ABSTRACT

NAAC is the concrete which is light in weight that is used as an alternative

construction material in modern world. The purpose of this investigation is to
construct Geopolymer based NAAC blocks to replace ACC blocks. The autoclaving
process give rise to crystallization and thus high compressive strength, the process is
extremely energy intensive. Eliminating autoclaving would save significant energy.
Thus, the project goal is to develop a form of concrete with a high strength-to-density
ratio, high compressive strength with the elimination of autoclaving. Geopolymer
Non-autoclave lightweight flyash blocks is formed by using fly ash, cement, lime,
GGBS, aluminum powder and Geopolymer Solution. Fly ash is a waste material that
collects from the coal used thermal power industries that can be utilized in NAAC.
Geopolymer solution not only makes the flyash reactive which gives cementitious
properties to it but also gives appearance like OPC with potentially superior
properties, including reduced CO2 emissions. In this research different molar
geopolymer solution had been investigated to obtain higher compressive strength,
high molarity gives high strength to the NAAC but it directly increase the cost of
blocks too. On lower molarity light weight blocks are cheaper but compressive
strength was also reduced so for increasing compressive strength we had investigated
materials like High alumina cement, GGBS, micro silica, Fe2O3, rice husk ash which
can increase the strength in NAAC and results are discussed in report. Based on
investigations and understanding, water to dry substances ratio is taken as 0.60 for dry
flyash and 0.35 for wet flyash. The dry density, water inclusion and compressive
strength of blocks are acquired at various percentage of aluminum powder, cement,
geopolymer solution. Mixing of aluminium powder lessen the weight, density and the
compressive force of the blocks. Further investigations had been carried out to find
suitable and cheap curing regime as autoclaving is not used in this project. From this
research it is determined that, the blocks made with geopolymer based non-autoclave
aerated concrete are higher than the AAC blocks in terms of compressive strength and
it also gives low shrinkage as compared to AAC blocks . Based on observations we
conclude that the potential for our prototype is great and may revolutionize the
concrete industry in the foreseeable future.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................. i
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................. ii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... vi
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................1
1.1 GENERAL...........................................................................................................1
1.2 GEOPOLYMERS ................................................................................................2
1.3 ADVANTAGES OF GEO POLYMER NON AUTO-CLAVE FLY ASH
LIGHT WEIGHT BLOCKS ......................................................................................3
1.4 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF WORK ...........................................................6
1.5 OUTLINE ............................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................8
LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................8
2.1 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................8
2.2 AIR ENTRAINMENT ......................................................................................10
2.2.1 AIR ENTRAINING AGENTS ...................................................................11
2.2.2 FOAMING AGENTS .................................................................................15
2.2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE AMOUNT OF AIR ENTRAINED ......15
2.3 CELLULAR CONCRETE ................................................................................20
2.3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR CONCRETES ..................................20
2.3.2 CURING......................................................................................................20
2.3.3 USES OF CELLULAR CONCRETE .........................................................21
2.4 GEOPOLYMERS ..............................................................................................23
2.4.1 CONSTITUENTS OF GEOPOLYMER .....................................................25
CHAPTER 3 ...............................................................................................................28
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ......................................................................28
3.1 MATERIALS USED .........................................................................................28
3.1.1 FLY ASH ....................................................................................................28
3.1.2 MICROSILICA ...........................................................................................30
3.1.3 COLOR .......................................................................................................31
3.1.4 GGBS ..........................................................................................................33
3.1.5 RICE HUSK ASH .......................................................................................34

ii
 3.1.6 ALUMINIUM POWDER ...........................................................................35
3.1.7 SODIUM CARBONATE ............................................................................36
3.1.8 HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT......................................................................36
3.1.9 FIBRES .......................................................................................................37
3.1.10 GEOPOLYMER SAND ............................................................................37
3.1.11 ALKALINE ACTIVATOR USING SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH)
AND SODIUM SILICATE (Na2SiO3) SOLUTION ..........................................38
3.1.12 WATER.....................................................................................................38
3.2 TRIAL MIXES ..................................................................................................39
3.3 OPTIMIZATION OF NA2SIO3 TO NaOH RATIO ........................................41
3.4 SELECTION OF DRY MIX CONSTITUENTS ..............................................41
3.5 SELECTION OF LIQUID TO DRY MIX RATIO ...........................................42
3.6 SELECTION OF CURING REGIME ...............................................................43
3.7 MANUFACTURE OF LIGHT WEIGHT NON-AUTOCLAVE FLYASH
BLOCK ....................................................................................................................45
3.7.1 PROCESS FLOW CHART .........................................................................45
3.7.2 DETAILED PROCESS ...............................................................................46
3.8 TESTING OF LIGHT WEIGHT BLOCKS ......................................................49
3.8.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST .........................................................49
3.8.2 WATER ABSORPTION TEST ..................................................................51
3.8.3 SHRINKAGE TEST ...................................................................................52
CHAPTER 4 ...............................................................................................................53
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................53
4.1 COMPRESSION TEST .....................................................................................53
4.1.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND DRY DENSITY ON OVEN
HEATING ............................................................................................................53
4.1.2 NATURAL HEATING .............................................................................58
4.2 WATER ABSORBTION TEST ........................................................................73
4.3 SHRINKAGE TEST..........................................................................................75
CHAPTER 5 ...............................................................................................................77
CONCLUSIONS.........................................................................................................77
CHAPTER 6 ...............................................................................................................80
FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK ....................................................................................80
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................81

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 The basic chemical nature of surfactants (Myers, 1992) ..............................11

Figure 2 Distribution of surfactant molecules at the air-water interface (Du and
Folliard, 2005).............................................................................................................13
Figure 3 Interaction between air bubbles and cement particles (Du and Folliard,
2005) ...........................................................................................................................14
Figure 4 Flyash used in this project ............................................................................30
Figure 5 XRF of microsilica .......................................................................................30
Figure 6 Micro silica used in this project....................................................................31
Figure 9 Red color used in this Project .......................................................................31
Figure 7 XRF of Red color .........................................................................................32
Figure 8 XRF of yellow Color ....................................................................................32
Figure 10 XRF of GGBS ............................................................................................33
Figure 11 GGBS used in this project ..........................................................................34
Figure 12 Aluminium powder used in this project .....................................................35
Figure 13 Sodium carbonate used in this project ........................................................36
Figure 14 High alumina cement used in this project ..................................................36
Figure 15 Fibres used in this project ...........................................................................37
Figure 16 Geopolymer sand used in this project ........................................................37
Figure 17 Cube 100 mm .............................................................................................40
Figure 18 Fresh mix filled in mould ...........................................................................40
Figure 19 Oven heating of cubes ................................................................................43
Figure 20 Sun heating of cubes and beam ..................................................................44
Figure 21 Water curing of Blocks ...............................................................................44
Figure 22 Matured Geopolymer solution mixed with microsilica ..............................46
Figure 24 Hand held mixer .........................................................................................47
Figure 23 (A) Initial foaming of concrete mix, (B) Pore distributions of Aluminium
entrained samples after a 7-day cure. ..........................................................................47
Figure 25 Direct Sun heating for cubes ......................................................................48
Figure 26 Oven cured block at 80 degree for 16 hr ...................................................48
Figure 27 Sprinkle Water Curing of blocks followed by sun heating ........................49

iv
Figure 28 Compression testing machine for 150 mm cube ........................................50
Figure 29 Compression testing machine for 100 mm and 70.6 mm cube ..................50
Figure 30 Light weight block floating in water Figure 31 Blocks submerged in water
.....................................................................................................................................51
Figure 32 Change in Dimension readings by digital Vernier caliper .........................52
Figure 33 Graph for Compressive Strength Vs molarity (on oven heating) ...............57
Figure 34 Natural sun drying ......................................................................................58
Figure 35 Graph for Variation of compressive strength (Mpa ) depending upon
Molarity and GGBS (% replacement of Flyash).........................................................65
Figure 36 Graph for Trial T23 between Compressive Strength and Curing regime ..68
Figure 37 Graph for Variation of compressive strength (Mpa ) depending upon
Molarity and Cement percentage on oven dry ............................................................71
Figure 38 Graph of Variation in compressive strength(Mpa) from different modes of
curing On 2 molar solution .........................................................................................71
Figure 39 Curve for Compressive strength (Mpa) vs Density (kg/m3) ......................72
Figure 40 Graph for Water Absorption and Density ..................................................74
Figure 41 Process graph by Taghuchi method ............................................................76

v
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Chemical composition of fly ash ...................................................................... 28
Table 3.2 Physical properties of fly ash ........................................................................... 29
Table 3.3 Chemical analysis of Rice husk ash ................................................................. 35
Table 3.4 Trial mix ........................................................................................................... 41
Table 4.1 Trial 1 ............................................................................................................... 53
Table 4.2 Trial 2 ............................................................................................................... 54
Table 4.3 Trial 3 ............................................................................................................... 54
Table 4.4 Trial 4 ............................................................................................................... 55
Table 4.5 Trial 5 ............................................................................................................... 55
Table 4.6 Trial 6 ............................................................................................................... 56
Table 4.7 Trial 7 ............................................................................................................... 56
Table 4.8 Trial 8 ............................................................................................................... 59
Table 4.9 Trial 9 ............................................................................................................... 59
Table 4.10 Trial 10 ........................................................................................................... 60
Table 4.11 Trial 11 ........................................................................................................... 60
Table 4.12 Trial 12 ........................................................................................................... 61
Table 4.13 Trial 13 ........................................................................................................... 62
Table 4.14 Trial 14 ........................................................................................................... 62
Table 4.15 Trial 15 ........................................................................................................... 63
Table 4.16 Trial 16 ........................................................................................................... 63
Table 4.17 Trial 17 ........................................................................................................... 64
Table 4.18 Trial 18 ........................................................................................................... 64
Table 4.19 Trial 19 ........................................................................................................... 65
Table 4.20 Trial 20 ........................................................................................................... 66
Table 4.21 Trial 21 ........................................................................................................... 66
Table 4.22 Trial 22 ........................................................................................................... 67
Table 4.23 Trial 23 ........................................................................................................... 67
Table 4.24 Trial 24 ........................................................................................................... 69
Table 4.25 Trial 25 ........................................................................................................... 70
Table 4.26 Trial 26 ........................................................................................................... 70
Table 4.27 Water absorption Test .................................................................................... 73
Table 4.28 Shrinkage Test ................................................................................................ 75

vi
 ABBREVIATIONS

AAC- Autoclave Aerated Concrete

ACI - American Concrete Institute

AEA- Air Entraining Agents

ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials

CM – Calcium Hydroxide

FA – Fly Ash

GGBS – Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag

GBFS - Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

GNAAC- Geopolymer based Non-Autoclave Aerated Concrete

HCL – Hydrogen Chloride

M - Molarity

M-sand - Manufactured Sand

MgO- Magnesium Oxide

NAAC- Non Autoclave Aerated concrete

NTPC - National Thermal Power Plant

NAOH - Sodium hydroxide

OPC- Ordinary Portland Cement

RHA - Rice Husk Ash

STC - Sound Transmission Class

XRF- X-ray fluorescence

vii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

In a world that is ever changing, nothing is too good to be improved upon. Design
methods, codes, and design standards are constantly being updated to account for
technological advancements in certain areas and engineers are heading the charge by
constantly striving for efficiency in all aspects of engineering. When one strives
towards efficiency, one uses minimum resources to make the impossible possible. For
instance, building materials, in particular construction materials, are the foundation of
civil engineering. Therefore, in order to be efficient one should use efficient
construction material. As brick constitutes a very large portion of a typical building. It
is therefore reasonable to start looking at efficient construction material. Lightweight
non-autoclave concrete block is a type of concrete block that can be considered as an
energy efficient construction material. Some of the properties of NAAC blocks which
make it an attractive alternative to normal density brick are reduced weight, lower
coefficient of thermal conductivity, the use of less materials, etc. These “improved”
properties open a wide range of possible applications for the brick. Now-a-days
aerated concrete is an innovative construction material employ in a construction
industry 60% to 80% of its volume contains pore space. The properties like strength,
durability, toughness, heat transfer and wetness convey are get affected by the pore
dimension and micro structure. This porous material will provide high acoustic
insulation and thermal insulation functions. However, due to increased pores the
compressive strength of cubes reduces. It is low weight than the conventional clay
bricks with a dry density ranging between 600 kg/m3 to 1600 kg/m3. On the basis of
method of curing, aerated concrete can be of two types which are autoclaved aerated
concrete (AAC) and non-autoclaved aerated concrete (NAAC).
Traditionally, aerated concrete is autoclaved in order to achieve the high compressive
strength necessary for structural use. While the high temperatures and pressures from

1
the autoclaving process give rise to crystallization and thus high compressive
strength, the process is extremely energy intensive. Eliminating autoclaving would
save significant energy, but other methods would need to be employed to maintain
good compressive strength. Thus, the project goal was to develop a form of concrete
with a high strength-to-density ratio, high compressive strength with the elimination
of autoclaving. In this research, focus has been through on non-autoclaved concrete
(NAAC) in which oven, sun and water curing of blocks has been done and for
reducing the percentage of cement and increasing the strength Geo polymer has been
used which makes the fly ash more reactive and which in further increases the
compressive strength of the Blocks. Non autoclaved aerated concrete can be created
either by using foaming agent or by with air entraining mediator. In this research,
aluminium powder has been used as an air entraining agent. Aerated concrete is
obtained by a chemical reaction that takes place in a fresh mortar. The effect of
aluminum powder with the hydroxide of calcium and alkali from cement and lime
releases hydrogen, which causes bubbles in the mixture. The bubbles enlarge the
mixture and blocks augments. The hardened Blocks contains voids left by the
reaction.

