1

Contents
Abstract
1.Introduction…………………………………………………………………...…………1

I
2. Conceptualizing Community Based Organizations………………………..…...8
2.1. Iddir .......................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1. Origin of Iddirs in Ethiopia ................................................................ 10
2.1.2. Types of Iddirs .................................................................................. 12
2.1.3. Roles and Functions of Iddirs ............................................................ 13
2.1.4. State-Iddirs Relationship during the Three Regime of Ethiopia ......... 16
2.2. Orphans .................................................................................................. 18
2.2.1. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child....................... 20
2.2.2. The Situation of Children’s Rights in the Federal Democratic Republic
of Ethiopia (FDRE) ...................................................................................... 22
2.2.3. Major types of Orphan Problems ....................................................... 23
2.3. Challenges of Iddirs ................................................................................ 28
2.4. Empirical Studies on Roles of Community based Organization such as,
Iddirs ............................................................................................................. 30
2.4.1. Foreign Research work..................................................................... 30
2.4.2. Local Empirical Studies .................................................................... 32
2.5. Summary of Key Issues ........................................................................... 36
3. Data and Methods ......................................................................................... 37
3.1. Research Design .................................................................................... 37
3.2. Study Area .............................................................................................. 37
3.2.1. Description of the Study Area ........................................................... 37
3.2.2. Organization Overviews of Selected Iddirs ....................................... 40
3.2.3. Research Setting and Selections of Study Participants ..................... 42
3.3. Data Collection Instruments .................................................................... 45
3.3.1. In-Depth Interview ............................................................................ 45
3.3.2. Focus Group Discussion ................................................................... 46
3.4. Procedure of Data Collection .................................................................. 46
3.5. Data Analysis and Interpretation ............................................................. 47
3.6. Ethical Consideration.............................................................................. 48
3.6.1. Informed Consent ............................................................................. 48
3.6.2. Confidentiality and Privacy ............................................................... 48
4. Data Presentation ......................................................................................... 49

2
 4.1. Profiles of Study Participants .................................................................. 49
4.2. Profiles of Orphans ................................................................................. 49
4.2.1. Brief Description of Orphans ............................................................ 51
4.2.2. Brief Profiles of Guardians ................................................................ 56
4.2.3. Types of Support Iddirs Provide to Orphans ..................................... 58
4.2.4. Type of Care and Support Iddirs Provide to Orphans ........................ 61
4.2.5. Orphans and Care givers Reflections about Support provided by the
Iddirs.......................................................................................................... 64
4.2.6. Criteria’s to select Orphans Receiving Support ................................ 67
4.2.7. Orphans’ Relation with Their Caregivers and Iddirs .......................... 69
4.2.8. Rules of Iddirs to Support Orphans ................................................... 70
4.2.9. Opportunities and Challenges of Iddirs in Care and Support provision
to Orphans ................................................................................................. 72
5. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION ................................................................. 76
5.1. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 76

3
I
Abstract
ddirs are traditional community based organizations (CBOs) primarily
established to facilitate burial ceremonies and comforting the bereaved.
This thesis has emphasized on the additional roles and functions of Iddirs
on supporting vulnerable groups of the community, Iddirs as entry points to
undertake poverty alleviation, and recently as an instrument to fight hazards of
HIV/AIDS and to support orphans of deceased members. To meet its purpose
the research has employed qualitative research mehod, methods such as in-
depth interviews, focus group discussions, and analysis of available relevant
materials. Two Iddirs that included in the study were selected purposively. After
the two Iddirs were identified, the research participants were also selected
using purposive sampling technique. The qualitative data gathering instruments
included in-depth interview, focus group discussion and document analysis.
Participants of the study were beneficiaries of Iddirs (orphan and their care
giver), Iddir members, Iddir committee. The study follows strict respect for
informed consent, voluntary participation and confidentiality.

The findings of this study indicate, once children’s are orphan members of the
extended families were responsible to follow them. Based on the subjective
judgments of orphans even though caregivers are poor, most of them are
companionable. The result shows that both Iddirs has significant contribution to
improve the life orphans and their care givers. The types of care and support
provided by Iddirs were including financial, material; medical, emotional and
psychosocial support. The study also shows that orphans in the area are
vulnerable to a range of problems: food insecurity, lack of clothes and feet
wears inadequate access to school and school materials, poor health and
physical and sexual abuse are the major once in terms of their severity. Orphans
and caregivers use a range of strategies to become resilient. Guardians may
engage in different activities such as, petty trade, preparations of local drink
(Tella), waver, and daily laborer in construction site. The result shows that,
Idders face challenge to maintain care and support activities such as,
embezzlement, limited willingness of members and high death rate are the major
one.

4
1. Introduction
Iddirs are community-based burial associations established on the basis of
neighborhood, ethnicity, sex, and/or work place for the primary purpose of
providing funeral services to the members, financial and material support, and
give condolences to the bereaved members and their families (Dejene, 2010).
Dejene further noted that, Iddirs are non-profit-making organization founded on
the bases of solidarity, friendship and mutual support among members. Different
studies conducted on this indigenous institution had revealed that about 87% of
Ethiopians in urban centers and close to 70% of Ethiopians living in rural areas
belong to these Iddirs. This makes this particular traditional institution the most
widely spread type of self-help group in the country (Mauri, 2006).

