and wet use factor are considered in
permissible plywood stress.

The removal of concrete formwork also called as strike-off or stripping of formwork should be
carried out only after the time when concrete has gained sufficient strength, at least twice the
stress to which the concrete may be subjected to when the formworks are removed. It is also
necessary to ensure the stability of the remaining formwork during formwork removal.

Table of Contents

 Concrete Formwork Removal Time

 Calculation of Safe Formwork Striking Times:
 Factors Affecting Concrete Formwork Striking Times
o Table – 1: Strength of concrete vs. Structural Member Type & Span for
Formwork Removal
o Table – 2: Formwork Stripping Time (When Ordinary Portland Cement is used):
 Concrete Formwork Removal Specification:

Concrete Formwork Removal Time

The rate of hardening of concrete or the concrete strength depends on temperature and affects the
formwork removal time. For example, time required for removal of concrete in winter will be
more than time required during summer.

Special attention is required for formwork removal of flexural members such as beams and slabs.
As these members are subjected to self-load as well as live load even during construction, they
may deflect if the strength gained is not sufficient to handle to loads.

To estimate the strength of concrete before formwork removal, the tests on concrete cubes or
cylinders should be carried out. The concrete cubes or cylinders should be prepared from the
same mix as that of the structural members and cured under same circumstances of temperature
and moisture as that of structural member.

When it is ensured that the concrete in the structural members has gained sufficient strength to
withstand the design load, only then formworks should be removed. If possible, the formworks
should be left for longer time as it helps in curing.

Removal of formwork from concrete section should not make the structural element to:

 Collapse under self load or under design load

 deflect the structural member excessively in short or the long term
 physically damage the structural member when formwork is removed.

The following points must be kept in mind during formwork removal whether the
structure will be prone to:

 freeze thaw damage

 cracks formation due to thermal contraction of concrete

after formwork striking. If there is a significant risk of any of the above damages, it is better to
delay the removal time of formwork. If formwork have to removed for optimising the concrete
construction activities, then these structures must be insulated well to prevent such damages.
Calculation of Safe Formwork Striking Times:
Structural members are constructed based on designed load. But before a structure is complete
and subjected to all loads assumed during structural design, the structural members are subjected
to its self weight and construction loads during construction process.

So, to proceed with construction activities at a quicker rate, it is essential to calculate the
behaviour of structure under is self load and construction load. If this can be done and structural
member is found to be safe, formwork can be stripped-off.

If these calculations are not possible, then following formula can be used for calculation of safe
formwork striking times:

Characteristic strength of cube of equal of maturity to the structure required at time of formwork
removal

This formula was given by Harrison (1995) which describes in detail the background of
determination of formwork removal times.

Other method to determine the strength of concrete structure is to conduct the non-destructive
tests on structural member.

Factors Affecting Concrete Formwork Striking Times

The striking time of concrete formwork depends on the strength of structural member. The
strength development of concrete member depends on:

 Grade of concrete – higher the grade of concrete, the rate of development of strength is
higher and thus concrete achieves the strength in shorter time.
 Grade of cement – Higher cement grade makes the concrete achieve higher strength in
shorter time.
 Type of Cement – Type of cement affects the strength development of concrete. For
example, rapid hardening cement have higher strength gain in shorter period than the
Ordinary Portland Cement. Low heat cement takes more time to gain sufficient strength
than OPC.
 Temperature – The higher temperature of concrete during placement makes it achieve
higher strength in shorter times. During winter, the concrete strength gain time gets
prolonged.
 A higher ambient temperature makes the concrete gain strength faster.
 Formwork helps the concrete to insulate it from surrounding, so longer the formwork
remain with concrete, the less is the loss of heat of hydration and rate of strength gain is
high.
 Size of the concrete member also affects the gain of concrete strength. Larger concrete
section members gain strength in shorter time than smaller sections.
 Accelerated curing is also a method to increase the strength gain rate with the
application of heat.

Generally following values of concrete strength is considered for removal of formwork for
various types of concrete structural members.