1.2 GEOPOLYMERS
The term ‘geopolymer’ was first introduced by Davidovits in 1978 to describe a
family of mineral binders with chemical composition similar to zeolites but with an
amorphous microstructure. Unlike ordinary Portland/pozzolanic cements,
geopolymers do not form calcium- silicate-hydrates (CSHs) for matrix formation and
strength, but utilise the polycondensation of silica and alumina precursors to attain
structural strength. Two main constituents of geopolymers are: source materials and
alkaline liquids. The source materials on alumino-silicate should be rich in silicon (Si)
and aluminium (Al). They could be by-product materials such as fly ash, silica fume,
slag, rice-husk ash, red mud, etc. Geopolymers are also unique in comparison to other
aluminosilicate materials (e.g. aluminosilicate gels, glasses, and zeolites). The
concentration of solids in geopolymerisation is higher than in aluminosilicate gel or
zeolite synthesis.Substances like low calcium fly ash (class F) containing silica and
alumina undergo dissolution in an alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium

2
silicate to form polymeric Si-O-Al-O bonds. The alumina-silicate network so formed
are called geo polymers. A number of materials apart from fly ash can be used as
pozzolanic material to react with the alkaline activator, including kaolin or clay,
microsilicas and bottom ash. The final properties of geo polymeric materials depend
on a number of factors, e.g. the effect of chemical activators and other materials, their
proportioning, curing regime, etc. Hence research on geopolymers offers a wide scope
for using a number of combinations of the relevant variables involved and finding one
that gives the optimum results.

1.3 ADVANTAGES OF GEO POLYMER NON AUTO-CLAVE

FLY ASH LIGHT WEIGHT BLOCKS

Now-a-days the demand for construction material is continuously increasing with the
increase in buildings for housing and commercial purposes in both urban and rural
areas. The resources used to manufacture large amount of construction materials have
the adverse effect on environment and human health by depleting the natural
resources, using energy and creating pollution. These NAAC blocks developed by
using fly ash and geo polymers will helps in reducing the problem of disposing fly ash
Further, these light weight aerated concrete blocks helps in easy transport and faster
construction and reduction in dead load. NAAC is a green building material, possess
excellent thermal insulating properties, good sound absorber and can also be used as a
decorative material. Some of the key advantages of light weight blocks are-

1. Fire Resistant
Depending upon the thickness of the Non-Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (NAAC)
Blocks, they offer fire resistance from 2 hours up to 6 hours. These blocks are highly
suitable for the areas where fire safety is of great priority.

2. Pest Resistant
It consists of the inorganic material in its constitution that helps preventing/avoiding
termites, damages or losses.

3. Sound Proof
The porous structure of the blocks results into enhanced sound absorption. The Sound
Transmission Class (STC) rating of the AAC blocks up to 45 db. Thus, these blocks

3
have been the most ideal material for the construction of walls in auditorium, hotels,
hospitals, studios, etc.

4. Earthquake Resistant
The light weight property of the blocks results into higher steadiness of the blocks in
the structure of the buildings. As the impact of the earthquake is directly proportional
to the weight of the building, the building constructed using these blocks are more
reliable and safer

5. Faster Construction
As this block is very easy to handle, manipulate and use ordinary tools for cutting the
wood such as the drill, band saws, etc. could be easily used to cut and align these
blocks. Moreover, these blocks come with larger sizes and fewer joints. This
ultimately results in faster construction work as the installation time is significantly
reduced due to fewer amounts of blocks and the masonry amount involved is also
lowered resulting into reduced time-to-finish.

6. Long Lasting
NAAC blocks are highly superior in terms of the strength. Higher level of strength of
these blocks gives higher stability to the structure of the building.

7. Cost Saving
NAAC block weighs almost around 80% less as compared to the conventional red
brick ultimately resulting into great reduction of deadweight. Further, the reduced
deadweight results into reduction of the use of cement and steel which helps great in
cost savings.

8. Versatile
NAAC Blocks have an attractive appearance and is readily adaptable to any style of
architecture. Almost any design can be achieved with AAC.

9. Non-toxic

Non-Autoclaved Aerated Concrete products do not contain any toxic gas substances.
The product does not harbor or encourage vermin.

4
10. Thermal Insulation
These blocks have exceptional thermal insulating qualities. The thermal conductivity
of these blocks helps maintaining the inner temperature to be warm during the winters
and cool during the summers which ultimately leads to savings in air conditioning
load and consequently enhanced energy efficiency.

11. Environment Friendly

This block is a non-toxic product which does not pollute the air, land or water. During
the manufacturing process, waste from the cutting process is recycled back with raw
materials and used again. During construction, there is virtually no waste generated.
The energy consumed in the production process is only a fraction compared to the
production of other materials. The manufacturing process emits no pollutants and
creates no by-products or toxic waste products. The finished product is twice the
volume of the raw materials used, making it extremely resource-efficient and
environmentally friendly.

12. Lightweight
One of the biggest features of these blocks is its light weight. These blocks possess a
cellular structure created during manufacturing process. Millions of tiny air cells
impart these blocks very light weight structure. Density of these lightweight blocks
usually ranges between 650 –1150 kg/m³ making them lighter than water.

13. Perfect Size and Shape

The process of manufacturing these Blocks ensures constant and consistent
dimensions. Factory finished blocks provide a uniform base for economical
application of a variety of finishing systems. Internal walls can be finished by direct
P.O.P., thus eliminating the need of plastering.

14. High Compressive Strength

The block has an average compressive strength of (3-5) N/mm³ which is superior to
most types of light weight blocks, 25% stronger than other products of the same
density.

5
1.4 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF WORK

The use of geopolymeric materials for non-autoclave flyash Lightweight block

manufacture is entirely new concept. A majority of researches who worked on light
weight non-auto clave block has used water which results in increase time of curing
ie. Slow strength development and less compressive strength as compared to Auto
clave aerated concrete block .Many Research compromised with the duralability as
compared to autoclave aerated concrete since much of these researches do not provide
a commercially viable solution for NAAC manufacture, this research has followed a
methodology driven towards better economy of NAAC manufacture. Following are
the objectives of this research:

1. Develop a method for the preparation of fly ash based geopolymer non
autoclave blocks of acceptable standards which is simple in nature and economically
viable.

2. Minimize the cost and energy of production of the blocks (without

compromising on quality) by using lowest possible molarity of alkaline solution,
inclusion of additives if necessary and finding an economical curing regime.
3. Testing of said blocks for compressive strength, shrinkage, water
absorption and chemical composition among others and ensure that minimum
standards are maintained.

1.5 OUTLINE
This Thesis is Comprised of Six chapters. The remainder of the Report is arranged as
follows:

Chapter 2: Literature Review, briefly describes past research in field of non-autoclave

light weight block, geopolymers and the development of geopolymeric materials
using different constituents, various factors involved in deciding the final properties,
manufacture of bricks using geopolymers, etc.

Chapter 3: Experimental Investigation, describes the properties of materials used and

experimental program carried out for the selection of constituents, to develop and

6
optimize the mixture proportions, the mixing process, preparation of blocks and the
curing regime. The tests performed to study the behaviour and the short-term
engineering properties of the blocks are also described.

Chapter 4: Experimental Results and Observations, details of the outcomes of the

present study have been dealt with thoroughly and discussions are carried out on the
same.

Chapter 5: Conclusions, state the summary and the conclusions of this study

Chapter 6: Scope for future work .The report end with a reference list.

7
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Air entrainment is the process whereby many small air bubbles are incorporated into
concrete and become part of the matrix that binds the aggregate together in the
hardened concrete. In America, this process was accidentally discovered in the 1930s
when it was observed that certain concrete pavements were more durable and frost
damage resistant than other concretes (Dodson (1990)). A further study revealed that
the cement used for these concrete pavements was manufactured with grinding aids,
which acted as an air entrainer. After the discovery of air entrainment in concrete,
research was dedicated into the effects of air entrainment in concrete. This gave rise
to the development of air entraining agents (AEA). Research into air entrainment in
concrete revealed that some of the benefits include improved workability of the
concrete mix in the fresh state, reduced bleeding, increase in the yield, and improved
durability of concrete to frost damage.The most important reason for air entrainment
in concrete is for durability purposes. The inclusion of air voids in the concrete,
especially when the concrete can be subjected to freezing conditions, provides
resistance to freeze-thaw cycles. This topic was investigated by many researchers but
the work of Powers was considered significant in this field. Powers (1954) proposed a
procedure for mix designing of air entrained concrete based on the spacing factor. The
spacing factor can be considered as the average distance between air voids in the
cement paste. The bases of the design method rested on Powers’ belief in the
existence of a “thin” shell around an air void in the cement paste in which expansion
cannot take place and if these shells were to overlap the paste would be protected
against expansion. This inability of the paste to expand ensures freeze-thaw
resistance.

Another reason for air entrainment in concrete is the fact that certain properties can be
altered to suit certain purposes. An example of this is the production of cellular

8
concrete. Cellular concrete is produced when the coarse aggregate is omitted from
normal concrete and entraining 20 per cent or more air by volume into the concrete.
The advantages of cellular concrete include a low thermal coefficient of thermal
conductivity and a low self-weight. Cellular concrete is classified as lightweight
concrete and is normally not used for its structural resistance but rather for its low
self-weight and low thermal conductivity compared to normal concrete. Cellular
concrete has a low compressive strength when wet or dry curing is used. Hence, the
use of cellular concrete has been limited to non-structural applications.

However, if cellular concrete is subjected to autoclaving, the concrete yields sufficient

compressive strength to be used for structural applications. Autoclaving is a process
whereby the concrete is cured at high temperature and pressure in a chamber called
the autoclave. Unfortunately autoclaving can only be done in laboratories and
factories and it needs lot of energy also, thus, the structural applications of cellular
concrete are confined to precast units.

Short and Kinniburgh (1963) and Rudnai (1963) discussed the uses of cellular
concrete in detail. The common theme between the different authors is that the uses of
cellular concrete can be classified into two categories: (1) in-situ and (2) precast. For
in-situ application cellular concrete is normally used as an insulating material for
roofs, pipelines and cold stores. For the second case, precast units are made from
cellular concrete. Typical precast units are floor slabs, roof slabs, partitions, and
cladding. These units can be reinforced with steel but the steel should be protected
against deterioration.

Normally when non-autoclaving curing conditions are used the concrete yields
compressive strengths that make it impossible for the concrete to be classified as
structural but now that the world is moving in an energy efficient direction, and is
looking for alternative ways to dispose/use waste products, large utilization of powder
fly-ash, a waste product generated by form coal-fired power station, has become
popular as a filler replacement in the concrete mix. Utilization of fly-ash in cellular
concrete makes it possible for the concrete to yield sufficient strength to be classified
as structural. The fact that fly-ash increases the strength of cellular concrete is rather
counterintuitive because the addition of fly-ash in normal weight concrete decreases

9
the early age strength of the concrete. Two reasons exist for this increase in concrete
strength: (1) the particle size of the fly-ash is small and it has been reported by
numerous authors that the use of fine filler yields greater concrete strength to density
ratios, (2) the fly-ash reacts with the products of cement hydration and forms products
with cementing properties.Now that there is renewed interest in the structural ability
of cellular concrete a mix design methodology needs to be developed for aerated
concrete made with an arbitrary air entraining agent. Therefore, the literature review
is structured so as to give the reader background knowledge on how air entrainment is
achieved in cellular concrete, mechanisms that govern air entrainment and factors that
affect the amount of air entrained in concrete. The literature review then concludes
with a brief overview of the uses of cellular concrete in the industry.

2.2 AIR ENTRAINMENT

Air entrainment is the process whereby many small air bubbles are incorporated into
concrete and become part of the matrix that binds the aggregate together in the
hardened concrete (Ramachandran, 1984, p.269). The air bubbles are dispersed
throughout the hardened cement paste but are not, part of the paste. Air entrainment
may be accomplished by the use of an air-entraining agent (AEA) that forms part of
the group called concrete admixtures. Air entrainment can also be achieved through
the use of pre-formed foam, which is added to the mix slurry. However, the use of
pre-foamed foam is specialised and is commonly used only in the production of
foamed concrete. Foamed concrete forms part of the group of cellular concretes and is
the term used to describe cellular concrete that is made from pre-formed foam. AEAs
can be used to entrain air into normal weight concrete and it can be used to produce
aerated concrete. Aerated concrete also forms part of the group of concrete called
cellular concrete. The term aerated concrete is used to describe cellular concrete that
is made using an AEA. A detailed discussion of the use of pre-formed foam and an
AEA to produce foamed concrete and aerated concrete is given in the following
sections.

10
2.2.1 AIR ENTRAINING AGENTS
In order to understand the process of air entrainment it is vital that one should be
familiar with the composition, properties, and behaviour of air entraining agents.
Also, in order to manipulate the air entrainment process, the mechanisms, concepts
and theories encompassing air entrainment must be understood. Therefore, the section
starts by defining air entraining agents on the microscopic level, and then explains the
composition, behaviour and properties of air entraining agents, after which the
mechanisms of air entrainment are discussed and air bubble stabilization is explained.