The role and importance of local community based voluntary associations such
as Iddirs and their roles in development have been underlined by different
authors. In this regard, Fowler (2012) explained that, community based
organizations (CBOs) are the means to alleviate community problems by
themselves. It played important roles in mobilizing resources, providing saving
and credit services and mitigating the effects of incidents to Iddir members. In
addition to that, its contribution in promoting social development efforts in the
community, bring members closer, encourage mutual cooperation and support,
and mediate conflicts among members. Beside these, Iddirs help vulnerable
groups of communities including, orphans, elderly in their neighborhood (Asfaw,
2003).

In Ethiopia, there is an old age tradition of caring of orphans, elderly, sick and
persons with physical disabilities. Nuclear and extended family members,
communities and faith based organization are the main sources of care and
support to those peoples (Tsegaye, 2001). UNAIDS (2010) estimated that of the
16.6 million children (aged 0–17) who have lost one or both parents to AIDS, 14.8
million are in sub-Saharan Africa. Within Ethiopia 5.5 million children, around 6%
of the total population, are categorized as orphans or vulnerable children.

5
Orphan and vulnerable children comprise almost 12% of Ethiopia’s total child
population. Over 83% of these orphans are living in rural settings of which
855,720 of them are orphaned children as a result of the death of one or both
parents due to HIV/AIDS (Save the Children UK, 2008).
The Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS) estimates that 72% of
children in the country live with both parents, 14% with mothers only, 3% with
fathers only and 11% live with neither of natural parents. The same survey
indicated that 18% of Ethiopian households are caring for orphans while 0.6% or
11, 577 households were estimated to be child headed (CSA, 2011).

In many ways orphans are disadvantaged in numerous and often devastating

ways. Their lives are often characterized by economic hardships, older children
are forced by the circumstances to leave school and look for jobs in order to
take care of their younger siblings. Most often they are exploited as cheap
laborers. In Ethiopia, more than three quarters of domestic workers are orphans
(UNICEF, 2007). Orphans working as domestic workers are often not allowed to
play with the children of their employers, watch television or listen to the radio,
which curtail their chances of obtaining vital information on topics such as
HIV/AIDS (UNICEF, 2007).

Ethiopia counts one of the largest populations of orphans in the world. It goes
without saying that HIV/AIDS is one of the major factors for the escalation of the
number of orphans. It is estimated that 13 percent of children in the country
have lost one or both of their parents for various reasons (Zewdineh, 2008). For
instances, it is estimated that there are about 867,525 orphans, from these
533,764 (paternal orphans), 208,943 (maternal orphans), and 124,818 dual
orphan children in Amhara region (CSA, 2015). However the estimation varies
from organization to organization, about children in difficult circumstances in
general and orphans in particular in Bahir Dar. According to (ANRS BOLSA,
2008), there are about 9085 orphans in Bahir Dar city in 2008 (ANRS BOLSA,
2008).

6
Orphans were absorbed by extended family networks. However, a dramatic
increase in the number of orphans has put pressure on this traditional support
system threatening to break this major function of supporting the children. As a
result, the orphan crisis has become more amplified (Ayala, 2007). Due to the
above facts governmental, non-governmental, faith based organization and
community based organization (such as, Iddirs) were made effort to reduce
orphan problems. Ethiopia is the second largest population of children orphaned
by AIDS and other causes in Sub-Saharan African (Tekle, 2007). In 2009, in
Ethiopia there were five million orphan children make up the total number of
orphan who are under the age of 18 years and lost one or both parents out of
which 16 % have lost due to AIDS (HAPCO, 2009).

According to the report on poverty and children, published by UNICEF in 2010,

households with orphans are more likely to become poorer because the low
income earned by the few adults who are employed is now sustaining more
dependents (UNICEF, 2010). The environment facing orphan children is
extremely unfavorable. As indicated by Subbarao and Coury (2004), orphans
often face economic hardship, lack of love, attention and affection, withdrawal
from school, psychological distress, loss of inheritance, increased abused and
risk of HIV/AIDS, malnutrition and illness, stigma, discrimination and isolation.
Their limited access to resource such as money for school purpose forces them
to start work at a precocious age which ultimately jeopardizing their future.
Besides their vulnerability, their number is increasing at an alarming rate due to
HIV/AIDS epidemic especially in developing countries.

Compared to other children, the psycho-social and socio-economic situations of

orphans are worse in Ethiopia. In this respect, studies conducted by the Ministry
of Labor and Social Affairs, (MOLSA, 2009) indicated that orphans in Ethiopia
face severe social, economic, legal and psychological problems. Many orphans
take illegal drugs and other substances, involved in crime and become

7
vulnerable to HIV- infection (MOLSA, 2009). A study on adolescents from 14 to
18 in South Africa showed that orphans are more likely to have sex than non -
orphans and among the sexually active, orphans experience earlier sexual
debut (Thurman, 2006).