Table – 1: Strength of concrete vs. Structural Member Type & Span for
Formwork Removal

Concrete Strength Structural Member Type and Span

2.5 N/mm2 Lateral parts of the formwork for all structural members can be removed
70% of design Interior parts of formwork of slabs and beams with a span of up to 6m can
strength be removed
85% of design Interior parts of formwork of slabs and beams with a span of more than 6m
strength can be removed

Table – 2: Formwork Stripping Time (When Ordinary Portland Cement is

used):

Type of Formwork Formwork Removal Time

Sides of Walls, Columns and Vertical faces of 24 hours to 48 hours (as per engineer’s
beam decision)
Slabs (props left under) 3 days
Beam soffits (props left under) 7 days
Removal of Props of Slabs:
i) Slabs spanning up to 4.5m 14 days
ii) Slabs spanning over 4.5m 14 days
Removal of props for beams and arches
i) Span up to 6m 14 days
ii) Span over 6m 21 days

Important Note:

It is important to note that the time for formwork removal shown above in Table -2 is only when
Ordinary Portland Cement is used. In normal construction process Portland Pozzolana cement is
used. So, the time shown in Table-2 should be modified.

For cements other than Ordinary Portland cement, the time required for formwork
removal should be as:

 Portland Pozzolana Cement – stripping time will be 10/7 of the time stated above (Table-
2)
 Low heat cement – stripping time will be 10/7 of the time stated above (Table-2)
 Rapid Hardening Cement – stripping time of 3/7 of the time stated above (Table-2) will
be sufficient in all cases except for vertical sides of slabs, beams and columns which
should be retained at least for 24 hours.

Concrete Formwork Removal Specification:

During stripping of formwork, following points must be remembered:

  Formwork should not be removed until the concrete has developed sufficiently strength
to support all loads placed upon it. The time required before formwork removal depends
on the structural function of the member and the rate of strength gain of the concrete. The
grade of concrete, type of cement, water/cement ratio, temperature during curing etc.
influence the rate of strength gain of concrete.
 The formwork parts and connections should be arranged in a way that makes formwork
removal easy and simple, prevents damage to concrete and formwork panels so that it can
be reused without extensive repair.
 The formwork removal procedure should be supervised by the engineer to ensure that
quality of hardened concrete in structural member, i.e. it should be free from or has
minimum casting defects such as honeycombing, size and shape defects etc. These
defects in concrete influence the strength and stability of structure. Thus immediate repair
works can be done or the members can be rejected.
 The separation of forms should not be done by forcing crowbars against the concrete. It
may damage the hardened concrete. This should be achieved by using wooden wedges.
 Beam and joist bottoms should remain in place until final removal of all shoring under
them are done.
 Joist forms should be designed and removed so that the shores may be removed
temporarily to permit removal of joist forms but must be replaced at once. The shores and
joists will be dismantled beginning from the middle of the member’s span, continuing
symmetrically up the supports.
 The approval from the engineer should be obtained for the sequence and pattern of
formwork removal.

Reference:

 ACI (1995) In-place methods to estimate concrete strength. ACI 228.1R-95.

 ASTM (1987) Standard practice for estimating concrete strength by the maturity method.
ASTM C1074–87
 BS 8110 – code of practice for the structural use of concrete
 IS-456 – Plain and Reinforced Concrete – Code of Practice
Formwork (shuttering) in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which fresh
concrete is poured only to harden subsequently. Types of concrete formwork construction
depends on formwork material and type of structural element.

Formworks can also be named based on the type of structural member construction such as slab
formwork for use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork for use in beams and columns
respectively etc.

The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure upto 20 to 25% of the cost of
the structure or even more. Design of these temporary structures are made to economic
expenditure. The operation of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork
can be reused. Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary
forms.

Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber
formwork is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water impermeable cost to the
surface of wood mitigates these defects.

Table of Contents

 A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:

 Economy in Formwork
 Types of Formwork (Shuttering) for Concrete Construction:
 Timber Formwork:
o Normal sizes of members for timber formwork:
 Plywood Formwork
 Steel Formwork
o Steel forms compared with timber formwork:
 Construction of Concrete formwork:
 Order and Method of Removing Formwork:
 Table: Period of Removal of Formwork

A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:

1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
2. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and
vertically, so as to retain its shape.
3. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
4. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences
without damage to the concrete.
5. The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable for
reuse.
6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have plane
surface.
7. It should be as light as possible.
 8. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the
elements.
9. It should rest on firm base.