2.2.1.1 PROPERTIES OF SURFACTANTS

Nearly all modern day air entraining agents are part of the chemical group called
surfactants. A surfactant is a material whose molecules are adsorbed strongly at the
air-water or solid-water interfaces. These molecules are therefore partially attracted
from the solution phase and strongly concentrated at the interfaces. Du and Folliard
(2005) describe the chemical unit as having a hydrophilic head, that has a strong
attraction to the solvent, and a hydrophobic tail, which has little attraction to water as
depicted in Figure 1. The head can be one of three things; (1) if it is positively
charged the air entraining agent is cationic, (2) if the head is neutral the air entraining
is nonionic and (3) if it is negatively charged the air entraining agent is anionic. Some
AEA have been reported to perform better than others. A reason for this is because of
the charge on the head of the surfactant. For example anionic type air entraining
agents precipitate insoluble salts that help in the air bubble stabilization process.

Figure 1 The basic chemical nature of surfactants (Myers, 1992)

2.2.1.2 TYPES OF AIR ENTRAINING AGENTS
Zhang (1996) summarised the eight generic types of air entraining agents used in the
UK according to BS 5075: Part 2: 1982. These categories may be presumed to be
similar in the rest of the world.

11
1. Blend of vinsol resin and synthetic surfactants (A1)
2. Protenation surfactant (A2)
3. Vinsol resin (A3)
4. Sulphonated hydrocarbon (A4)
5. Vinsol resin (A5)
6. Epoxy sulphate (A6)
7. Modified fatty acid (A7)
8. Salt and fatty acid (A8)

2.2.1.3 MECHANISMS OF AIR ENTRAINMENT

According to Ramachandran (1984) the air bubbles in concrete are generated by the
mixing action and that all the air entraining agent does is stabilize the bubbles that
form and not generate them. Since air entraining agents only stabilize the air bubbles
that are already present in the concrete the questions arise as to the origins of air in
concrete. Mielenz et al (1958) investigated this and proposed four different sources:
(1) air already present in intergranular spaces in the cement and aggregate; (2) air
originally present within the particles of cement and aggregate but expelled from the
particles before hardening of the concrete by inward movement of water under
hydraulic and capillary potential; (3) air originally dissolved in the mixing water; (4)
air which is in-folded and mechanically enveloped within the concrete during mixing
and placing.

Powers (1968) discussed how air is included in the plastic concrete during placing. He
noted that there are two different processes at work. One is the infolding of air by
essentially a vortex action, like the stirring of any liquid. The air is drawn into the
vortex and then dispersed and broken up into smaller bubbles by the shearing action.
The second process is called the “three dimensional screen” which involves the
aggregate. The aggregate traps and holds air bubbles within its network of particles as
masses fall and cascade on each other during the mixing.Another mechanism of air-
entrainment that was proposed by Mielenz (1969) is the dissolution of air from
bubbles and a diffusional transfer from one bubble to another bubble. In order to
demonstrate the mechanism Mielenz et al (1958) tracked two air bubbles over time by

12
photographing the bubbles at different times. The photographs show the smaller
bubble reducing in size over time and the bigger bubble increasing in radius.

2.2.1.4 STABILIZATION OF AIR BUBBLES

The function of an air entraining agent is to stabilize the air bubbles that form in the
concrete. In the absence of an air entraining agent, consolidation of the concrete will
cause most of the air bubbles to make their way to the surface of the concrete and
burst. Only a small amount cannot escape. This small amount of air is termed
“entrapped air”. However, if an air entraining agent is used, the air in the concrete is
stabilised by one or more actions of the air entraining agent. Figure 2 shows the
distribution of surfactants at the air water interface.

Figure 2 Distribution of surfactant molecules at the air-

water interface (Du and Folliard, 2005)

When a bubble is formed in the mix in the presence of an air entraining agent the
surfactants are concentrated at the air-water interphase. The surfactants orientate
themselves so that they can satisfy both parts of the molecule, the hydrophilic head is
found on the surface of the interface in the liquid phase and the hydrophobic tail is
found in the air phase. The hydrophobic tail consists mainly of a hydrocarbon chain
and when the surfactant is concentrated at the air-water interface the concentration of
the surfactant increases, whereby the surface tension is reduced. Eventually a limit is
reached whereby no further increase in surfactant concentration and decrease in
surface tension can take place. When this limit is reached a new structure forms call a
micelle. Du and Folliard (2005) attributed this property of air entraining agents to the
fact that there is a limit to the percentage of air that can be entrained in concrete.

13
Stated differently, there is a “critical” dosage whereby more air entraining agent will
have negligible effect.
The mechanisms that may lead to collapse of air bubbles in foam were discussed by
Myers (1999) and can be summarized as follows:
1. Diffusion of air from a small air bubble to a larger air bubble (large air
bubbles have a lower internal pressure than smaller bubbles)
2. Bubble coalescence due to capillary flow
3. Rapid hydrodynamic drainage of liquid between bubbles leading to rapid
collapse
These mechanisms can apply to air being stabilized in concrete containing an air
entraining agent. Mechanism 2 is similar to the mechanism proposed by Mielenz
(1969). If the air entraining agent is cationic or anionic in nature the hydrophilic head
is charged positively or negatively. The surfaces of all the air bubbles have the same
charge and repel each other during mixing. Therefore, the bubbles do not come into
contact with each other and coalescence is prevented. The surfactants in air entraining
agents are also adsorbed onto the cement particles and on the aggregate, and this
adhesion prevents the air bubble from floating to the surface. Evidence of air bubbles
adhering to cement particles was found by Mielenz et al (1958) when they observed
the phenomenon. The mechanism is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Interaction between air bubbles and

cement particles (Du and Folliard, 2005)

14
2.2.2 FOAMING AGENTS
Another way to incorporate air into a concrete mix is via foam. Revision of previous
literature indicates that this method is strictly confined to the production of foamed
concrete. However, it is worthwhile noting that a combination of air entraining agents
can be used in conjunction with foaming agents or pre-formed foam to produce
cellular concrete. With foaming agents air entrainment is achieved in concrete via pre-
formed foam. According to Rudnai (1963) the foaming agent is dissolved in water
and whipped in a mechanical machine or foamed by compressed air and then added to
the mortar mix. The following types of foaming agents are in common use today in
the production of foamed concrete: (1) glue-resin foaming agent, (2 )saponated resin
foaming agent, (3) alumosulphonate foaming agent, (4) hydrolysed blood foaming
agent and (5) hydrolysed keratin foaming agent. These are not further discussed here,
as the focus of this study is on air entraining agents.

2.2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE AMOUNT OF AIR ENTRAINED

Air entrainment in concrete is an extremely complex topic which is influenced by a
number of factors that are not all mutually exclusive, thus making it difficult to
quantify each parameter.

2.2.3.1 TYPE AND DOSAGE OF AIR ENTRAINING AGENT

In any concrete mix the dosage and type of air entraining agent used affects the
amount of air entrained into the concrete. According to Chatterji (2003) air entraining
agents can be classified into two groups. In the first group the air entraining agents
reacts with the calcium hydroxide of the cement paste to precipitate insoluble salts.
These salts are hydrophobic and collect at the water-air-cement grain contact regions,
which is the main cause of air entrainment and bubble stability. These air entraining
agents include vinsol resin (A3), sodium adipate (A8), sodium oleate (A8), etc.

The second group are the synthetic tendites or surfactants. This group consist of
chains of aliphatic and/or aromatic hydrocarbons (A7) with a water soluble group like
SO4 or SO3 or OH etc, attached at one end. The calcium salts precipitated from this
group are soluble in water. The surfactants collect at the air-water interface and lower
the surface tension, this is the main cause of air entrainment and stability.

15
It can be noted that with an increase in dosage of air entraining agent there is an
increase in the concentration of the agent in the mix. For group one air entraining
agents there will be an increase in the precipitants, which will increase the amount of
air entrained in the concrete. For group two air entraining agents the same argument
can be raised. However, Du and Folliard (2005) noted that there is a minimum dosage
of air entraining agent required to entrain air in the concrete. There exist low dosages
of air entraining agents that do not lower the surface tension of water and hence no air
is entrained into the concrete mix. There also exists a dosage at which no further
increase in concentration of the surfactant at the air-water interface is possible, thus
no further reduction in surface tension can take place. For this reason there is a
maximum amount of air that can be entrained into concrete.

2.2.3.2 BATCH VOLUMES AND MIXING

The mixing process and the batch volumes also affect the amount of air entrained into
the concrete. The mixing process is influenced by the type of mixer used. This
includes the speed at which the mixer operates, volume capacity of the mixer and the
mixing action employed by the mixer. It is known that the volume of the mix
constituents affect the efficiency of the mixer. For example, mixing low volumes of
concrete in a mixer that has a high capacity can result in improper mixing of the mix
constituents in pan mixers. Rixon (1978) investigated the influence of batch volumes
by varying the mix volume as a percentage of the capacity of the mixer. From the data
the author concluded that the batch volume only slightly affected the air content in the
mixes. However, it should be noted that these tests were performed on concrete with
low air content in the range of 4 to 6 % and that this conclusion cannot be stretched
for cellular concrete where the norm is to entrain 20 % or more air by volume in the
concrete mix.
It can be observed that for an increase in mixing time there is an increase in air
entrainment in concrete. However, after the maximum amount of air is entrained into
the concrete there is a drop in air content with prolonged mixing time. Ramachandran
(1984) suggested that a reason for this decrease in air content could be related to the
decrease in slump of the concrete that also occurs with prolonged mixing. The author
also reported that worn mixer blades or a build-up of hardened concrete on the blades
and overloading the mixer results in a decrease in the air content.

16
2.2.3.3 CEMENT

The physical and chemical properties of the cement and cementitious material also
play a major role in the air entrainment process. For the cement, the fineness, cement
content and the alkali content are the factors to be considered. The investigation by
Rixon (1978) into the fineness of the cement found that decreasing the fineness of the
cement could lead to doubling the air entraining agents’ dosage to achieve the same
amount of air content. The converse is also true. The air content of the mix was found
to decrease with increasing cement content. Du and Folliard (2005) offered
explanations for the two observations made. In the case of an increase in the fineness
of the cement there is an increase in the surface area which leads to the fact that more
of the air entraining agent is adsorbed onto the solid surfaces and less is available for
bubble formations and stabilization. Also, an increase in the fineness of the cement
increases the hydration rate which also leads to a decrease in the amount of air
entrained into the concrete because of temperature increases.

2.2.3.4 AGGREGATES

Aggregate in concrete is divided into two categories according to size. Coarse

aggregate, stone, is defined to be any aggregate that cannot pass through a sieve with
square 4.75 mm openings. Fine aggregate, sand, is defined to be any aggregate of
which all particles pass through a sieve with square 4.75 mm openings. Although
aggregate is inert in the concrete mix it does affect the fresh state properties and the
hardened state properties of the concrete. The properties such as surface texture,
shape, size, grading, and density of the aggregate plays a role in air entrainment in
concrete. The volume of the aggregate also influences the air entraining process.

Coarse aggregate affects the size and the distribution of bubbles in the concrete by
influencing the shearing and impact actions in the mixing phase. If the shape of the
aggregate is flaky, the aggregate would be more prone to ‘entrap’ air underneath it
during the mix. However, most of this is likely to be expelled from the concrete
during consolidation. The typical size of entrapped air bubbles expelled from the
concrete is in the order of 1 mm and greater. Another way in which coarse aggregate
can influence air entrainment is when crusher dust is used. This is only possible if the

17
crusher dust is used in large quantities so that it can influence the grading of the fine
aggregate. This was highlighted by Rixon (1978).

Fine aggregate provides the three dimensional screen affect and traps the air bubbles
in it. It provides space for the cement paste, air bubbles, and the air entraining agent to
stabilize the air bubble. Various sources such as Mielenz et al (1958), Powers (1968)
and Folliard (2005) report that the grading of the fine aggregate affects the amount of
air entrained into the concrete. The sources indicate that the optimum range of sand
size for air entrainment lies between 150 and 600 micron. It therefore stands to reason
that sand with a low fineness modulus would perform better than sand with a high
fineness modulus. A typical size range of entrained air is 0.1 to 1 mm with a large
percentage under 0.3 mm Owens (2009).

2.2.3.5 TEMPERATURE
The temperature of concrete has been found to influence the effectiveness of an air
entraining agent. The air content of concrete varies inversely with temperature
Proportioning Concrete mixes (1974). It was reported from a series of laboratory and
field tests that the air content at 10 °C was approximately 30 % greater than the air
content at 21 °C. Dodson (1990) reports a similar observation that the air content at
21 °C may be 25 % more than the air content at 38 °C and that 40 % more air can be
entrained at 4 °C than at 21 °C. Du and Folliard (2005) attributed this to the fact that
at low temperatures the yield stress and viscosity of concrete is increased because the
viscosity of the water is higher at low temperatures reducing the hydration products at
a very early age. Therefore more air entraining agent is available for foaming and that
the effectiveness of the agent is improved in the absence of high calcium
concentrations.

2.2.3.6 CEMENT EXTENDERS

Cement extenders and replacers which include pozzolan materials such as ground
granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS), fly-ash (FA), and condensed silica fume (CSF)
have also been reported to affect air entrainment in concrete. These materials have
cementing properties when used with cement, increase durability of the concrete,
reduce the cost of the concrete and may improve workability. Earlier work had shown
that these materials affect the amount of dosage of the air entraining agent required.

18
Zhang (1996) launched an investigation into the effect of powdered fly ash (PFA) on
air entrainment in fresh concrete with the eight different types of air entraining agents.
The three areas that Zhang (1996) focused on was (1) the effect of PFA on the
required dosage of AEA for a given air content; (2) the effect of PFA on air content
stability; and (3) the air loss in air entrained PFA concrete.