Situational analysis of orphans and vulnerable children report in Tigray Region

by Star Foundation (2011) indicated that orphans lack basic necessities,
educational fees and school materials support, parental supervision, emotional
care and supports as consequences of which they have become exposed to
various types of abuses and exploitations. Furthermore, orphans’ needs are
often unmet as a result of a lack of available care-givers in many communities
and many orphans live on their own, or are cared for in child-headed households
or by grandparents (Star Foundation, 2011).

There are few studies conducted on the roles of Iddirs in supporting orphan in
Ethiopia. Such as, Yohannes, (2006), studied on community care and support for
orphans and vulnerable children, constraints, challenges and opportunities: The
case of Chagni Town, Guangua Woreda, through qualitative research method.
According to this study, the main findings suggested that, community
awareness to the problem of OVC is relatively high in Chagni- town, but
response to the problem is very low. The other finding was the extended family
and local HIV/AIDS projects are the main providers of care and support to OVC
in the community. From this work, we can identify gaps; One, he never assessed
the crucial roles of CBO particularly, Iddirs in supporting orphan in additions to
HIV/AIDS projects and extended families. Second, his study participant was
focus on orphan and vulnerable children third, research setting.

Dejene’s (2010) studied on roles Iddirs emphasized on risk-pooling and risk-

sharing mechanisms; principles and rules. From this work, there are gaps which
are to be filled such as, contributions of Iddirs for the communities particularly
for orphans, challenges and opportunities that Iddirs face in the service

8
provision. Bimal (2014), assessed roles of community participation in supporting
orphan’s in Nefas Mewcha, in North Gondar Zone in Amhara Region, by using
mixed research methods. From this work, there is a gap that the researcher’s
contribute. For instances, types of services that communities provided for the
orphans, problems they face in relation to services provision. By considering
the above gaps, this study would be exploring the roles of Iddirs in supporting
orphans in Bahir Dar City. The study also attempted to examine the situation of
orphans at household level and responses of service providers towards the
socio-economic problems of orphans.

2. Conceptualizing Community Based Organizations

The term ‘community-based organizations’ refer to organizations such as
settlements, social action centers, multi-purpose community centers,
community associations, development trusts, tenants’ and residents’
associations, village halls and community farms / gardens, which are committed
to working at the local and neighborhood level (Cairnset, 2006).

Community based organizations are self help organizations that bind voluntary
members together to address their common goals and needs. Therefore, in
Ethiopia many people joined community based organization. Some of these
institutions played a significant role in various activities mainly in natural
resource conservation (Degefa, 2010), in credit and Saving (e.g., Equb),
informal burial institutions like Iddir. Tirfe (1999) divides CBOs into three
groups: those associated with social functions (e.g. Mahiber), those associated
with socio-economic welfare (eg. Debo, Meredaja), and those associated with
traditional financial institutions (e.g. Equb, Iddir).

2.1. Iddir
Iddirs are as an association made up by a group of persons united by ties of
family and friendship, by living in the same district, by jobs, or by
belonging to the same ethnic group, and has an object of providing mutual aid

9
and financial assistance in certain circumstance. In practice, the Iddirs is a
sort of insurance program run by a community or a group to meet
emergency situations (Mauri, 1987).

In Ethiopia, Iddirs are indigenous voluntary mutual help associations that

can be found through almost all the country, both in rural and urban
settings . Basically, Iddirs are organized created to take care of the activities
linked to the burial ceremonies and to support their members during the time of
funeral (Bustorf & Schaefer, 2003). Some of the Iddirs involved in various
activities to help Iddirs members who face different shocks. Iddirs serve as a
“multifunctional institution of self-help and solidarity” (Bustorf & Schaefer,
2003).

2.1.1. Origin of Iddirs in Ethiopia

Iddirs are one of a range of indigenous voluntary organizations and associations
involved in self-help and other social activities in Ethiopia. Other indigenous
associations include Equb (credit associations), Mehabers (social/religious
associations), and Debo or Wenfel (agricultural labor groups). Although the
names may vary in different regions, many of these organizations are present all
over the country. A comparison of the different types of indigenous associations
and institutions in Ethiopia reveals that Iddirs are the most widespread type,
prevalent in both rural and urban settings and sometimes transcending divides
of gender, generation, wealth, education, religion, and ethnicity (Pankhurst,
2001).

While the origins of the Iddir require more historical research, according to
available published sources this institution may have originated during the early
20th century (Tenagashaw 1973); it become popular through expansion and
diffusion particularly by the Gurage ethnic group during the Italian occupation
(Pankhurst and Eshete 1958; Bulcha 1976; Assefa, 2000). Some authors claims
that the Iddirs originated in rural areas ( Korten, 1990), while others argue

10
convincingly that it is essentially an urban phenomena that grew out of the
needs of migrants in Addis Abeba (Seifu, 1970).

A recently discovered ledger book of an Iddir in the Kolfe areas of Addis Abeba
that became formalized in 1940 sheds new light on this issue. The first entry of
burial expenses was in 1917 and the first list of members appeared in 1933, but
the word Iddir was only used in 1941, when a numbers of rules were recorded
(Pankhurst, 2001).