Economy in Formwork
The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of formwork:

1. The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in the size of
rooms, floor area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork repeatedly.
2. Design should be perfect to use slender sections only in a most economical way.
3. Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to enable reuse of the
material a number of times. The quantity of surface finish depends on the quality of the
formwork.

Formwork can be made out of timber, plywood, steel, precast concrete or fiberglass used
separately or in combination. Steel forms are used in situation where large numbers of re-use of
the same forms are necessary. For small works, timber formwork proves useful. Fibre glass made
of precast concrete and aluminium are used in cast-in-situ construction such as slabs or members
involving curved surfaces.

Types of Formwork (Shuttering) for Concrete Construction:

Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement:

It should be

1. well seasoned
2. light in weight
3. easily workable with nails without splitting
4. free from loose knots

Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and even surface on
all faces which come in contact with concrete.

Normal sizes of members for timber formwork:

Sheeting for slabs, beam, column side and beam bottom 25 mm to 40mm thick
Joints, ledges 50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150 mm
Posts 75 x 100mm to 100 x 100 mm
Plywood Formwork
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required sizes.
The cost of plywood formwork compares favourably with that of timber shuttering and it may
even prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the following considerations:

1. It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there.
2. By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labour cost of fixing and
dismantling.
3. Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation purpose,
number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.

Steel Formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small steel
angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts.
The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms
are largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the shuttering is
possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or curved structures.

Steel forms compared with timber formwork:

1. Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and their
reuses are more in number.
2. Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.
3. The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such surfaces
need no further treatment.
4. Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.
5. Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.

Construction of Concrete formwork:

This normally involves the following operations:

1. Propping and centring

2. Shuttering
3. Provision of camber
4. Cleaning and surface treatment

Order and Method of Removing Formwork:

The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:
 1. Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be
removed first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
2. Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.
3. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should be
removed in the end.

Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow early removal of
formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be allowed to be removed until all the
concrete reaches strength of atleast twice the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at
the time of removal of formwork. All formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in
order to prevent the load being suddenly transferred to concrete.

Figure 1 to 6 shows formwork for different types of members in civil engineering construction.

Figure 1(a): Details of timber formwork for RCC beam and slab floor
Figure 1(b): Details at section (A) shown in above figure
 Figure 2(a): Elevation

Figure 2(b): Details of timber formwork for circular RCC column

Figure 3(a): 150 3D View

 Figure 3(b): Details of timber formwork for square or rectangular RCC column

Figure 4: Sectional plan showing details of timber formwork for an octagonal column
Figure 5: Details of formwork for stair
 Figure 6: Timber formwork for RCC wall

Table: Period of Removal of Formwork

S. No. Description of structural member Time Period
1 Walls, columns and vertical sides of beams 1 to 2 days
2 Slabs (props left under) 3 days
3 Beam soffits (props left under) 7 days
Removal of props to slabs
4 (a) For slabs spanning upto 4.5 m 7 days
(b) For slabs spanning over 4.5 m 14 days
 Removal of props to beams and arches
5 (a) Spanning upto 6 m 14 days
(b) spanning over 6 m 21 days

Use of plastic formworks for concrete construction has many advantages such as durability, cost
and flexibility compared to other materials for concrete formworks.

Formworks are used to hold freshly placed concrete at its position until it attains enough strength
and with the help of formworks concrete can be easily manipulated and various shapes and forms
can be constructed.

There are different materials which may be used to manufacture formworks for example timber,
steel, and aluminum in addition to plastic that offer number of advantages compared to other
materials for example durability, cost effectiveness, and flexibility.

It is reported that, not only does the construction of formworks takes time but also spent about 20
to 25% of the total cost of the structure. It is one of the major factors that influence the success of
construction of any structure in terms of safety, cost, quality and speed.

It is for these advantages and benefits of plastic forms that will be discussed in the following
sections.
 Fig.1: Plastic Formwork for Concrete Construction

Table of Contents

 Objectives of Plastic Formworks in Concrete Construction

 Advantages of Plastic Formworks in Concrete Construction
 Plastic Formwork System
 Different Types of Commercially Available Plastic Formworks
o Siscon Plastic Formwork System
o Plastic Formworks for Walls
o Plastic Formworks for Floors
o Plastic Formworks for Column
o Nova Plastic Formwork System

Objectives of Plastic Formworks in Concrete Construction

Form work is not a permanent construction but it requires careful attention to avoid damages of
permanent construction. The formwork design and construction are controlled by three
principles:

 Safety: It depends on the formwork strength substantially. Life of labors and public
might be in danger if the formwork does not possess adequate strength.
  Quality: Concrete shape accuracy and the quality of final finished surface of concrete
element.
 Economy: The structural frame, which is the most critical factor during construction, is
most crucial cost component.