2.2.3.7 OTHER CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES

Other chemical admixtures in concrete include plasticizer, super plasticizer,

accelerators and retarders. The interaction between the air entraining agent and any
other admixture is difficult to predict without observing the behaviour of the two
admixtures together in a concrete mix. For example, some (super) plasticizers act as
air entraining agents as well, when this is the case the dosage of the air entraining
agent should be lowered to correct for the additional air entrained in the mix or a
defoaming agent may be used.

19
2.3 CELLULAR CONCRETE

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR CONCRETES

According to Neville (1963) one means of obtaining lightweight concrete is by the

introduction of gas bubbles in the plastic mortar mix in order to produce a material
with a cellular structure, similar to a sponge rubber. The resulting concrete is known
as cellular concrete. Two methods of producing aeration have already been introduced
in this thesis, and depending on the method used, the product is most likely to be
named after it. The two methods are (1) use of an air entraining agent, (2) use of pre-
formed foam. If an air entraining agent is used the concrete will most likely be named
aerated concrete and in the case of pre-formed foam the name will be foamed
concrete. A further differentiation is made to cellular concrete based on the curing
method employed. Note that, as in the case of an air entraining agent, a foaming agent
may also be added to the mix, as opposed to pre-formed foam. These agents may be
in powder or liquid form. They differ from the AEA’s in that they add air, and do not
merely capture / stabilise already trapped air in the mix.

Generally, there are various methods of producing aeration in concrete. However all of
these methods can be categorized into two categories; (1) controlled air content and
(2) uncontrolled air content.

In the controlled air content category a method that produces an air content of known
quantity is used. Foamed concrete is an example of a controlled air method because a
known quantity of pre-formed foam is used to make foamed concrete. The foam is
produced using a solution of a foaming agent with water and whipping the foam until
a certain density is obtained.

2.3.2 CURING

Cellular concrete can also be classified according to the method of curing used. There
are several curing methods that are commonly used for cellular concrete. These
methods can be classified into two groups; (1) autoclaved; (2) non-autoclaved.
Combining these classification methods (based on pore formation, based on curing)

20
the type of cellular concrete one can obtain is non-autoclaved aerated (foamed)
concrete and autoclaved aerated (foamed) concrete. A brief overview of the curing
methods is now presented.

2.3.2.1 AUTOCLAVED
Aerated concrete can be non-autoclaved (NAAC) or autoclaved (AAC) based on the
method of curing. Autoclaving is a process whereby the concrete is cured in a
chamber with high temperature and high pressure for a certain amount of time.
According to Narayanan and Ramamurthy (2000) a wide range in the pressure (4 - 16
MPa) and duration (8 - 16 hours) of the autoclaving process may be used.
Furthermore, they reported that autoclaving reduces the drying shrinkage in aerated
concrete significantly, and it is essential if aerated concrete products are required
within acceptable levels of strength and shrinkage.

2.3.2.2 NON AUTOCLAVED

Non autoclaved curing processes include moist curing, steam curing, and dry curing.
Although these curing methods can be applied to cellular concrete they are mostly not
favoured because the strength of the resulting concrete is low compared to that of
autoclaving. However, autoclaving requires factory production and if cellular concrete
is to move forward as a structural material in the industry alternative forms of high
strength development in cellular concrete would have to be developed.

2.3.3 USES OF CELLULAR CONCRETE

Although Americans claim to have discovered air entrainment in concrete in the late
1930’s (Ramachandran, 1984) it should be noted that aerated concrete was first
produced in about 1929 (Short and Kinniburgh, 1963). At that stage cellular concrete
was being manufactured and used in the building industry as blocks. The concrete,
though not known for its strength, has been used for other attractive properties. These
properties include the low self-weight of the concrete and a low coefficient of thermal
conductivity. Cellular concrete can be made so that it can have a density in the range
of 400 - 1800 kg/m3. In the design of buildings, concrete with a low density would be

21
favourable since the low density would provide a low self-weight component. The
thermal properties of concrete are also of importance these days since the world is
moving towards an energy efficient direction.

In the concrete industry, advantages of low self-weight and good thermal properties of
cellular concrete are overshadowed by the low compressive strength the concrete
yields and drying shrinkage (depending on the type of curing regime employed). It
has been proven that a decrease in concrete density gives rise to a considerably large
drop in compressive strength. This has made cellular concrete less considerable for
structural use. However, if autoclaving is used, the resulting concrete has adequate
strength to be considered for use as structural elements. Autoclaving also eliminates
the problem of drying shrinkage. It has been reported by Short and Kinniburgh (1963)
that the drying shrinkage of cellular concrete that has been autoclaved is between one
quarter and one fifth of the drying shrinkage of air-dry cured cellular concrete. Also,
if drying shrinkage is a problem, shrinkage reducing agents can be employed to
decrease the adverse effect of drying shrinkage in the concrete.

Since autoclaving can only be done in the factories, cellular concrete in the concrete
building industry has been restricted to precast units. These precast units are normally
rectangular in shape and are cut with high precision to meet size specifications. In the
case of floors, wall slabs and roof slabs, reinforcement can also be provided. Grooves
are normally present in the slabs for ease of alignment during construction.

22
2.4 GEOPOLYMERS

In 1978, Davidovits proposed that an alkaline liquid could be used to react with the
silicon (Si) and the aluminium (Al) in a source material of geological origin or in by-
product materials such as fly ash and rice husk ash to produce binders. Because the
chemical reaction that takes place in this case is a polymerisation process, Davidovits
(1994, 1999)) coined the term ‘Geopolymer’ to represent these binders.

Geopolymers are members of the family of inorganic polymers. The chemical

composition of the geopolymer material is similar to natural zeolitic materials, but the
microstructure is amorphous instead of crystalline. The polymerisation process
involves a substantially fast chemical reaction under alkaline condition on Si-Al
minerals, that results in a three-dimensional polymeric chain and ring structure
consisting of Si-O-Al-O bonds, as follows (Davidovits 1999):

M n [-(SiO2) z –AlO2] n . wH 2 O (2-1)

Where: M = the alkaline element or cation such as potassium, sodium or calcium; the
symbol – indicates the presence of a bond, n is the degree of polycondensation or
polymerisation; z is1,2,3, or higher, up to 32.
The schematic formation of Geopolymer material can be shown as described by
Equations (2-2) and (2-3) (van Jaarsveld et al. 1997; Davidovits 1999):

n(Si2O5,Al2O2)+2nSiO2+4nH2O+NaOH or KOH Na+,K+ + n(OH)3-Si-O-Al--O-

Si-(OH)3

(Si-Al materials)
(OH)2

(Geopolymer precursor)

(1)

23
 n(OH)3-Si-O-Al--O-Si-(OH)3 + NaOH or KOH (Na+,K+)-(-Si-O-Al--O-Si-O-) + 4nH2O

(OH)2 OO O

(Geopolymer
backbone) (2)
The chemical reaction may comprise the following steps (Davidovits 1999; Xu and
van
Deventer 2000):

1. Dissolution of Si and Al atoms from the source material through the action
of hydroxide ions.

2. Transportation or orientation or condensation of precursor ions into

monomers.

3. Setting or polycondensation/polymerisation of monomers into polymeric

structures.

However, these three steps can overlap with each other and occur almost
simultaneously, thus making it difficult to isolate and examine each of them
separately.

A geopolymer can take one of the three basic forms (Davidovits 1999):

(2) Poly (sialate), which has [-Si-O-Al-O-] as the repeating unit.

(3) Poly (sialate-siloxo), which has [-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-] as the repeating unit.

24
(4) Poly (sialate-disiloxo), which has [-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-Si-O-] as the
repeating unit.

2.4.1 CONSTITUENTS OF GEOPOLYMER

2.4.1.1 SOURCE MATERIALS

Any material that contains mostly Silicon (Si) and Aluminium (Al) in amorphous
form is a possible source material for the manufacture of Geopolymer. Several
Minerals and industrial by-product materials have been investigated in the past.
Metakaolin or calcined kaolin (Davidovits 1999), low-calcium ASTM Class F fly
ash (Palomo et al. 1999natural Al-Si minerals, combination of calcined mineral and
non-calcined materials, combination of fly ash and metakaolin, and combination of
granulated blast furnace slag and metakaolin have been studied as source materials.

Low-calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash is preferred as a source material than high-
calcium (ASTM Class C) fly ash. The presence of calcium in high amount may
interfere with the polymerisation process and alter the microstructure.

The suitability of various types of fly ash to be Geopolymer source material has been
studied by (Palomo (2003). These researchers claimed that to produce optimal
binding properties, the low-calcium fly ash should have the percentage of unburned
material (LOI) less than 5%, Fe2O3 content should not exceed 10%, and low CaO
content, the content of reactive silica should be between 40-50%, and 80-90% of
particles should be smaller than 45 µm. On the contrary, found that fly ash with
higher amount of CaO produced higher compressive strength, due to the formation of
calcium-aluminate-hydrate and other calcium
compounds, especially in the early ages. The other characteristics that influenced the
suitability of fly ash to be a source material for Geopolymer are the particle size,
amorphous content, as well as morphology and the origin of fly ash.

25
2.4.1.2 ALKALINE LIQUIDS

The most common alkaline liquid used in geopolymerisation is a combination of

sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium silicate or
potassium silicate (Davidovits 1999; Palomo et al. 1999). Palomo et al (1999)
concluded that the type of alkaline liquid plays an important role in the
polymerisation process. Reactions occur at a high rate when the alkaline liquid
contains soluble silicate, either sodium or potassium silicate, compared to the use of
only alkaline hydroxides, confirmed that the addition of sodium silicate solution to
the sodium hydroxide solution as the alkaline liquid enhanced the reaction between
the source material and the solution.

2.4.1.3 MICROSILICA IN FLY ASH GEOPOLYMER

Debabrata Dutta, Suresh Thokchom, Partha Ghosh and Somnath Ghosh (2010)
this paper presents the results of an experimental study performed to investigate effect
of incorporating silica fume in the fly ash geopolymer on its porosity and compressive
strength. Geopolymer specimens were prepared by activating fly ash incorporated
with additional silica fume in the range of 2.5% to 5% with a mixture of sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate having Na2O content of 8%. Addition of silica fume up
to 5% enhanced compressive strength of geopolymer mortars. However, further
increase of silica fume caused a decrease in compressive strength. Specimens
incorporated with silica fume showed better microstructure and exhibited lesser
porosity. MIP results of paste specimens indicate higher pore volume in the specimen
prepared with additional silica fume while for mortar specimens; the pore volume was
seen lesser in specimens with additional silica fume. This paper indicates that silica
fume may be used as an additional material to improve or modify some properties of
the resulting geopolymer, but in a limited dosage of up to 5%.

Hisham M Khater (2013) In this paper, the influence of silica fume (SF) addition on
properties of geopolymer materials produced from alkaline activation of alumino-
silicates metakaolin and waste concrete produced from demolition works has been
studied through the measurement of compressive strength, Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis.
Results indicated that compressive strengths of geopolymer mixes incorporating SF

26
increases up to 7% substitution and then decreases up to 10% but still higher than the
control mix, where 7% SF-digested calcium hydroxide (CH) crystals, decreased the
orientation of CH crystals, reduced the crystal size of CH gathered at the interface,
and improved the interface more effectively. This paper is further proof of the
improvement of GP materials by addition of a limited quantity of silica fume or
microsilica.

27
 CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

3.1 MATERIALS USED

Fly ash, GGBS, high aluminium cement, color, aluminium powder, microsilica, Rice
husk ash, NaOH pellets, Na2SiO3 solution and water are the materials used for the
manufacture of light weight blocks in this project. Fly ash acts as the major
component in the dry mix used for the blocks, while GGBS, high aluminium cement,
color, aluminium powder, microsilica, Rice husk ash act as minor additives. The
alkaline activator liquid is composed of a mixture of NaOH solution of specific
molarity and Na2SiO3 solution combined with each other in a given ratio.

3.1.1 FLY ASH

The fly ash used in this research was obtained from Sipat Thermal Power Plant
located at Bilaspur, India.

The chemical and physical properties of fly ash are tabulated in Table 3.1 and Table
3.2 respectively.

Table 3.1 Chemical composition of fly ash

Constituent Percentage

Silica content (SiO2) 52.32

Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) 26.29

Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 5.96

Calcium Oxide (CaO) 5.83

Potassium Oxide (K2O) 0.81

Sulphate (SO3) 0.15

Magnesia (MgO) 1.57

28
 Na2O 0.04

TiO2 1.66

P2O5 0.47

Loss on ignition 4.48

Total 99.553

Table 3.2 Physical properties of fly ash

Parameters Observed Value

Specific Gravity 2.12

Specific Surface
Area 382.3 m2/kg

Particle Size
Distribution 37μm-420μm

Median Particle
Size 159.7μm

Particle size distribution was determined by Microtrac Particle Size analyser while the
chemical composition was found out using XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) technique.
The specific gravity and its specific surface area (by Blaine’s air permeability
apparatus) were calculated in accordance with IS 1727 (1967).

The diameters observed in fly ash particles were in the range of 37 μm to 420 μm,
with the median size being 159.7 μm. Considering the proportion of SiO2, Al2O3 and
Fe2O3, the total amount of which sums up to 84.57% by weight, the fly ash was
classified as Class-F fly ash as per ASTM (C618).

29
 Figure 4 Flyash used in this project

3.1.2 MICROSILICA
The microsilica obtained from Nagpur, India appears as a lightweight powder.
Microsilica is said to be highly pozzolanic in nature, hence it is used as an additive to
concrete. Microsilica offers better packing density and is seen to improve the strength
of both cement concrete as well as geopolymer concrete.