An Iddir established by merchants of hides from the Soddo Kistane area of

Gurage has published a Pamphlet in which member’s states that their Iddirs was
established in 1907 (Yehibret Munich, 2001), suggesting that a few Iddirs existed
in Addis Abeba prior to the Italian occupation. A recent data base of the Addis
Abeba Bureau of social and labor affairs provides further supportive evidences
(Taddess, 2002). Out of 4007 Iddirs found in Addis Abeba, about 20 claim to be
over 66 years old, implying that they were established prior to the occupation.
Only four of these claim to be between 90 and 98 years old. A further 22 Iddirs
claims to be 61 to 66 years old, which would correspond to the occupation
period. The database further suggest that 176 Iddirs are 50 years of age or
older.

Some authors, especially those who emphasize links with traditional rural
institutions, suggest that Iddirs are uniquely Ethiopian (Aredo, 2003). One can
mention Engozi societies in Uganda (Welford and Olikira Baine, 1997), home
town associations in Nigerian towns, and voluntary levy schemes at a village
level in Guinea Bissau that are traditional communal funds through which
villagers organize social events such as funerals and parties. The extent to
which similar institutions in other African countries focus on burials deserves
further study.

11
2.1.2. Types of Iddirs
Earlier authors on this issue (Pankhurst and Eshete, 1958) have noted the
existences of three different types of Iddirs:
 Community Iddirs (Yakababi/ Yekebele/ Yewedachoch), based on locality
and comprised of people living in the same vicinity, Kebele, or
neighborhood.
 Tribal Iddirs (Yegosa), based on ethnic affiliations and home areas
 Institutional Iddirs, based on work place (Yemesriabet).

Two more categories were added later (Aredo, 1993):

 Friends’ Iddirs (Yegadegnamoch, Abroadegoch, Wondemamachoch),
referring to former schoolmates or close friends who grow up or went to
school together.
 Family Iddirs (Yebeteseb, Yebetezemed), involving blood relatives, kin, or
very close friends.

In addition, in Dire Dawa five more categories were observed (Tadele 1997):
 Women’s Iddirs (Yesetoch/Yebaltina/Yegwada)
 Youth Iddirs (Yewetatoch)
 Iddirs of displaced people (Yetefenaqay/Yetemelashoch)
 Squatters’ or settlers’ Iddirs
 Church or Mosque Iddirs

Tesfaye (2002) suggests five further types:

 Coffee Iddirs (Yebunna)
 Cereals and fuel wood Iddirs (Yetiratirena Yemagedo)
 Evening company Iddirs (Yemamsha or Yeakababi Amshi)
 Roasted grain and local beer Iddirs (Yeqolona yetella)
 Transport Iddirs (to transport mourners and the corpse)

Each type of group has its own monthly payments. The final groups listed,
however, may best be considered specialized functions of existing Iddirs rather
than separate types. It is worth stressing that some types of Iddirs seem to be

12
relatively recent, notably the women’s Iddir (Lemma 2000) and the youth Iddir,
and that others such as the displaced persons’ and squatters’ Iddirs may be
responses to recent urban crises. The variety of Iddirs offers urban dwellers a
range of choice of association, and in many cases individuals and/or households
may belong to several Iddirs.

2.1.3. Roles and Functions of Iddirs

Regarding the function, role and contributions of urban Iddir, the Iddir funds
were not only employed to meet the cost of funeral but also to assist families
who have lost the breadwinner, and to a lesser extent the funds also serve in
cases of severe illness and unemployment. Besides such monetary assistance
members of the Iddir were expected to bring food to the family of the deceased
(Pankhurst and Endreas, 1958:358-359). In addition to the above functions,
Levine (1965:277) has indicated the assistance given by the Iddir to families in
the event of imprisonment of their breadwinners. Also help in the case of loss
due to fire was included. Alemayehu (1968:12-14) has further enriched what
have been stated earlier, by including additional functions such as, provision of
loans without interest when a member is in serious financial problem or is out of
job, and other newly emerged functions were community security, sanitation
and development.

For both urban and rural Iddirs, member’s attendance of funerals, consoling and
giving company to the bereaved member is common. Also members are
encouraged to pay visits to each other at times of happiness and when a
member is sick. Moral and psychological support is considered as important
function as financial support. Fecadu (in Ottaway, 1976:376-379) has argued
that by transforming itself from a monotonic to polytechnic association, Iddir has
played a social integration function. As a major urban social structure, it
integrates not only the urban masses horizontally but also links them vertically
to the bureaucratic structure. In the absence of public social welfare and a

13
social security system in Ethiopia, Iddirs have been playing a crucial role to fill
that usually felt gap. Obviously, this is a commendable function and role.

Also Iddirs served as a pressure group on behalf of the community. In this

regard, the officials of several Iddirs within the same vicinity co-operate in
making demands upon the town administration and the government for the
provision of facilities. Hence, there was a tendency for Iddirs in the larger
towns, such as Addis Ababa in particular, to become civic oriented
organizations. Indeed, due to lack of response in the provision of facilities, Iddirs
were forced to help themselves and be converted into local self-improvement
development organizations (Markakis, 1974:172).