Advantages of Plastic Formworks in Concrete Construction

Formworks expend large labor force and total cost of the project that is why efforts have made to
introducing a formwork system that is cost effective and can be assembled, dismantled and
handled easily by labor.

There are several advantages provided by plastic formworks in concrete construction:

 Cost effective
 Labor friendly
 Eco friendly
 Low maintenance
 Versatile

Plastic Formwork System

It is manufactured from specific grade plastic that neither placed materials adhered to it nor
chemical reactions occur between poured materials and the plastic form and consequently there
will be no any patch on the surface of reinforced concrete element.

Water or freshly placed concrete leakages from different parts of the form is avoided because of
the perfect fitness of various parts of the system. Added to that, it is most labor friendly system
because not only does it fit and plugged easily but also it is considerably light weight compare
with other types of formwork systems.

Nailing and oiling plates are not required prior to concreting because of auto leveling of plugging
system that make plates level automatically and consequently it takes about 30% lesser time
during installing and dismantling compare with conventional form systems.

Additionally, after its utilization, the plastic forms can be cleaned with water easily and if it
breaks due to bad handling, low voltage hot air gun is used to seal it.

Other formwork materials such as wood, steel, aluminum produce various disadvantages which
might outweigh their benefits. For example, the application of wood is considerably costly and
create substantial environmental impacts due to deforestation.

With regard to aluminum formworks, it can be employed many times but its high cost makes it
as not very suitable option to use. In contrary, plastic forms can be recycled and it is
environmentally friendly in addition to reduce handling time and great reusability index.
Table-1 provides a comparison between plastic forms and other form types.

Table-1: Comparison Between Plastic, Traditional, And Steel Formworks

Plastic Traditional Steel

Items
formwork formwork formwork
Recycled 40% No 10%
Water resistant Yes No No
Deformation
No Yes Yes
condition
Stripping process Easy Moderate Difficult
Any size can
Size Restricted Restricted
supply
Corrosion
Excellent Bad Bad
resistant
More than
Availability time 8 times 100 times
100 times

Different Types of Commercially Available Plastic

Formworks
Siscon Plastic Formwork System

It is one type of commercially available plastic forms which can be used to construction various
structural elements such as walls, columns, and slabs. It provides substantial precision.

Plastic Formworks for Walls

It is used for the construction of boundary walls, retaining walls, shear walls, rainwater drains,
flood or storm drain walls, irrigation canals, and in concrete banking.
Fig.2: Wall Plastic Formwork Applications at Different Location of the Structure
 Fig.3: Plastic Formworks used for Wall Construction

Plastic Formworks for Floors

 Fig.4: Plastic Formwork for Concrete Floor Concrete

Fig.5: Plastic Formwork for Slab Construction

Plastic Formworks for Column

 Fig.6: Installation of Plastic Formwork for Column

Nova Plastic Formwork System

It is produced from composite plastic material and it is the only plastic form that can be
employed in both salt and fresh water without damage. Various application of NOVA plastic
forms are shown in Figure-7, Figure-8, and Figure-9.

Fig.7: Application of Nova Plastic Forms

Fig.8: Application of Nova Plastic Form in the Construction of Column

Fig.9: Use of Nova Plastic Form in Construction of Concrete Walls

Design and building concrete formwork effectively requires a basic understanding of how
concrete behaves as it exerts pressure on formwork. Concrete exerts lateral pressure on the
formwork. The formwork is designed based on these lateral forces.

Concrete Formwork Design Considerations

Lateral concrete pressure on formwork is affected by:

1. Height of concrete pour

2. Concrete pour rate
3. Weight of concrete
4. Temperature
5. Type of cement
6. Vibration
7. Concrete slump (water–cement ratio)
8. Chemical additives

1) Height of concrete pour: Before concrete hardens, it acts like a liquid and pushes against the
forms the way water presses against the walls of a storage tank. The amount of pressure at any
point on the form is directly determined by the height and weight of concrete above it. Pressure
is not affected by the thickness of the wall.

