Traits and Variation

Why do organisms in the same species have different traits?​ The answer to this
question involves tracing a causal chain from differences in traits back to differences in
protein molecules and then back to differences in genes and to the random
combinations of genes that result from sexual reproduction. ​Random mutations during
reproduction can also affect the genes that an offspring inherits. Differences in
experience or environment can also affect traits, without causing changes to
genes​.

Variation in Protein Molecules Causes Variation in Traits

Protein molecules are made in the cells of all living organisms.​ ​Proteins have
many vital roles in the body​. While proteins are tiny when compared to a nucleus or
other organelles in a cell, they are relatively large when compared to other molecules.
Proteins are composed of amino acid molecules that are linked together in a chain by
ribosomes (small organelles in the cell). There are 23 different amino acids that can be
used to make proteins—proteins can range in size from a small protein made of tens of
amino acids to a large protein made of hundreds of amino acids. This allows for an
almost infinite variety of possible proteins.

Structure, Connections, and Function of Proteins

Each type of protein has a complex three-dimensional shape. This structure dictates
how the protein interacts with other molecules. ​The shape of the protein determines
whether the protein can connect with other specific molecules. These
connections and other interactions affect the function of the protein.​ A small
change in the shape of a protein can change how or what kinds of molecules with which
it can connect; therefore, this change in shape can change the function of the protein.
This, in turn, can potentially cause changes to a trait

Homozygous and Heterozygous Gene Combinations

Every gene has two copies (one on each chromosome). The two copies of a gene may
be ​homozygous​ (exactly the same version that instructs for the same type of protein).
Or the two copies may be ​heterozygous​ (somewhat different versions that instruct for
two types of proteins).

Mutations

A mutation is a random change to a gene.​ Most mutations, in fact, occur in DNA that
is not in a gene (does not code for proteins) and, therefore, are likely to have little or no
effect on traits. Even when a mutation occurs in a gene, if the cell that is mutated is a
nonreproductive cell, it may have little effect overall. However, cancer is a case in which
mutations in a few cells can lead to runaway growth of those cells with the mutation.