Now a day’s Iddirs in addition to help members during bereavement, other roles
have at times included establishing and maintaining good relations among
members, coordinating members for community sanitation, provide care and
support for OVCs & elderly, crime prevention, and organizing and carrying out
development projects (Dejene, 2010). These associations have long been a
focus of interest for researchers and policymakers because of their potential
role in financing other community activities (Dejene, 2010). Iddirs are also acting
as change agents, according to Shiferaw (2002), Iddirs efforts to change
harmful traditional practices such as building of costly tombs or monuments,
unnecessary and costly burial expenses, etc, have tended to impinge on
behavioral and attitudinal change among some community members.

Iddirs were efforts to minimize social problems of a community through

collaboration with non-governmental organization. For instances, Pestalozzi
Children Fund (PCF), project in Dimtu
Woreda of Jimma Zone which was based on coffee labor groups known as Dado.
PCF has also 65 a project in Jarso Woreda of North-West Shewa where credit
scheme was provided through religious association Mahiber and Iddir (burial
association (Haile Gebriel, 2000). In addition, in urban areas a local NGO known

14
as Mary Joy has organized umbrella organizations of 41 Iddirs in Asko area of
Woreda 25 and 08 of Addis Ababa, and 75 Iddirs of Awassa in line with the
interest of its projects. In Addis Ababa, Mary Joy has conducted poverty
alleviation activities such as supply of bono water, supporting children of poor
family, training for 12th grade graduates, provision of credit facilitates for poor
women, income generating activity for street children, payment of school fee for
poor citizens, construction of library, youth center and kindergarten (personal
communication, Mary Joy Addis Ababa). Besides, Mary Joy employed joint
committee arrangement from Kebele and Iddir leaders (Haile Gebriel, 2000).

During the past regimes, they were particularly utilized to mobilize communities
for certain political and cooperative activities, as these associations have
proved to be very strong in recruiting community members to participate in any
sort of activity they are involved in. Their influence is so strong that a person
who does not belong to an Iddir is usually considered an outcast and a disgrace
to his or her family. These associations may therefore possess both techniques
of enforcement and appropriate incentives for applying them, vital qualities with
regard to considering the involvement of indigenous institutions in
socioeconomic development (Pankhurst, 2001).

Thus, under the Derg the Iddirs were largely marginalized and tended to stick to
or revert to their burial functions in order to avoid interference by the
government. The Iddir as a form of institution continued to expand rapidly,
however, notably in areas surrounding urban centers and even in rather remote
Control and Support Organization, Community-Based Integrated Sustainable
Development Organization, Children-Aid Ethiopia, Irish Concern, and CARE
Ethiopia to develop partnerships with Iddirs in towns, notably in Addis Ababa,
Dire Dawa, and Shashemene (Tesfaye 2002 & Negash 2003). In rural areas, the
Swedish International Development Agency proposed working with Iddirs in
Amhara Region, a suggestion that was not taken up by the regional government.
The NGO SOS-Sahel, however, has worked with Qires, the local form of burial

15
association in North Wello, to promote seed and grain banks and natural
resource management (Pratten 1997; Yibabie 2001).

2.1.4. State-Iddirs Relationship during the Three Regime of Ethiopia

A. State-Iddir Relation during the Imperial Regime
According to Shiferaw (2002), before 1955 in Ethiopia, there seems to be no
formal and legal grounds for state-Iddir association interaction, and recorded
history there from. But the constitution of 1955 declared citizens' right to form
association, and this has created favorable legal ground. Besides, the
provisions of civil code of 1960 provided practical legal provisions on issues
related to association formation, legal personality, legal procedures, rights, and
duties of the association and its members, legal role of the concerned
government department and the like. In line with the legal requirements of the
civil code, associations such as Iddirs have been required to be register with the
office of associations established with in the Ministry of Interior. Due to various
reasons, in 1966 the association registration regulation legal notice 321/66 was
promulgated.

Though the imperial government had facilitated the legal ground for civil
association, it was not comfortable with them. As noted by Markakis (1974:174)
the regime had "profound hostility to voluntary associations stemming from its
political considerations". As a result, the regime had relegated to itself the
dominant legal power and, strictly control and limit activities of civil
associations. In the case of Iddir associations, they were required to include the
following phrase in their statute, which reads as, “this Iddir will not pursue any
political activity or interfere in administrative matters of the government". The
additional phrase says, "Membership is open to anybody regardless of his tribe,
religion, age and sex" (Alemayehu, 1968). Besides, sometimes security agents
were attending Iddir meetings (Alemayehu, 1968:14). As a result, Iddir forums
were not free. As Markakis (1974:172) has noted, “To a limited extent they were

16
serving as channels of communication between the state authorities and the
urban population." Regarding the capacity of Iddirs for political activity,
Markakis (1974:172) has described it as very limited. This is due to very small
membership size, member’s conception of their Iddir merely as a burial
association, older traditional type leaders with government connection, absence
of educated leadership and uneducated dominated membership (Markakis,
1974).

The imperial government had prohibited Iddirs from engaging in any political
activity and required them to be apolitical. On the contrary, it required them to
mobilize public support for its administration. For instance, (Ottaway, 1976) as
noted, “Iddir leaders were mobilized by the government during the student
crises in the late 1960s to march on the Emperor Palace and express indignation
over the deplorable and untraditional behavior of students".