Fig: Lateral concrete pressure on formwork

2) Concrete pour rate: Concrete pressure at any point on the form is directly proportional to the
height of liquid concrete above it. If concrete begins to harden before the pour is complete, the
full liquid head will not develop and the pressure against the forms will be less than if the pour
were completed before any of concrete hardened.
Once concrete hardens it cannot exert more pressure on the forms even though liquid concrete
continues to be placed above it. The following diagrams illustrates how form pressure varies
when the pour rate is increased from one level to another level. For ease of explanation, it is
assumed that concrete hardens in one hour (typically) at 21°C.

Fig: Concrete pressure on formwork during hardening

When the pour rate is increased the pressure also increases as shown below:

Fig: Concrete pressure on formwork due to higher pour rate

3) Weight of Concrete: Pressure exerted against the forms is directly proportional to the unit
weight of concrete. Lightweight concrete will exert less pressure than normal weight concrete as
shown below:
 Fig: Pressure on formwork due to normal and lightweight concretes

4) Temperature: The time it takes concrete to harden is influenced greatly by its temperature.
The higher the temperature of the concrete, the quicker it will harden. Most formwork designs
are based on an assumed average air and concrete temperature of 21°C.

At low air temperatures, the hardening of concrete is delayed and you need to decrease your pour
rate or heat your concrete to keep the pressure against the formwork from increasing.

Ideally, concrete should be poured at temperatures between 16°C and 38°C. Outside this
temperature range there is often insufficient moisture available for curing. If adequate water for
curing is not available or freezes, the strength of the concrete will suffer.

5) Type of Cement: The cement type will influence the rate at which concrete hardens. A high
early strength concrete will harden faster than normal concrete and will allow a faster pour rate.
When using a cement which alters the normal set and hardening time, be sure to adjust the pour
rate accordingly.

6) Vibration: Internal vibration consolidates concrete and causes it to behave like the pure
liquid. If concrete is not vibrated, it will exert less pressure on the forms. ACI recommended
formulas for form pressures may be reduced 10% if the concrete is spaded rather than internally
vibrated. Re-vibration and external vibration result in higher form loads than internal vibration.
These types of vibration require specially designed forms.

7) Concrete Slump: When concrete has very low slump, it acts less like a liquid and will
transmit less pressure. When using concrete with a slump greater than 100 mm, the formwork
should be designed to resist full liquid head.

8) Chemical additives: When using chemical additives – i.e. retarders, plasticizers, etc. – make
sure to refer to the vendor’s application data.

Read More: Concrete Formwork Loads and Pressure Calculations

Measurements of formwork (shuttering) is required for payment to the contractor for the
concrete work completed. The payment to contractor depends on whether the cost is included
with the concrete construction per unit quantity or formwork is paid separately, as mentioned in
the conditions of contract.

The formwork is measured in terms of area that is in contact with the concrete surface.

Fig: Parts of Formworks for Beams and Slabs

For example, the formwork for concrete footing will be calculated as the surface area of four
sides of foundation only. Bottom of the footing is resting on earth, there is no need of any
formwork and top of footing is open.
 Fig: Pan and Elevation of RCC Footing

From the above footing plan and elevation, it can be seen that formwork area required will be

2 x (2 + 3) x 0.6 = 6 m2

Similarly, for a reinforced concrete beam, the measurement of formwork will be taken as the
combined surface area of two sides and bottom of the beam.

Table of Contents

 Issues in Formwork Measurements:

 Deduction of formwork area should not be taken for:
o Unit of Formwork Measurement:
o The measurements of formwork are carried out separately for each type of
concrete works such as following:

Issues in Formwork Measurements:

  Normally, the forms are used more than once in concrete construction. But the payment is
calculated based on the total contact area of the formwork with concrete and reuse of the
forms is not taken into account. Thus, the price per unit area of formwork can be reduced
for reuse of the forms. Aluminium and steel forms are reused for many number of times
than wooden forms.
 Complicated shape of concrete makes the formwork installation costlier than the simple
formwork installation because of labor cost and inability to reuse these forms.
 A construction plan is required to reuse the forms maximum number of times to make the
construction cost effective.