Figure 5 XRF of microsilica

30
 Figure 6 Micro silica used in this project

3.1.3 COLOR

The color used in this research is purchased by Balaji oxide Varanasi India, Color
Gives Non Autoclave Light weight blocks Red or Yellow tint and also Obtaining the
compressive strengths of AAC without the autoclaving process is challenging without
tobermorite crystal formation, and complete curing. However, additives could
potentially increase the compressive strength. Fe2O3 microparticles could potentially
facilitate the heterogenous nucleation process, which would increase the overall
crystallinity of the C-S-H products and thus the compressive strength.We found by
XRF analysis that Red Color has about 72.5 % by weight of Fe2O3 which aids High
early early strength in light weight Blocks.

Figure 7 Red color used in this Project

31
 Figure 8 XRF of Red color

Figure 9 XRF of yellow Color

32
3.1.4 GGBS

GGBS used in this project is obtained from Uttam galva ,Warha . GGBS is used to
make durable concrete structures in combination with ordinary portland
cement and/or other pozzolanic materials. Concrete made with GGBS cement sets
more slowly than concrete made with ordinary Portland cement, depending on the
amount of GGBS in the cementitious material, but also continues to gain strength
over a longer period in production conditions. This results in lower heat
of hydration and lower temperature rises, and makes avoiding cold joints easier, but
may also affect construction schedules where quick setting is required.

Use of GGBS significantly reduces the risk of damages caused by alkali–silica

reaction (ASR), provides higher resistance to chloride ingress reducing the risk of
reinforcement corrosion and provides higher resistance to attacks by sulfate and other
chemicals.

Figure 10 XRF of GGBS

33
 Figure 11 GGBS used in this project

3.1.5 RICE HUSK ASH

RHA used in this project is obtained from Nagpur , it is produced after burning of
Rice husks (RH) has high reactivity and pozzolanic property. Indian Standard code of
practice for plain and reinforced concrete, IS 456- 2000, recommends use of RHA in
concrete but does not specify quantities. Chemical compositions of RHA are affected
due to burning process and temperature. Silica content in the ash increases with
higher the burning temperature., RHA contains silica in amorphous and highly
cellular form, with 50-1000 m2/g surface area. So use of RHA with cement improves
workability and stability, reduces heat evolution, thermal cracking and plastic
shrinkage. This increases strength development, impermeability and durability by
strengthening transition zone, modifying the pore-structure, blocking the large voids
in the hydrated cement paste through pozzolanic reaction. RHA minimizes alkali-
aggregate reaction, reduces expansion, refines pore structure and hinders diffusion of
alkali ions to the surface of aggregate by micro porous structure Pande & Makarande,
2013.

34
 Table 3.3 Chemical analysis of Rice husk ash

Constituent Percentage

Silica content (SiO2) 85.20

Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) 0.59

Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 0.22

Calcium Oxide (CaO) 0.51

Potassium Oxide (K2O) 2.92

Sulphate (SO3) 0.10

Magnesia (MgO) 0.41

Na2O 0.05

TiO2 0.07

P2O5 0.47

Loss on ignition 4.48

3.1.6 ALUMINIUM POWDER

A fine grey colour, uniform, smooth metallic powder available in market is used in
this experimental process, having a molecular weight 26.98 ,it Reacts with water and
Quicklime to form hydrogen gas, which aerate the flyash blocks.

Figure 12 Aluminium powder used in this project

35
3.1.7 SODIUM CARBONATE

Sodium carbonate also know as washing soda is a set accelerators ,quick set, which is
used to promote flash set ,it is very usefull to demould the shutters of NAAC in less
time ,but it adversely affects the strength.

Figure 13 Sodium carbonate used in this project

3.1.8 HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT

HAC (CALCEM-75) was procured by Castwell industries Nagpur. High Alumina

Cement (HAC, sometimes known as calcium aluminate cement (CAC) or
aluminous cement) is composed of calcium aluminates, unlike Portland cement which
is composed of calcium silicates. It is manufactured from limestone or chalk and
bauxite. High alumina cement gives high early strength to concrete or mortar, it is
used as a replacement of OPC 53 so that mould can be open in less time.

Figure 14 High alumina cement used in this project

36
3.1.9 FIBRES

Various types of short, chopped polypropylene fibres are available. Typically it is

added 1 % by weight of cement in this project. Their primary role is to modify the
properties of the fresh concrete. They increase the homogeneity of the mix, stabilising
the movement of solid particles and blocking bleed water channels. It reduces plastic
shrinkage cracking which can occur when the concrete surface is allowed to dry out
rapidly.

Figure 15 Fibres used in this project

3.1.10 GEOPOLYMER SAND

Geopolymer sand developed in the lab of VNIT Nagpur was also used to see the
effect on our project, it is better than natural sand in terms of density.

Figure 16 Geopolymer sand used in this project

37
3.1.11 ALKALINE ACTIVATOR USING SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH)
AND SODIUM SILICATE (Na2SiO3) SOLUTION

The NaOH is procured by Laxmi chemicals Nagpur and Na2SiO3 used in this
research were procured from Kerala first and after that we have procured it from
Nagpur industry. The NaOH was of commercial grade and procured in pellet form
having 90% purity. The sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution was prepared by
dissolving either the flakes or the pellets in water. The mass of NaOH solids in a
solution varied depending on the concentration of the solution expressed in terms of
molar, M. For instance, NaOH solution with a concentration of 8M consisted of 8x40
= 320 grams of NaOH solids (in flake or pellet form) per litre of the solution, where
40 is the molecular weight of NaOH.

The Na2SiO3 solution has a Na2O: SiO2 ratio of 2 (where, Na2O= 29.8%, SiO2=
14.9%, rest is water).we have used two type of sodium silicate in this research one
having S.G-1.41 and later having S.G-1.18.

The alkaline activator solution was prepared by mixing a NaOH solution of certain
molarity to the Na2SiO3 solution at a predefined ratio of NaOH to Na2SiO3 solution
by weight. The solution was mixed and kept standing for a period of at least one day
for maturing before use. Also, the mix was heated to a temperature of nearly 60-70
degrees Celsius immediately prior to use.

3.1.12 WATER
Potable water was used throughout the experimental investigation for making the mix
for bricks. Water is added only in measured quantity with the NaOH pellets to make
solutions of specified molarity and is never added to the mix directly even for
the purpose of modifying its consistency

38
3.2 TRIAL MIXES

The design of any mix involving geopolymers is a fairly complicated process. It

involves a number of variables such as:

1 Molarity of NaOH solution

2 Ratio of NaOH to Na2SiO3 solution
3 Selection and proportion of constituents of dry mix
4 Temperature of the Geopolymer liquid
5 Preheating of mix constituents
6 controlling Density from aluminium powder
7 Resting period for mix after moulding, Curing method and time, etc.

Various researches have been conducted in the field of geopolymers by varying these
parameters in order to find the optimum design of a geopolymer mix. In the case of
light weight Non-auto clave flyash blocks especially, many of such researches does
not use geopolymer solution in their process which is not the case with this project.

Extensive systematic trials for the optimization of the mix for this project would have
required a very large number of trial mixes for providing an exact correlation between
all the variables. Furthermore, as mentioned before, one of the objectives was to
obtain a mix
of sufficient standards at reduced material cost, i.e. by using lower molarity of NaOH
solution & low percentage of cement, for instance. The literature are not available in
cases of NAAC developed by geopolymer however some literature on geopolymer
based bricks was found which is also very limited and hence there was a shortage of
reference for the development of Non Autoclave Light Weight Flyash Blocks based
on Geopolymer.

Considering the above shortcomings, it was decided to use trial and error method
extensively for the purpose of development of a suitable mix. The trial mixes were
generally prepared in a steel mould cube which yielded a sample of
100mm*100*100mm in dimension, 150 mm*150*150 in dimension or 75*75*75 in
dimension. The first trial mix was taken by Auto clave aerated concrete mix used in

39
industries in addition of that mix we have used geopolymer solution instead of water
and used oven heating instead of autoclave. Suitable modifications would be made to
the said mix if further trials are to be carried out to achieve the finals results which is
comparable to the strength of auto clave aerated concrete blocks.

Figure 17 Cube 100 mm

Figure 18 Fresh mix filled in mould

40
3.3 OPTIMIZATION OF NA2SIO3 TO NaOH RATIO

Considering the observations done in previous year for Geopolymer flyash bricks, for
all purposes of this research also, the ratio of Na2SiO3 to NaOH solution was fixed at
1.5, further for the purposes of this research in some trial it is increases to 2 and 4
also.

3.4 SELECTION OF DRY MIX CONSTITUENTS

With an aim to improve the quality and compressive strength of the final product, this
research attempted to try various additives .The dosage was kept low, in the range of
0.5-5% by weight of the total dry mix. Multiple samples were cast under such
conditions and easily visible characteristics such as finishing, setting time,
workability, density etc. were studied so as to make the selection of the additive
easier.The materials tested were color, aluminium powder, lime, micro silica, GGBS,
high alumina cement, rice husk ash, magnesium oxide.

Table 3.4 Trial mix

PCE
TRI M C Fly Li Gyp Rice High Grock G Colo + Al.p S Dry
cacl2+
AL O e ash m sum husk powd G r owd ol
SP500
L m (sun e kg /sodi Alu er B (Fe2 er ut Den
+SNF+
NO. A en dry/ k um mina /Geop S O3 ) io sity
Fibres
RI t wet g carb olyme k or kg n kg/
T k )kg onat Cem r sand g Mgo (% 1 us m3
Y g e ent kg kg or of ed
kg kg Geru cement lit
pow each) re
der
kg

T1 4 0 108 59 29 - - - - - - 2.6 59 137

0 8 7
T2 3 89 727 44 22 - - - - - - 4.4 48 110
4 8
T3 4 85 618 47 22 85 - - - - - 3.4 47 101
0 3
T4 6 15 700 51 26 103 - - - - - 5.15 61 128
4 8 7
T5 10 11 884 57 29 57 - - - - - 5.75 34 127
4 5 6

41
T6 16 12 620 42 - 42 - - - - - 5.86 33 931
6 5
T7 8 10 430 53 - 54 - 377 + - - - 4.24 35 119
8 .9 54 6 7
T8 4 15 711 50 - 44.6 - - - 6.1 - 4.1 61 126
2 .8 0 8
T9 4 14 707 49 - 29 - - - 19.5 - 3.4 58 114
6 5 8
T10 2 15 705 50 - 30 40 - - 20 - 5 60 123
0 0 3
T11 1 13 653 46 - 27.8 37 - - 18.5 - 4.63 55 109
9 6 1
T12 0 98 478 32 - 13 19.5 - - 6.5 - 1.6 39 780
.5 0
T13 2 11 694 46 - - 46 - - 13.7 1.1+ 3.6 54 103
0 1.1 9 7
T14 2.5 15 696 46 - - 18.3 - - 9.2 1.6 3.8 54 104
6 9 0
T15 2 26 737 53 - - - - - - 2.65 4.2 63 120
5 6 4
T16 3 93 590 78 - - - - - - 1.4 3.1 46 861
5
T17 2.5 15 558 70 - - - - 20 20 1.5 3.0 59 113
0 0 8 2
T18 2.5 14 643 68 - - - - 97 19.5 1.5 2.9 58 108
6 3 0
T19 2.5 14 544 68 - - 40 - 19 9.7 1.5+ 2.9 58 107
6 4 1.5 2 6
T20 2 14 532 67 - - - - 19 - 1.4+ 2.9 57 107
2 0 1.4 0 0
T21 2.5 13 466 62 - - - - 17 44 1.3+ 3.5 52 100
2 6 1.3 8 0
T22 2 11 462 56 - - - - 16 4 1.2 3.2 47 885
9 0 8
T23 3 14 563 68 - - - - 19 4.85 1.5 4.1 61 114
6 4 5 0
T24 1.7 12 490 60 - - - - 17 4.3 1.3 3 51 950
9 2 +5.2 6
T25 2 13 720 65 - - - - - 4 - 3.3 55 105
9 8 5
T26 1.5 15 558 74 - - - - 21 32 1.6 3.7 63 120
8 1 +1.6 4 0

3.5 SELECTION OF LIQUID TO DRY MIX RATIO

In light weight blocks mix should have flowing workability after mixing with dry mix
and liquid it should be flowing so that It can be easily filled in the moulds as no
vibration and pressure compaction is permitted in light weight blocks as it entraps the
air bubble inside the plastic mix. Geopolymer solution needed depends entirely upon

42
flyash moisture content, if flyash is wet then liquid to dry mix ratio is 0.25-0.3 and if
flyash is dry then it became 0.6-0.7.

3.6 SELECTION OF CURING REGIME

A number of publications offer varied regimes for curing of geopolymers depending

on the purpose of research. Steam curing has been shown to be the method for faster
and better results. With the focus of this project being on developing an industry-
friendly, economic and simple method, it was decided that heating, if required, would
be allowed only for a maximum period of two hour in winter only. This would allow
for the faster preparation of finished product compared to air and water curing periods
ranging from 3 to 28 days as suggested by available literature.

It was observed that heat curing of samples immediately after being cast often led to
formation of extensive microcracks. In this project 3 types curing has been done
namely oven heating, sun heating, water sprinkle curing followed by air/sun dry.
Different types curing gives different compressive strength at the day of testing. All
the results and graphs obtained by different curing regime are discussed in
experimental results and discussion chapter.