B. State-Iddirs Relation during Derg Regime

With the fall of the Imperial regime and the emergence of socialist oriented
military (Derg) regime, the development role of Iddir was overtaken by Kebele
Administrations. As a result, Iddirs were forced to resort to their traditional
burial and related services. Particularly evidence from Harar and Addis Ababa
(Ottaway, 1976) has shown negative relationship between Iddirs and the Derg
regime. According to these observations, Iddirs and their leadership were
considered as traditional, backward and remnants of the feudal system, which
were not reliable to undertake modern socialist development. As a result, rather
than strengthening Iddirs, the regime decided to establish its own "progressive
and development oriented organizations" known as Kebeles.

Eventually this had created potential conflict between Iddirs and Kebele
Administration. In effect the role of Iddirs was marginalized. Hence, for instance,
in Addis Ababa in November 1975 numerous Iddirs had returned to their
members the funds previously rose for development projects (Ottaway,

17
1976:424). Unfortunately, Iddir- Derg relation did not end there. During the
Somali invasion, Iddirs were forced to donate their properties such as tents, and
other materials. Besides, on the basis of various studies, Pankhurst (2001:14)
has identified that, halls that belonged to Iddirs were used by Kebeles, Iddirs
were, at times, requested to call meetings for Kebeles, Iddirs recruited militia,
and Kebeles ordered Iddirs to change times of their meetings. In addition, there
were efforts to pressurize Iddir leaders to make them members of the ruling
party. Also Kebeles attempted to establish new Iddirs under Kebele
administrations. Obviously, all these efforts were directed towards linking Iddirs
to the government administrative structure and manipulate them in line with
government political interest.

C. State-Iddirs Relation during EPRDF

Like the last two regimes, EPRDF has not declared a policy which is favorable to
indigenous voluntary associations such as Iddirs. But there are attempts in
urban areas to utilize Iddir’s structure in the Campaign against AIDS. Also
invitations were forwarded to Iddirs to include their participation in some
workshops (Pankhurst, 2001:15). In the case of Gojam Yigremew (2000:56) has
reported that government officials considered traditional rural organizations as
forums of anti-government elements labeled as "feudal remnants" and
"birokrats" and hence their activities were under constant surveillance.

2.2. Orphans
The most accepted definition of an orphan usually refers to a child under the age
of 18 years (or 15 years) whose mother (maternal orphans) or father (Paternal
orphan) or both (double orphan) are dead (UNICEF,2008). The United Nations
Convention on the Rights of a child defines a child as any person below18 years
of age. Defining an orphan as a child under the age of fifteen who is a maternal,
paternal or double orphan confers with the once mainstream definition of
orphan used within the international community and found in much of the

18
literature; however, it failed to account for children who are orphaned and just
as vulnerable between the ages of fifteen to eighteen years of age.

The loss of one parent sufficed to classify a child as an orphan, especially if the
prime caregiver was lost. This seems a sound approach since being an orphan
in such cases is considered as vulnerability and a narrower conception would
deprive a vulnerable child of a much needed special protection (UNICEF, 2008).
Even if this conception recognizes the distinction between caregiver and wage
earner (bread-winner), which has profound relevance to African societies
including Ethiopia, it does not dwell so much on this distinction to determine the
status of orphanage. In Ethiopia, like most African societies, owing to deeply
entrenched gender roles, the father is the bread winner and the mother is the
caregiver. Hence, the death of either one of the parents would deprive the child
of the necessary love and guidance or the necessary financial means to
continue his or her growth and development. This behooves us to accept a
broader definition of orphans as including those who have lost either one of their
parents (Zewdneh, 2008).

Many countries do not have accurate census information about children. Recent
estimates reported in the joint report, Children on the Brink (2008) assert there
are approximately 143 million children worldwide who have lost at least one
parent; of these, about 16.2 million are "double orphans" who have lost both
parents. Extreme poverty, conflict, exploitation, war, famine, disease and the
HIV/AIDS pandemic is having a devastating impact on the world’s youngest and
most vulnerable citizens. Orphan hood is leaving ever increasing numbers of
children vulnerable, malnourished, poor, and uneducated with little hope for the
future. “More than 100 million vulnerable children around the world do not go to
school” (Care International, n.d). Since 1990, the number of orphans from all
causes has gone down in Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, but has risen
by 50% in Sub-Saharan Africa (United Children's Fund, 2006).

19
No other region in the world has left more children orphaned and vulnerable
than Sub Saharan Africa. In 2007, the region was home to 48.3 million orphans
from all causes, 12 million of them orphaned as a result of the HIV/AIDS
pandemic (United Children's Fund, 2008). The real tragedy is the number of
orphans in Sub-Saharan Africa will continue to rise in the years ahead (United
Children's Fund, 2008).