Deduction of formwork area should not be taken for:

 Intersection of beams
 Intersection of beams and columns and walls
 Any openings or cutouts in slabs

Unit of Formwork Measurement:

Formworks are measured in terms of area. So any unit such as square meter, square foot, square
centimetre can be adopted. But generally, square meter and square foot of the contact area with
concrete is taken as the unit of measurement. The dimensions of a formwork should be measure
correct to the centimetre or inches whichever the case may be.

Formworks are measured as just contact area, not area of formwork, as shown below:

Contact Area = 2h(L+B)

The measurements of formwork are carried out separately for each type of
concrete works such as following:

a) Foundations, footings, bases of columns etc. and for mass concrete and precast shelves.
b) Walls of any thickness including attached pilasters, buttresses, plinth and string courses etc.

c) Suspended floors, roofs, landings, shelves and their supports and balconies.

d) Lintels beams, girders and cantilevers

e) Columns, pillars, posts and struts.

f) Stairs (excluding landings) except Spiral Staircase

g) Spiral staircases (including landings)

h) Arches

i) Domes, vaults, shells roofs, archribs and folded plates

j) Chimneys and shafts

k) Well steining

l) Vertical and horizontal fins individually or forming box, louvers and bands

m) Waffle or ribbed slabs

n) Edges of slabs and breaks in floors and walls

o) Cornices and mouldings

Concrete formworks (shutterings) are required for fresh concrete constructions such as walls,
slabs, beams, columns, footings etc. Formworks requirements for different structural members
are different and they are named based on type of structural member.

Formwork (shuttering) is a temporary mould to provide support to fresh concrete when placed in
structural member until the concrete has set. This helps the structural member to gain sufficient
strength to carry its self-load and load from other members.

There are many types of structural formwork or shuttering based on its material, their use and
the type of structural members. They can be named based on that. However, core functioning of
the formwork remains the same.

Table of Contents

 Types of Formwork (Shuttering) Based on Structural Member:

o Footing Forms – Formworks for Foundation
o Column Forms – Formwork for Concrete Column Construction
o Wall Forms – Formwork for RCC Wall Construction
o Floor Forms – Formwork for construction of RCC Slabs

Types of Formwork (Shuttering) Based on Structural

Member:
Formworks are used in construction of reinforced concrete foundations, columns, slabs, walls
etc., and these are named as follows:

 Footing Forms – Formworks for foundation

 Column Forms – Formwork for RCC Column construction
 Wall Forms – Formwork for RCC wall construction
 Floor Forms – Formwork for construction of RCC Slabs

Footing Forms – Formworks for Foundation

The first step for any concrete construction starts with the construction of foundation. Foundation
can be for columns or walls. So, based on type of structural member, the shape and size of
footing are designed. Thus formwork size and shape depends on the type and dimension of the
footing.
Components of Footing Forms:

Fig: Components of Footing Formwork – For Shallow Footing – Continuous Footing

Formwork

Column Forms – Formwork for Concrete Column Construction

Reinforced concrete column forms are subjected to lateral pressure because of their small cross
section, large heights and relatively high rates of concrete placement. Thus It is necessary to
provide tight joints and strong tie support to the formwork.
As the sizes of concrete column increases, the stiffness of the formwork must be increased by
either increasing thickness of sheathing or vertical stiffeners must be added to prevent sheathing
deflection.

Wall Forms – Formwork for RCC Wall Construction

Formwork for wall construction are subjected to relatively lower lateral pressure than column
forms due to their large cross-sectional area.

The components of wall forms are:

 Panel sheathing – It is used to shape the wall and retain the concrete until it sets.
 Studs – to support the sheathing or Wales by forming a framework to keep the forms
aligned and support the studs.
 Braces – It is used to prevent deflection of forms under lateral pressure and keep the
formwork erect.
 Ties and spreaders – These are used to hold the sides of the forms at the correct spacing.
 Fig: Components of a Wall Formwork

Floor Forms – Formwork for construction of RCC Slabs

Formwork for reinforced concrete slabs depends on the type of slabs to be constructed. The floor
slabs can be structural slabs supported on a steel or concrete structural frame, or slab-on-grade.