Figure 19 Oven heating of cubes

43
Figure 20 Sun heating of cubes and beam

Figure 21 Water curing of Blocks

44
3.7 MANUFACTURE OF LIGHT WEIGHT NON-AUTOCLAVE
FLYASH BLOCK

3.7.1 PROCESS FLOW CHART

Preparation of activator
Solution with microsilica and resting it for one day

Mixing of dry mix constituents

(fly ash, GGBS, lime, cement,gypsum color, and admixtures etc.)

Pre-heating of activator solution

Mixing of liquid with dry mix

Mixing of aluminium powder and wait for reaction to complete

filling of mould (cubes) without compaction

Resting of blocks in mould for 8-12 hrs

Put blocks for Oven heating/sun dry/water curing

45
3.7.2 DETAILED PROCESS

3.7.2.1 PREPARATION OF SOLUTION

A 4M solution of NaOH solution is first prepared. For every litre of water in the
solution, 4x40=160g of NaOH flakes are added, 40 being the molar mass of NaOH.
The solution is mixed well. This is accompanied by the release of moderate amounts
of heat. Then sodium silicate solution is added to the above solution. The quantity of
sodium silicate solution would be equal to 1.5 times the mass of NaOH in the solution
already prepared. Microsilica is also added in the solution equal to the amount of
NaOH ie. 160 gram.
The solution is mixed well and is allowed to mature for a period of one day prior to
use, as recommended by Davidovits (2002).

Figure 22 Matured Geopolymer solution mixed with microsilica

3.7.3.2 PREPARATION OF DRY MIX

For First trial Fly ash, Lime, gypsum are mixed in the ratio of 92:5:2.5 to prepare the
dry mix for the blocks. Since for light weight blocks our target density for the blocks
is 1000 kg/m3,Total Dry mix was taken about 900kg .

46
3.7.3.3 PREHEATING OF CONSTITUENTS AND MIXING

The activator liquid was heated up to 80°C to improve its reactivity. For previous
work of geopolymer brick in VNIT Nagpur,The Dry mix was also kept for a few
hours in a hot air oven at a temperature of 150-200°C immediately prior to mixing so
as to keep it dry and improve its reactivity but for this project any type of material
heating is eliminated, Intially flyash heating in oven was done for this project also but
later on Sun dry flyash is used to reduce the wastage of energy and to make the
project more viable.

A hand held 1 speed mixer (RPM 850) was used to mix the constituents with each
other. Thorough mixing was achieved by adding only dry mix to the mixing trough
for the first few revolutions and then slowly adding the liquid component to the mix.
Care was taken to ensure that the resulting mix was free of lumps and was of uniform
appearance throughout. The mixing time allowed was 2-3 minutes without aluminium
powder, at the last aluminium powder is mixed properly with already mixed
constituents and care was taken so that reaction of aluminium powder was finished
and air micro air bubbles are formed uniformly throughout the mix. The mixing yields
a flowing mix without bleeding which was best suitedto fill in moulds without
vibration.

Figure 24 Hand held mixer Figure 23 (A) Initial foaming of concrete mix, (B)
Pore distributions of Aluminium entrained
samples after a 7-day cure.

47
3.7.3.4 CURING OF BLOCKS
The blocks were allowed to take enough strength in mould (8-12 hr) which depends
upon accelerators used, Demoulding was done, after that various types of curing was
done such as oven heating, sun heating, water curing. Results in terms of density and
compressive strength obtained by different types of curing are discussed in next
chapter.

Figure 25 Direct Sun heating for cubes

Figure 26 Oven cured block at 80 degree for 16 hr

48
 Figure 27 Sprinkle Water Curing of blocks followed by sun heating

3.8 TESTING OF LIGHT WEIGHT BLOCKS

3.8.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

Compressive strength test on light weight blocks are carried out to determine the load
carrying capacity of blocks under compression. This test is carried out with the help
of compression testing machine, in which load was applied axially at a uniform rate of
14 N/mm2 (140 kg/cm2) per minute till failure occurs. The load at failure is maximum
load at which the specimen fails to produce any further increase in the indicator
reading on the testing machine. All the testing was done in accordance with IS 6441
part 5.

49
 Figure 28 Compression testing machine for 150 mm cube

Figure 29 Compression testing machine for 100 mm and 70.6 mm cube

50
3.8.2 WATER ABSORPTION TEST
The procedure is adopted by IS 2185(part1):2005.

Saturation:
The test specimens shall be completely immersed in water at room temperature for 24
h. They shall be removed from the water and allowed to drain for one minute by
placing them on a 10 mm or coarser wire mesh, visible surface water being removed
with a damp cloth and immediately weighed W1.
Drying:
Drying Subsequent to saturation, all specimens shall be dried in a ventilated oven at
100°C to 115°C for not less than 24 h and weigh it immediately W2.

Percentage of Water absorption = [(W1-W2) /

W2] × 100 Where,
W1 = Weight of the wet specimen
W2 = Weight of the dry specimen

Figure 30 Light weight block floating in water Figure 31 Blocks submerged in water

51
3.8.3 SHRINKAGE TEST

The procedure adopted for shrinkage test is very simple but it is very useful to
eliminate all type of the problems associated with cracking in finished walls.

In this method first sample block was heated at 50o temperature for 24 hr and
immediately after that readings were noted for their length(l1) ,breadth(b1) and
height(h1) .After that sample block was immersed in water (temperature approx 27o)
and the length(l2) ,breadth(b2) and height(h2) is taken.

Change in length (Δl) =l1-l2

Change in breadth (Δb)=b1-b2
Change in height (Δh)=h1-h2

Strain ε = (Δl/l1) or ((Δb/b1)) or (Δh/h1)

This is the strain ε which should be lower than 0.0035.

Figure 32 Change in Dimension readings by digital Vernier caliper

52
 CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 COMPRESSION TEST

Compressive strength being in itself the most primary and basic characteristic sought
out in load bearing materials such as bricks, was given utmost importance in this
research. The range of specimens tested for this property was widest as compared to
those used in other tests. The results of the compression test gave us a direct and
straightforward indication of the efficacy of the mix tested. The testing was done in
accordance with IS 6441 part 5.
In All the tables Mix calculation (dry + solution) were taken as mix for 1m3 of
material.

4.1.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND DRY DENSITY ON OVEN

HEATING

Table 4.1 Trial 1

Sa C Flyash Li Gyp Al M Soluti Dry Weight Comp. Densi Mean
mp e Dry m sum . ol on 70*70*70 strength ty of
le m kg e kg po ari used cube gm Mpa/ kg/m Densit
no. en w ty 3 y
kg litre remark
t de kg s kg/m3
kg r Oven heating
kg 24 hrs at 150o

1 490 cracks 1388

2 0 1200 65 32.5 2. 4 598 492 cracks 1394 1377

6
3 481 cracks 1361

4 488 cracks 1386

5 478 cracks 1358

Observations: After Heating 150 degree Celsius for 24 hours: cracks are observed so no
compressive strength is taken

53
 Table 4.2 Trial 2
Sa ce Flya Lime Gyp Al. Mo Soluti Weigh Weigh Com Dry Mean
mpl me sh kg sum powde larit on t t p. densit densit
e nt Dry kg r kg y used 70*70 150*1 stren y y
no. kg kg kg *70 50*15 gth
cube 0 cube Mp
gm kg a
6 484 390 1 1103
89 727 44.3 22.2 4.43 3 1183
7 .55 396 1.1 1125

8 .55 4.2 1 1244

9 .55 4.26 1.3 1262

Observations: After Heating 150 degree Celsius for 24 hours : outer cracks are
formed, so instead of cracks compressive strength is taken.

Table 4.3 Trial 3

Sa C Flya Li Gyp Ri Al.po M Solu Weight Wei Com Densit Mea
mpl e sh me sum ce wder ola tion dry ght p.str y n of
e m Dry kg kg hu kg rit used 70*70*7 after engt kg/m3 dens
no. e kg sk y kg 0 cube 7 h ity
n as gm days Mpa kg/
t h heated Wat m3
k kg 24 hr at er
g 120 deg. curi
ng
10 353 1.5 1003 1013
11 8 618 47 22.2 85 3.42 4 470 360 1.32 1023
12 5 412 2.04 1170 1182
13 422 2.24 1194

Observations:
Heat reduced to 120 degree Celsius for 24 hr., No cracks observed, cubes are very
light, no significant change in strength by water curing for 7 days.

54
 Table 4.4 Trial 4
Sa Cem Fly Li Ric Gyp Al. M Sol Weight Weight c. Den Mea
mp ent ash m e sum po o uti 70*70*70 150*150*15 stre sity n
le kg Dr e hus kg wd l on cube gm 0 cube kg ngth kg/ den
no. y kg k er a use Heat 7 Heat 7 Mp m3 sity
kg ash kg ri d ing day ing days a kg/
kg t kg 24 s 24 wate m3
y hr at wat hr at r
80 er 80 curin
deg. curi deg. g
ng
14 453 6.1 128
7 128
15 4.34 9 128 7
51 103 25.8 5.1 6 61 8
16 154 700 .5 5 8 461 3.06 131
0 131
17 4.42 5.5 130 0
9

Observations:
1. Heating is reduced to 80 degree Celsius,
2. No cracks observed,
3. Good strength observed on cubes which are heated, significant loss of strength in
water cured Cubes.

Table 4.5 Trial 5

Sa Ce Fly Lim Gyps Rice Al.po Mola Soluti Weight dry c. Dry Mea
m m ash e kg um husk wder rity on 70*70*70 stren dens n
pl en wet kg ash kg kg used cube gm gth ity dens
e t kg kg heated 24 Mpa kg/ ity
no kg hr at 80 m3 kg/
. deg. m3
18 448 8.16 1273
11 884 57.5 28.8 57.5 5.75 10 345 1276
19 4 441 6.53 1253

20 447 7.34 1270

21 461 8.57 1310

Observations:
1. Very high compressive strength observed.
2. Heating was giving high strength on high molarity.
3. No cracks was observed.
4. Wet flyash was used so it sharply reduced the solution used

55
 Table 4.6 Trial 6
Sa Cemen Flya Lime Rice Al.po Molar Soluti Weight dry c. Den Mean
mp t sh kg husk wder ity on 70*70*70 streng sity of
le kg wet ash kg kg used cube gm th Kg/ densi
No kg kg heated 24 hr Mpa m3 ty
. at 80 deg. kg/m
3

22 309 9.59 878

126 620 42 42 5.86 16 335.2
23 326 9.79 926 931
24 336 10.40 954

25 340 10.81 966

Observations:
1. Very high compressive strength observed on density of 900-990 kg/m3.
2. Trial is very rich ie. high molarity & cement content which is not economical for
commercial purposes.
3. Next trial should be on less molarity.

Table 4.7 Trial 7

Sa C Fly Li Gro Geoplo Rice Al.p Mol Soluti Weight dry c. Dry Mea
m e ash m ck ymer husk owd arity on 70*70*70 stre Den n of
pl m wet e Pow sand ash er used cube gm ngth sity Den
e en kg kg der kg kg kg kg heated 24 hr Mp Kg/ sity
N t kg at 80 deg. a m3 kg/
o kg m3
.
26 420 5.3 119
3
119
27 418 5.9 118
10 43 53 53.8 377 53.9 4.24 8 355.5 7
7
8 0 .8 5
28 417 5.7 118
5
29 431 5.1 122
4

Observations:
1. Grock powder increased the weight of light weight block.
2. Rice husk ash making the cubes lighter but no effect on strength is been observed.
3. Geopolymer sand can be replaced by fly ash but again it will be uneconomical for
the project.

56
3. Heating is also uneconomical to compete with the rates of Autoclave aerated
concrete so oven heating should be removed and molarity should be reduced.

12

10
Compressive strength

Co
mpr
8
essi
ve
stre
6 ngh
t…

0
0 5 10 15 20

Molarity

Figure 33 Graph for Compressive Strength Vs molarity (on oven heating)

57
4.1.2 NATURAL HEATING

With oven heating we have concluded that as we increase the molarity of geo polymer
compressive strength of the light weight blocks also increases but for making this geo
polymer based Non-autoclave light weight fly ash block viable, cost of the product
should be competitive in market to autoclave aerated concrete blocks. so for this first
oven heating should be cut down as low as possible but problem is that Geo polymer
needs heat to gain strength and with high molarity geo polymer makes the block very
sticky and without heating geo polymer does not allow the blocks to get initial
strength so to remove this effect of geo polymer molarity should bring down to as low
as possible & by reducing molarity cost of blocks is also reduced too much which can
make these light weight blocks competitive to Autoclave aerated blocks.
Further for removing oven heating we need accelerators & admixtures so that
sufficient strength can be achieved in 6-8 hr and blocks can be de shuttered and can
be wire cut for desired shape. So for achieving these goals further Mix
proportion/Trials have been carried out.

Figure 34 Natural sun drying

58
 Table 4.8 Trial 8
Sa Cem Flya Lime Sodiu Col Al. Mola Solut Weight c. Dry Mean
m ent sh kg m or po rity ion dry gm stren Densi of
pl kg (natu cabon (Fe wd used (100*100* gth ty Densi
e ral/s ate kg 2O3 er kg 100 )cube Mpa Kg/m ty
3
N un )kg kg ,sun kg/m3
o. dry) heated 3
kg days
30 1270 3.0 1270

31 152 711 50.8 40.6 6.1 4.1 4 610 1268 2.9 1268 1268

32 1266 2.8 1266

33 1269 3.0 1269

Observations:
1. Sodium carbonate & color imparts initial hardness to the cubes by which cubes can
be demoulded in 4-5 hr.
2. Low compressive strength is observed on Sun heating.
3. Density of the cubes are also increased.