2.2.1. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child

The concept of children’s rights is fundamental because it expresses the idea of
universal entitlements. These, in turn, imply clear political, moral and legal
responsibilities to ensure that they are met. A child’s rights framework also
helps to view developmental rights in a holistic manner. Since then, the
Millennium Development Goals in 2000 and the United Nations General
Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) on HIV/AIDS in 2001 have reaffirmed
international commitment (Smart, 2003). World leaders agreed to develop
national policies and strategies to serve the needs of children affected by
HIV/AIDS by 2003 and to implement them by 2005. At the UNGASS Review in
2006, country leaders emphasized their focus on “children orphaned and
affected by AIDS” (Cardoso, 2010). National governments have the initial
responsibility for making sure that human rights are respected, protected and
fulfilled (Tolfree, 2004). The UNCRC provides a framework for addressing the
rights of orphan and vulnerable children .The convention builds on four general
principles by Tolfree (2004:14-15) as paraphrased below:
 Non discrimination (Article 2) - all rights apply to children without exception.
It is the State’s obligation to protect children from any form of discrimination
and to take action to promote their rights. However, the idea that the law
singles out orphans infected or affected by HIV/AIDS is discriminatory in
nature.
 Best interest of a child (Article 3) - all actions concerning the child shall be in
his or her own interest. Although this article may positively impact on OVC,
the challenge resides in who decides on what the best interest of the child is?

20
 As an overarching principle, this instrument is powerful to support OVC if the
right of children to be heard and participate is guaranteed.
 The child’s right to survival and development (Article 6) - every child has a
right to life. The state has the obligation to see to the child’s survival and
development. However, this is often not the reality as competent statutory
child agencies are given authority in certain cases so as to know the best
interest of the child, even if it is against the child’s will. The provision is
needed, but may negatively affect orphans.
 Participation (Article 12) - Children has the right to be involved in decisions
affecting them. However, participation is more than a rhetorical flourish and
is not reflected in the actual goals. In reality there has been top-down
planning, top-down funding and upwards accountability which negates child
participation. The pursuit of participation by the state frequently fails to live
up to their rhetoric which seems to promote participation and yet can amount
to no more than restructuring of control. Thus, there has been an
inconsistency between theory and practice. OVC rights are greatly violated
as they are not even able to participate in the programs initiated for them.
Worse still, they cannot access the meager existing social welfare support
grants on their own.

Orphans are among the members of society that have had their rights denied by
the societies they live in. According to Tolfree (2004), orphans are highly
susceptible to abuse for example neglect, exploitation, discrimination, denial of
the right to education, loss of rights to pleasure and recreation due to work.
These instruments do not go far enough in protecting orphans. The lack of
consistent revisions to align legislation, lack of financial resources and lack of
commitment in the implementation of the commitments outlined in the above
documents have, to some extent, affected OVC negatively in terms of their
needs being addressed.

21
2.2.2. The Situation of Children’s Rights in the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia (FDRE)
About 52% of Ethiopia’s population is below 18 years old, while those below 15
years are 44% (UNICEF, 2007). About one million children have lost their
mothers or both parents due to HIV/AIDS. A large number of Ethiopian children
suffer from the ills of poverty and illiteracy. They are also victims of several
harmful traditional practices such as early marriage, FGM, physical punishment,
and labor exploitation (UNICEF, 2007).

The FDRE Constitution has devoted more than a third of its provisions to the
cause of human rights protection. It has incorporated all generation rights, full
panoply of individual and group rights and specific protections to vulnerable
groups such as children and women (Zewdineh, 2008). Article 36 of the
Constitution is devoted to the various aspects of child rights protections that are
in tune with the international human rights obligations the country has assumed
over the years. Article 36 of the Constitution also stipulates that children should
not be subjected to exploitative or hazardous work conditions that may
adversely affect their health or well-being. The Constitution singles out for more
pronounced protection various groups of vulnerable children such as orphans,
illegitimate children (children born out of wedlock), etc. Indeed, since the
Constitution has attempted to emphasize the differential treatment the various
segments of children deserve, there are not many detailed laws that flesh out
the dry bones of the constitutional guarantees (Zewdineh, 2008).

According to MOLSA (2009), the scope and intensity of orphan problems in the
FDRE, are deeply held traditional and cultural beliefs, attitudes, and practices of
parents and society have inadvertently caused children’s oppression,
exploitation, and harmful traditional practices. The section gives high lights on
streetism, HTP like FGM by analyzing situations in SNNPRS and the Amhara
regions to show how the situation is escalading in the country. The report
reveals that the number of orphans in Ethiopia is immensely difficult to know

22
because, mainly, of the various conceptions prevailing about who is an orphan.
More over the variations in the definitions of orphans held by different stake
holders have largely caused the lack of exact statistics on the number of
orphaned children in this country.

The report also tries to assess the efforts made by the country to have a
separate policy for OVC because of the significant size of and formidable threat
faced by OVC in Ethiopia. In this line, a National Task Force on OVC was set up.
But due to lack of serious commitment by the responsible government office,
there was not much recorded activity done by the Task Force. Generally, lack of
skills, lack of trained human resources, and lack of material and financial
resources and proliferation of ownership of the OVC’s problems in the country
are major impediments to render reasonable services or to effectively
implement laws and policies in the country (MOLSA, 2009).

2.2.3. Major types of Orphan Problems

2.2.3.1. Vulnerable to Malnutrition and Ill-Health

Recent studies in sub-Saharan African countries indicate that mortality among
orphan children is high. This is due to the fact that child mortality is highly
associated with the death of HIV positive mothers. Longitudinal research in
Uganda indicate that child mortality risk to be more than four times greater
among infants and nearly three times greater among children born of HIV
positive versus negative mothers (Gillespie, 2005). Orphans are likely to be
particularly susceptible to death besides the effort being made to control
mother to child HIV transmit ion. In addition to this, orphan hood has a negative
consequence on the psychological wellbeing and emotional health other
findings also indicate that “Orphaned children have also been consistently
shown to have an increased risk of being HIV-positive compared to non
orphans” (Gillespie, 2005). When they are in an effort to get income for various

23
purposes, orphan hood was found to be at a greater risk for unsafe sexual
behavior which intern leads to HIV/AIDS (Gillespie, 2005).