The design of formwork varies with the type of slab.

Structural Slab Formwork assembly is carried out as follows:

 Positioning of the girder or beam form at the bottom.

 Girder side forms overlaps the bottom form and rests on the shore heads and the sides of
the column form.
 Side forms is held in place by ledger strips nailed to the shore heads with double-headed
nails.
 Larger girders should have the side forms vertically stiffened to prevent buckling.
 When constructing the girder and beam forms each part must be removed without
disturbing the remainder of the form; strike-off formwork will commence with the beam
and girder sides, followed later by the column forms, and finally by the beam and gird
bottoms.
 Fig: Structural Slab Formwork Components

Slab-on-Grade Forms are forms for concrete slabs placed on grade. These slab formworks are
usually quite simple as concrete is placed on compacted earth or gravel leveled base. Thus no
support is required for concrete at the bottom.

Fig: Components of a Slab-on-Grade Slab Formwork

Slab-on-Grade Formwork assembly is carried out as follows:

 Plank, plywood, or steel forms are used for forming / supporting the open edges of
concrete.
 These forms are held in place by supporting with wooden pegs.
  The reinforcement in slab (if specified in the structural drawing) should be placed on its
proper location according to the drawing on chairs, bolsters, and spacers made of either
metal or concrete.
 If the slab is to be casted in sections, construction joints must be provided between them,
which will transmit shear from one to the other. The details of construction joints should
be followed as per structural drawing.

A safe practice for formwork during construction at site is important for safety of workmen.
Improper erection of formwork can cause damage to structural element as well as pose threat to
the safety of workmen.

Following are the safe practices checklist for formwork:

Formwork Safety Checklist during Design:

1. Formwork should be properly designed for the structural element considered and its working
drawing should be available at site.

2. Design of formwork should consider all the loads it will experience during casting of concrete
structural members.

3. Strength of materials used for formwork should be adequate to support structural load as well
as other loads imposed on it.

4. Formwork design should indicate the rate of concrete pour, height of concrete pour,
temperature and sequence and schedule of concrete pours.

5. Working drawing of formwork should have detailed dimensions including pouring pocket
size, compaction opening and cleanouts.

6. Formwork design should consider the safe bearing capacity of soil.

Formwork Safety Checklist during Construction:
Following inspection should be carried out before starting the concreting of structural member:

1. Inspection of entire formwork system for details from bottom to top of formwork for proper
load transfer in safe manner.

2. Inspection of working scaffolds, ladders, runways, ramps and crossings.

3. Maintenance of good housekeeping around working area and passage.

4. Guarding of peripheral edges and floor openings.

5. Adequate space for safe working.

6. Safety training of workmen involved in formwork and concreting works.

7. Use of all personal protective equipment (PPEs).

8. Formwork, rigging inserts and connections checked for correct installation and periodically
checked for wear and correct position.

9. Removal of all unused and hanging forms, loose materials etc. stored on exposed floors.

10. Inspection of all props and shores for adequacy to handle all the loads.
11. Removal of defective props.

12. Alignment of props such as verticality, height and spacing between props should be
inspected.

13. All props should be rested on bearing plates.

14. Props should be placed on hard bearing surface.

15. Safe nailing and firm locking of clamps on adjustable props.

16. Lateral stability of formwork and complete fixity at the joint between props when one prop is
placed on the top of the other.

17. Proper bearing below the stringers and joists at points of supports.

18. De-shuttering and removal of props below concrete slabs and beams after development of
adequate strength in concrete.

19. Construction loads not placed on freshly cast slab or beams while removal of formwork or
before concrete attaining required strength.

There can be many more checklists for formwork which has not been written here. If you think
any addition has to be made, please write those in comments.

You can also download this document for formwork safe practices

Compressive strength of concrete cube test provides an idea about all the characteristics of
concrete. By this single test one judge that whether Concreting has been done properly or not.
Concrete compressive strength for general construction varies from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30
MPa (4400 psi) and higher in commercial and industrial structures.

Compressive strength of concrete depends on many factors such as water-cement ratio, cement
strength, quality of concrete material, quality control during production of concrete etc.