Table 4.9 Trial 9

Sa Ce Flya Lim Sodi Color Al.po Molar Solut Weight dry c. Dry Mea
m men sh e kg um (Fe2O wder ity ion gm stren Den n of
pl t (nat cabo 3)kg kg used (100*100*10 gth sity Den
e kg ural/ nate kg 0 )cube ,oven Mp Kg/ sity
N sun kg heated 4 a m3 kg/
o. dry) hr@80 m3
kg degree + sun
heated 2 days
34 1170 6.5 117
0
35 1135 6.2 113
146 707 49 29 19.5 3.4 4 585 5 114
36 1128 6.0 112 8
8
37 1160 6.3 116
0

Observations:
1. Strength is improved as we kept block in sun for 2 days with initial oven heating of
4 hrs.
2. Purpose of research is to completely eliminate the oven heating

59
 Table 4.10 Trial 10
Sa Ce Fly Lim Sod Colo Hi Al. M Sol Weight dry c. Dry Mean
mp men ash e kg ium r gh po ol utio gm stre Dens of
le t (nat cab (Fe2 alu wd ar n (100*100*100 ngt ity Densit
No kg ural onat O3)k mi er it use )cube h Kg/ y
. /sun e kg g na kg y d Oven Sun Mp m3 kg/m3
dry) ce kg @80 dry 3 a
kg me degr days
nt ee 6
kg hr
38 1182 3.2 1182 1233
150 705 50 30 20 40 5 2 600
39 1285 3.4 1285
40 1110 4.2 1110 1117
41 1125 4.3 1125

Observations:
1.Density is high on sun heating due to water which is present inside the core of the
cubes, also fly ash present in interior of the cubes has not gained any type of strength.
2. Compressive strength is about 15% reduce on sun heating as compare to oven
heating.
3. Trial is very rich on the basis of total cement content so cost of per cubic metre of
Light weight flyash block.

Table 4.11 Trial 11

Sa Ce Flya Lim Sodi Colo Hig Al.p M Sol Weight dry c. Dry Mea
mp men sh e kg um r h owde ola utio gm stre Dens n of
le t (nat cabo (Fe2 alu r kg rit n (100*100*1 ngt ity Den
No kg ural nate O3)k min y use 00 )cube h Kg/ sity
. /sun kg g a d
Ove Sun Mp m3 kg/
dry) cem kg n dry a m3
kg ent @80 3
kg degr days
ee 6
hr
42 112 2.0 1125
2
43 115 1.8 1151
139 653 46 27.8 18.5 37 4.63 1 556 1 109
44 105 2.8 1050 1
0
45 104 2.9 1045
5

Observations:
1. By reducing Molarity compressive strength is considerably reduced.
2. Solar heated cubes gives strength about 15% less than oven heated cubes.

60
 Table 4.12 Trial 12
Sa Ce Flya Li So Col Hig Al.p M Solu Weight dry gm c. Dry Mea
mp me sh me diu or h owd o tion (100*100*100 stren Dens n of
le nt (nat kg m (Fe alu er l used )cube gth ity Den
No kg ural/ cab 2O3 min kg a kg Mpa Kg/ sity
. sun ona )kg a r m3 kg/
Oven Sun
dry) te cem it m3
@80 dry 3
kg kg ent y
degre days
kg
e 6 hr
46 770 1.1 770
780
47 98 478 32. 13 6.5 19.5 1.6 0 390 790 1.1 790
5
48 720 1.3 720
717
49 714 1.4 714

Observations:
1. On 0 molarity cubes are very lighter but compressive strength is also very less so
without Geopolymer Autoclave is needed to develop sufficient strength in light
weight blocks on low density.
2. Sodium carbonate makes the block more alkaline so sodium carbonate is not
feasible for durability of the light weight blocks.
Now we need some other admixtures which can increase the compressive strength at
low molarity and light weight blocks.
Now polypropylene fibres is been used to increase the bonding and compressive
strength of the light weight flyash blocks,cacl2 is added as an accelerator along with
viscosity modifying agent ie. Polycarboxylate Superplasticizers & sp500.
3. In next trial Micro silica is 5 % of cement, fibers is used to increase the strength of
the cubes, all plasticizers were used 1% by weight of cement each. Sodium silicate
SG = 1.41.

61
 Table 4.13 Trial 13
Sa Ce Fly Li Colo Hig Ca Al M So Weight dry gm c. Dry Mea
m me ash me r h Cl2 .p ol lut (100*100*100 )cube stren Den n of
ple nt (nat kg (Fe2 alu +sp ow ar io gth sity Den
No kg ural O3)k min 500+ de it n Oven Wat Sun Mpa Kg/ sity
. /su g a Maste r y us @80 er 7 dry m3 kg/
n ce r kg ed degre days 3 m3
dry me Glani kg e 16 days
)kg nt um+ hr
kg Fibre
s kg
50 991 - - 4.17 991
51 983 - - 4.13 983
11 694 46 13.7 46 1.1 3. 2 54
52 0 6 9 - 1084 - 3.46 1084 1037
53 - 1070 - 3.35 1070

54 - - 1050 3.64 1050

55 - - 1048 84 1048

From here Sodium silicate used was having S.G of 1.18

Table 4.14 Trial 14

Sa Ce Flya Li Col High SN Al.p Mo Sol Weight dry c. Dry Mean
m m sh m or alumi F owd lari uti gm stren Dens of
pl en (nat e kg na (% er ty on (100*100*100 gth ity Dens
e t ural/ kg ceme of kg use )cube Mpa Kg/ ity
N kg sun nt kg cem d Water cured 7 m3 kg/m
o. dry) 3
ent) kg days + sun
kg heated 3 days

56 15 696 46 9.2 18.3 1.6 3.8 2.5 549 1040 3.6 1040
6
57 1060 4.0 1060 1040
58 1020 3.4 1020

Observations: one sample is taken for water absorption test as the trial gives most
ideal density required.

62
 Table 4.15 Trial 15
Sa Cem Fly Lim SN Al.po Mo Soluti Weight dry c. Dry Mean
m ent ash e F wder lari on gm strengt Densit of
ple kg (su kg (% of kg ty used (100*100*100 h y Density
No n ceme kg )cube Mpa Kg/m kg/m3
, dry) 3
nt) Water cured 7
kg days + sun
heating 3 days

59 1200 3.0 1200

60 265 737 53 2.6 4.2 2 636 1208 3.8 1208 1204

5
61 1204 3.4 1204

Observations: one sample is taken for water absorption test as cement content is
highest here.

Table 4.16 Trial 16

Sam Cem Flyas Li Cacl2 Al.po M Soluti Weight dry c. Dry Mean
ple ent h me (% of wder ola on gm streng Densi of
No. kg (natur kg cement) kg rit used (100*100*100 th ty Densi
al/sun y kg )cube Mpa Kg/m ty
dry)k 3
Water cured 7 kg/m
3
g days + sun
heating 3 days

62 861 1.6 861

93 590 78 1.0 3.1 3 465 861
63 854 2.0 854
64 870 1.8 870

Observations: one sample is taken for water absorption as dry density was lowest and
lime content was highest.
To increase the compressive strength further following trials were made which
includes GGBS as % replacement of flyash

63
 Table 4.17 Trial 17
sa Ce Fly Li Co G PC Al.p M Sol Weight dry gm c. Dry Mea
mp me ash me lor G E owde ola uti (100*100*100 )cube stre den n
le nt (na kg (Fe BS (% r kg rit on ngt sity den
kg tur 2O kg of y use Oven Wate Sun h Kg/ sity
al/ 3)k cem d @80 r 3 dry 3 Mp m3 kg/
su g ent) kg degr days days a m3
n ee 16 +sun
dry hr 2
)k days
g
65 1085 - - 4.2 108
5 113
66 1180 - - 4.9 118 2
0
67 15 55 70 20 20 1.5 .3 2.5 59 - 1200 - 4.2 120
0 8 0 8 0 119
68 - 1190 - 4.0 119 5
0
69 - - 1160 4.0 116
0 114
70 - - 1163 3.8 116 5
3

Observations: Significant increase in compressive strength due to GGBS on 20 %

replacement of flyash by weight.

Table 4.18 Trial 18

S Ce Fly L Co GGB PC Al. Mol Sol Weight dry gm Co Dry Me
a me ash i lor S kg E po arit utio (100*100*100 )cube mp density an
m nt (nat m (F (% of wd y n .str Kg/m3 den
p kg ural e e2 ceme er use Ove Wate Sun en sity
l /sun k O3 nt) kg d n r dry 3 gth kg/
e dry) g )k kg @80 3day days M m3
N kg g degr s +2 pa
o ee days
. 16 hr sun
7 1060 - - 3.3 1060 108
1 0
7 1100 - - 3.8 1100
2
7 14 642 6 19. 97 1.4 29. 2.5 583 - 1210 - 5.0 1210 120
3 6 8 5 2 0
7 - 1190 - 4.8 1190
4
7 - - 1100 3.0 1100 111
5 5
7 - - 1130 3.5 1130
6

Observations: Significant decrease in compressive strength observed due to decrease

in GGBS from 20 % to 10 % replacement of flyash by weight.

64
 8

6
Compressive strength

4 GGBS 10%
GGBS 20%
3

0
Molarity 1.75 Molarity 2 Molarity 2.5 molarity 3

Figure 35 Graph for Variation of compressive strength (Mpa ) depending upon

Molarity and GGBS (% replacement of Flyash)

Table 4.19 Trial 19

S C Fly Li Hig Col GG PC Al. M So Weight dry gm c. Dry Mea
a e ash m h or BS E+ po ol lut (100*100*100 )cube stre dens n
m m (na e al. (Fe2 kg cac wd ar ion Ove Wat Sun ngth ity dens
pl e tur k ce O3) l2 er it us n er 7 dry Mp Kg/ ity
e n al/s g me kg (% kg y ed @80 days 3 a m3 kg/
N t un nt of kg degr +sun days m3
o. k dry ceme ee 2
g )kg nt) 16 days
hr
7 1089 - - 5.0 108
7 9 107
7 1063 - - 5.3 106 6
8 3
7 - 120 - 5.7 120
9 1 544 68 40 9.7 194 1.5 29 2. 58 0 0 117
8 4 5 2 - 119 - 5.4 119 5
0 6 0 0
8 - - 1149 4.0 114
1 9 115
8 - - 1165 3.8 116 7
2 5

Observations: Good compressive strength was observed in this trial due to GGBS
and high alumina cement, demoulding of blocks had been done in 12 hours only.

65
 Table 4.20 Trial 20
Sa C Flyas Li GG PCE Al. Mo Sol Weight dry c. Dry Mean
m e h m BS + po larit utio gm streng densit density
pl m (natu e kg cacl2 wd y n (100*100*100 th y kg/m3
e en ral/s kg (% of er use )cube Mpa Kg/m
N t un d 3
cement kg Oven Water
o. kg dry) ) kg @80 7
kg degree days+s
16 hr un 2
days
83 1054 - 4.2 1054
1075
84 14 1095 - 5.0 1095
85 2 532 67 190 1.4 2.8 2 570 - 1084 5.0 1084
5 1160
86 - 1235 6.0 1235

Observations: By testing it has been found that GGBS is gaining strength with age,
and water cured samples has given highest compressive strength.

Table 4.21 Trial 21

Sa C Fly Li Po G PC Al.p Mol Sol Weight dry gm c. Dry Me
m e ash m wd G E+ owd arit utio (100*100*100 )cube str den an
pl m su e er BS cacl er y n en sity den
e e n k of kg 2 kg use Oven Water Sun gth Kg/ sity
N n dry g ger (% of d @80 7 dry 3 M m3 kg/
o. t )k u ceme kg degre days+s days pa m3
k g kg nt) e 16 un 2
g hr days
87 1003 - - 3.0 100
3 100
88 997 - - 3.4 997 0
89 - 1118 - 4.3 111
1 46 6 44 17 1.32 3.5 2.5 528
8 111
3 6 2 6
90 - 1117 - 4.0 111 7
2
7
91 - - 1030 2.9 103
0 104
92 - - 1035 3.1 103 0
5

Observations: Geru powder was somewhat effective but it was not giving results like
color (Fe2O3) to increase the compressive strength further following trials are made
which includes GGBS and MgO.

66
 Table 4.22 Trial 22

Sa C Fl Li Ma GG PC Al.p M Sol Weight dry gm c. Dry Mea

m e ya m gne BS E+ owde ol uti (100*100*100 )cube str densi n
pl m sh e siu kg cac r ari on en ty den
e e (n kg m l2 kg ty use Oven Water Sun gth Kg/ sity
N n at oxid kg d @80 7 dry 3 M m3 kg/
o t ur e kg kg degr days+ days pa m3
. k al ee 16 sun 2
g dr hr days
y)
kg
93 890 - - 3.3 890 885
94 880 - - 3.1 880
95 - 1010 - 3.4 1010 103
1 46 55 4 159. 1.2 3.2 2 47 5
96 1 2 .8 4 8 - 1059 - 4.0 1059
9
97 - - 1032 3.0 1032 103
6
98 - - 1040 3.1 1040

Observations: MgO dose was restricted to 2% of cement in spite of that visible

cracks had been observed in the blocks.