Test for compressive strength is carried out either on cube or cylinder. Various standard codes
recommends concrete cylinder or concrete cube as the standard specimen for the test. American
Society for Testing Materials ASTM C39/C39M provides Standard Test Method for
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
Table of Contents

 Compressive Strength Definition

 Compressive Strength Formula
 Procedure: Compressive Strength Test of Concrete Cubes
o Apparatus for Concrete Cube Test
o Preparation of Concrete Cube Specimen
o Mixing of Concrete for Cube Test
o Sampling of Cubes for Test
o Curing of Cubes
o Precautions for Tests
o Procedure for Concrete Cube Test
 Calculations of Compressive Strength
o Reports of Cube Test
o Results of Concrete Cube Test
 Compressive Strength of Concrete at Various Ages
 Compressive Strength of Different Grades of Concrete at 7 and 28 Days

Compressive Strength Definition

Compressive strength is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its surface
without any crack or deflection. A material under compression tends to reduce the size, while in
tension, size elongates.

Compressive Strength Formula

Compressive strength formula for any material is the load applied at the point of failure to the
cross-section area of the face on which load was applied.

Compressive Strength = Load / Cross-sectional Area

Procedure: Compressive Strength Test of Concrete Cubes

For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15cm X 15cm X 15cm or 10cm X 10cm x
10cm depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical moulds of
size 15cm x 15cm x 15cm are commonly used.
This concrete is poured in the mould and tempered properly so as not to have any voids. After 24
hours these moulds are removed and test specimens are put in water for curing. The top surface
of these specimen should be made even and smooth. This is done by putting cement paste and
spreading smoothly on whole area of specimen.

These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or 28 days
curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the Specimens
fails. Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete.

Following are the procedure for testing Compressive strength of Concrete Cubes

Apparatus for Concrete Cube Test

Compression testing machine

Preparation of Concrete Cube Specimen

The proportion and material for making these test specimens are from the same concrete used in
the field.

Specimen

6 cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above

Mixing of Concrete for Cube Test

Mix the concrete either by hand or in a laboratory batch mixer

Hand Mixing

1. Mix the cement and fine aggregate on a water tight none-absorbent platform until the
mixture is thoroughly blended and is of uniform color
2. Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse
aggregate is uniformly distributed throughout the batch
3. Add water and mix it until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the desired
consistency

Sampling of Cubes for Test

1. Clean the mounds and apply oil

2. Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5 cm thick
3. Compact each layer with not less than 35 strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel bar
16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end)
4. Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel

Curing of Cubes

The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period the specimens are
marked and removed from the molds and kept submerged in clear fresh water until taken out
prior to test.

Precautions for Tests

The water for curing should be tested every 7 days and the temperature of water must be at 27+-
2oC.

Procedure for Concrete Cube Test

1. Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water
from the surface.
2. Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
3. Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
4. Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the
opposite sides of the cube cast.
5. Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
6. Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the
specimen.
7. Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140
kg/cm2/minute till the specimen fails
8. Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.

Note:
Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If strength of any specimen
varies by more than 15 percent of average strength, results of such specimen should be rejected.
Average of three specimens gives the crushing strength of concrete. The strength requirements of
concrete.

Calculations of Compressive Strength

Size of the cube =15cmx15cmx15cm

Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen )=225 cm2

Characteristic compressive strength(f ck)at 7 days =

Expected maximum load =fck x area x f.s

Range to be selected is …………………..

Similar calculation should be done for 28 day compressive strength

Maximum load applied =……….tones = ………….N

Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm2)=……………N/mm2

=……………………….N/mm2

Reports of Cube Test

1. Identification mark
2. Date of test
3. Age of specimen
4. Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen
5. Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and the type of fracture if they are unusual

Results of Concrete Cube Test

Average compressive strength of the concrete cube = ………….N/ mm2 (at 7 days)

Average compressive strength of the concrete cube =………. N/mm2 (at 28 days)

Compressive Strength of Concrete at Various Ages

The strength of concrete increases with age. Table shows the strength of concrete at different
ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting.

Age Strength percent

1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%

Compressive Strength of Different Grades of Concrete at 7

and 28 Days
Grade of Minimum compressive strength Specified characteristic compressive
Concrete N/mm2 at 7 days strength (N/mm2) at 28 days
M15 10 15
M20 13.5 20
M25 17 25
M30 20 30
M35 23.5 35
M40 27 40
M45 30 45