Table 4.23 Trial 23

Sa C Fly Li M GG PC Al. Mol Sol Weight dry gm c. Dry Me

mpl e ash me ag BS E+ pow arit utio (100*100*100 )cube stre den an
e m (nat kg ne kg cacl der y n ngt sity den
No. e ural siu 2+SP kg use Oven Wate Sun h Kg/ sity
n /sun m 500 d @80 r 7 dry 3 Mp m3 kg/
t dry) oxi kg kg degr days days a m3
k kg de ee 16 +sun
g kg hr 2
days
99 1140 - - 7.8 114
0 114
100 1141 - - 7.2 114 0
1
101 - 1203 - 9.8 120
3 118
102 1 563 68 4.8 194 1.5 4.1 3 615 - 1170 - 8.7 117 7
4 5 0
103 6 - - 1160 6.7 116
0 116
104 - - 1168 6.8 116 4
8

Observations:
1. Water curing gives higher strength as Flyash is replaced by GGBS, so more
Cementous content is available to form C-S-H bond.

67
2. Oven heating gives lighter blocks as compared to water curing cubes.
3. On 3M this trial mix gives highest strength
4. Magnesium oxide increased strength about 10 % in mix trial.
5. This was best trial in terms of compressive strength and it is recommended that to
use that composition for further research work.

3 Molar on 20% GGBS

10
Compressive strength

8
6
4
3 Molar on 20% GGBS
2
0
sun dry oven heating water curing
followed by sun
dry

Figure 36 Graph for Trial T23 between Compressive Strength and Curing regime

68
 Table 4.24 Trial 24

MG
Sa C Fly Li G Col PC Al M Sol Weight dry gm c. Den Mea
O
mpl e ash me G or E+ .p ola utio (100*100*100 str sity n
(3.3 cacl
e m (nat kg BS (Fe2 ow rit n )cube en kg/ dens
3 2+S
No. e ural kg O3) de y use gt m3 ity
% P50
n /su kg r d h kg/
t n of 0
kg Ov Wat Sun M m3
k dry cem
(% (5 en er 7 dry pa
g )kg ent)
1 of % @8 days 3
kg cem of 0 +sun days
ent lime deg 2
eac ) ree days
h) kg 16
hr
105 990 - - 3. 990
6 950
106 910 - - 3. 910
0
107 - 1196 - 4. 119
0 6 114
1 490 60 4. 17 5.16 1. 3 1. 516 2
108 - 1089 - 3. 108
2 3 2 3 75 8 9
9
109 - - 1110 3. 111
8 0 110
5
110 - - 1100 3. 110
4 0

Observations: Good compressive strength was observed on 1.75 molar with the use
of MgO but cracks were observed in the blocks.

69
 Table 4.25 Trial 25
Sa Ce Flyas Li Color Al. Mo Solut Weight dry gm c. Densi Mean
mpl me h me (Fe2O po larit ion (100*100*100 )cube stre ty densit
e nt (natur kg 3) kg wd y used ngt kg/m y
3
No. kg al/sun er kg h kg/m3
dry)k (5% Oven Wate Sun Mp
g of @80 r 7 dry 3 a
lime)
degre days days
kg e 16 +sun
hr 2
days
111 1000 - - 3.8 1000
1055
112 1110 - - 3.0 1110
113 139 720 65 4.0 3.3 2 558 - 1242 - 3.6 1242
1256
114 - 1270 - 3.7 1270
115 - - 1207 3.0 1207
1208
116 - - 1210 3.1 1210

Observations: Significant decrease in compressive strength was observed due to

removal of GGBS from the mix.

Table 4.26 Trial 26

Sa Ce Flya GG PC Li Col Al.p M Sol Weight dry gm c. Den Mea
mp me sh BS E+ me or owd ola utio (100*100*100 )cube str sity n
le nt (nat ca kg (Fe er rit n en kg/ densi
No kg ural/ Cl2 2O3 (5% y use gt m3 ty
. sun ) of d Ove Wat Sun h kg/
dry) kg lime) kg n er 3 dry 3 M m3
kg kg @80 days days pa
degr +ov
ee en 2
16 hrs
hr
11 1161 - - 5. 1161
1 0 1200
11 15 578 211 1.5 74 32 3.7 1.5 634 1238 - - 4. 1238
2 8 8 7
11 - 108 - 5. 1080
3 0 0 1130
11 - 117 - 5. 1179
4 9 5
11 - - 1237 4. 1237
5 0 1208
11 - - 1179 4. 1179
6 1

Observations: In this Trial Caustic: sodium silicate was taken in 1:4, and significant
results had been observed and future scope of the work can be taken from this Mix.

70
 20
ceme
nt
17%
15

ceme
10 nt
15%

5
ceme
nt 10
0 %
1 Molar 2 Molar 3 Molar 4 Molar
Figure 37 Graph for Variation of compressive strength (Mpa ) depending upon
Molarity and Cement percentage on oven dry

4.5 cement
4
3.5 10%
3 cement
2.5 12%
2
1.5 cemen
1 15%
0.5
0 cement
17%

Figure 38 Graph of Variation in compressive strength(Mpa) from different modes of

curing On 2 molar solution

71
 Density

1400

1200

1000
Density Kg/m3

800

600

400

200

0
0 2 4 6 8

Compressive strength

Figure 39 Curve for Compressive strength (Mpa) vs Density (kg/m3)

72
4.2 WATER ABSORBTION TEST

Samples of different density were used for the determination of water absorption of
geo polymer Based Non autoclave light weight fly ash block in this research. The
procedure is adopted by IS 2185(part1):2005.

Saturation:
The test specimens shall be completely immersed in water at room -temperature for
24 h. They shall be removed from the water and allowed to drain for one minute by
placing them on a 10 mm or coarser wire mesh, visible surface water being removed
with a damp cloth and immediately weighed.

Drying:
Drying Subsequent to saturation, all specimens shall be dried in a ventilated oven at
100°C to 115°C for not less than 24 h and until two successive weighing at intervals
of 2 h show an increment of loss not greater than 0.2 percent of the last previously
determined mass of the specimen.

Following table summarizes the results of the test. Samples used are of size
100*100*100 , having different density and mix constituents

Table 4.27 Water absorption Test

Trial Mix Sample Sun Dry Weight Oven Change Water

no. No. density after 24 hr Dry in weight absorption
weight of
of Block immersion
the %
kg/m3 in water Blocks
gm gm
Trial 16 63 850 1093 770 323 41.94

Trial 15 59 1200 1500 1100 400 36.36

Trial 14 58 1020 1281 950 331 34.84

Discussion:
The water absorption depends on density of the block. Permissible Water absorption
is 20% from IS Code for the bricks, but is should be noted that for NAAC water
absorption limits are not defined clearly in IS Code.

73
 water absorption %
45
40
35
Absorption %

30
Water

25
20 water
absorption
15
%
10
5
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Density kg/m3

Figure 40 Graph for Water Absorption and Density

74
4.3 SHRINKAGE TEST

First test was conducted on Geopolymer based non autoclave light weight block fly
ash block (GNAAC)and second test was conducted on autoclave aerated light weight
block (AAC) and result are compared in the table.

Table 4.28 Shrinkage Test

Sampl Sample Dimensions after Dimension after strain ε=

e No. Name heating 24 hr at cooling in water
and 50 degree
density
kg/m3
0.0035

L1 B1 H1 L2 B2 H2 Δl/l1 Δb/b1 Δh/h

1
GNAA 100.7 100.6 95 100.5 100.6 95 0.00228 0.00010 0.00000
7 3 4 2
C
1 Density
-835
2 GNAA 98.78 99.49 103.5 98.87 99.7 103.3 0.00091 0.00211 0.00174
7 9
C
Density
-1130
3 AAC 150.9 148.5 149.0 150.5 148.2 148.3 0.0025178 0.00134680 0.0053
2 9 4 1 9 1

4 AAC 148.9 147.6 143.9 148.1 147.6 142.9 0.0053045 0 0.00667

3 5 3 4 4 7 1

In shrinkage test it is observed that shrinkage of autoclave aerated concrete and Non
autoclaved aerated concrete are 0.25% and 0.091 % respectively. Hence the shrinkage
of NAAC block is one-third of AAC block.

75
Cement Molarity Lime GGBS
Figure 41 Process graph by Taghuchi method

76
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS

The goal of this project was to design a new aerated flyash blocks that addresses
environmental concerns and maintains material properties for structural use. Our
prototype is a geopolymer based non autoclaved aerated Flyash blocks that boast
efficient material usage due to a low density, porous structure and less embodied
energy due to the elimination of autoclaving.

It is observed that with 15% cement, 7% lime, 20% GGBS, 3 molar solution it is
found that best result of the trial has dry density 1000kg/m3 and compressive strength
of 8 Mpa.

In shrinkage test it is observed that shrinkage of autoclave aerated concrete and Non
autoclaved aerated concrete are 0.25% and 0.091 % respectively. Hence the shrinkage
of NAAC block is one –third of AAC block.

In water absorption test we have found that % absorption is directly proportional to

density of blocks in our test 35 % is average water absorption of the blocks.

Further The task of producing non-autoclave lightweight flyash blocks was split into
several subtasks, the mix design of aerated blocks differs vastly from that of normal
bricks in the sense that the water/cement ratio is not the controlling factor but the
blocks design target density is the controlling factor. A mix design approach therefore
needed to be developed for aerated block made with an air-entraining agent (AEA).
The factors that influence the mix design approach are cement, flyash, lime,
plasticizers and AEA used. For air-entrainment in blocks the water content of the mix
must give the mix a certain consistency otherwise air bubbles will either make their
way to the surface of the blocks and escape or the air bubbles will break during the
mixing process. Due to the complex nature of air entrainment in block a trial and error
method to find the amount of AEA to produce aerated concrete with a certain design
target density had to be adopted. The following conclusions can be drawn from the
mix design approach adopted:

77
• Air entrainment is only possible when the water demand of the concrete mix
is satisfied
• The amount of AEA required to produce aerated concrete with a specific
design target density can only be found by a trial and error method because of the
complex nature of air-entrainment
• The strength of a geopolymer mix is a function of the molarity of NaOH
solution involved in the mixing process. A steady increase in compressive strength
was observed when the molarity of the sample was raised.

The second task was designed to investigate the influence of the super plasticizers,
Rice husk ash, GGBS, sodium carbonate, color (Fe203), high alumina cement, Grock
powder, Geo polymer sand has on the strength of the aerated flyash blocks. Based on
the results obtained from the experiments the following conclusions can be made:

• The sodium carbonate gives early hardening to the blocks but compressive
strength was reduced significantly.
• High alumina cement gives high early strength but it is costly
• Grock powder increases the density of the blocks without imparting any
significant compressive strength.
• Geopolymer sand as replacement of flyash decreased the density of the blocks
but it had not imparted any significant increase in strength and also it is not always
industry friendly as first they have to make geopolymer sand for making blocks.
• Rice hush ash makes the blocks lighter but strength development is slow.
• Color (Fe203) gives early setting to the blocks with very less dose and also
gives good finishing to the block.
• GGBS is perfect for the replacement with % of flyash as it gives significant
increase in compressive strength of the blocks and it is cheap too.
• The finer the cement the faster the rate of strength development.

The third task focused on the strength development of Geopolymer based aerated
concrete flyash block on different Curing regime because it is important parameters
which affect the properties of a geopolymer product.

78
• The strength difference between the blocks cured in oven heating compared to
that cured by sun heating is small, however oven heating gives lowest density to the
blocks by evaporating all the water inside the pores of the blocks. Therefore, the
effect the two curing methods used in this investigation have on the strength of the
blocks is small. so if sufficient time and outside temperature is available sun heating
can be taken over oven heating as it save ample of energy.

• Curing of the blocks with water without immersing followed by sun heating
gives different results on different molarity of geopolymer solution. On high molarity
i.e. Greater than 4 M , water curing reduced the compressive strength of the blocks as
compared to oven heating as discussed earlier geopolymer need heat to develop
strength initially. On the other hand on low molarity less than 4 water curing
increases or equals the compressive strength of the blocks as compared to oven
heating but water curing increases the density of the blocks by 50-100kg/m3. So water
curing of 3 – 7 days followed by 2-3 days sun heating is best type of curing regime
which can be adopted for making these blocks on industrial scale and it save huge
energy too.

Our prototype embodies higher compressive strength than previously developed

non-autoclaved concretes due to geopolymer solution, consistent foam-like structures
and low density, while also being cost-efficient than auto clave aerated concrete
blocks. The potential for our prototype is great and may revolutionize the concrete
industry in the foreseeable future.

79
 CHAPTER 6

FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK

Further research should be conducted to investigate the role of Fe2O3 and MgO in
increasing concrete strength. Effects appear to be concentration- dependent to some
degree; However, no general trend was observed, especially with the large error bars.
More concentrations should be tested to determine the relationship between
concentration and strength. This will help us identify where we should strike the
balance between strength added and the cost of Fe2O3 and Mgo. Moreover, work
should be conducted to obtain Fe2o3 from red Ochre (geru powder).
Further studies of optimisation of GGBS should be conducted and investigate the
potential use of fibres in aerated concrete to overcome problems associated with steel
reinforcement in aerated concrete. Further Work should also be done to reduce the
water absorption in low density blocks.
Furthermore Tests to determine long term dimensional stability, shrinkage and
creep, alkali test, to confirm that the material is useful in long term should be
conducted. Overall, there is no shortage of possible future work to improve
performance of Geopolymer based NAAC.

80
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Cary, V., Doolittle, K., Lin, S., Lizardo, D., & Marzen, S. (2014). High Strength Non
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