Though vulnerability to malnutrition is a common problem for children in sub-

Saharan African countries, studies conducted in the area indicate that
“orphans’ health and nutritional status was worse, and their use of public
services much lower than that of non-orphans” (Gillespie, 2005). The data also
indicate that the seriousness and the magnitude of the problem vary depending
on the type of orphan hood. In most cases the problem is severe among
maternal orphans regardless of household assets (Gillespie, 2006). This is may
be due to the fact that in sub-Saharan African countries the primary caregivers
are women.

2.2.3.2. Vulnerable to Low School Attendance

A longitudinal study among orphans in high HIV/AIDS prevalence sub-Saharan
African countries shows that orphans are more vulnerable in relation to
schooling than non orphans. However variation exists depending on orphan’s
proximity to their caregivers. That is as it is discussed by Mishra “orphans who
lived with distant relatives and unrelated caregivers had lower school
enrollment than those who lived with a close relative” (Mishra, 2008:3).
Moreover double orphans are more vulnerable to low school enrolment than
single orphans.

2.2.3.3. Vulnerable to Discrimination

Orphans may face discrimination from their caregivers especially in a household
where resources are scarce. Findings in the area indicate that resources
allocation for biological and non biological children in the poor households show
significant difference. Thus orphan children experience discrimination within
the harsh economic conditions of the household. Discrimination can be

24
manifested in many ways as it is indicated by Anna Whitehouse
(2002:32):
Discrimination could be as basic as access to sufficient or good
quality food (orphans might be given left-over food when the rest of
the family eats well). It can extend to allocation of duties around the
home, differential levels of care if a child becomes sick and access
to education.
This is may be due to sever economic condition which forces poor people to
think orphans as a burden.

2.2.3.4. Vulnerable to Abuses

Orphans are also vulnerable to physical, sexual and psychological and other
child abuses. Whitehouse (2002), discussed how orphans are physically abused
by their care givers mainly step mothers. The study indicates that orphan’s with
step parents get lower care and engaged in heavy work. On the other hand
adolescent orphans are vulnerable to sexual abuses when they strive to secure
income. Sexual abuses against orphans may have other negative consequences
such as HIV/AIDS. Caretakers may also psychologically abuse orphans by
neglecting them, considering as use less and giving less attention (PADET,
2001).

Generally orphans are vulnerable to different problems such as inadequate

financial support, lack of parental care, shortage of food, clothing and bedding,
schooling problems, inadequate medical care etc….(Gillespie, 2005). Now a
day’s, efforts are being made by international and national governments,
nongovernmental organizations and the local community to mitigate the
problems. These responses have different approaches; integrative model of
resilience in the one in which the researcher prefers for this study (Gillespie,
2005).

25
2.2. 3.5. Situation of Orphan and Alternative Care and Support Arrangement in
Ethiopia
Given the enormous orphan crisis, who has an obligation over orphans? Is it the
state, the family, or the community? According to Whiteside (2002), most
governments, politicians, policy makers in international agencies and local
communities have always answered these questions by suggesting that the
extended family will absorb and provide care for orphans. At one level
suggesting that the extended family system can cope is an ideological position
that reflects people’s desire to believe in and validate their traditions (Whiteside,
2002). On the other hand, the view that extended family can cope relieves
governments from providing additional support to orphans (Whiteside, 2002).
Although households are often perceived as coping, there is not sufficient
empirical data to support this notion or that such coping is sustainable
(Gillespie, 2006).

Orphan and vulnerable children comprise almost 12% of Ethiopia’s total child
population or 6% of the total population. Out of these 855,720 are children
orphaned as a result of the death of one or both parents due to HIV/AIDS (Haile,
2008). “Securing daily food is a major problem for most orphan children”
(MOLSA, 2004:23). Orphans are victims of discrimination, harmful traditional
practices and maltreatment arises from the society. Begging, shoe shining, and
working in bar are the usual coping mechanisms adopted by orphans (MOLSA,
2009).

In Ethiopia, the movement toward community-based care for orphans has

emerged from two quite different contexts, with different rationales. First, CBC
has been identified as an alternative to institutional care. The movement toward
deinstitutionalization and CBC is clearly revealed in the case of the Jerusalem
Association Children’s Homes (JCAH) (Gebru & Atnafou 2000). Partly because
of costs and partly because orphans in its care had a difficult time adjusting to
life outside the institution, this organization shifted to a community-based

26
approach that included parent and family reunification, fostering, and support of
independent living (Gebru & Atnafou 2000).

A second context for the emergence of community based care (CBC) in Ethiopia
is the growth in the number of AIDS orphans. This is clearly evident in the
responses of many organizations serving orphans in Bahir Dahr, which
recognized that they “could not provide the love and affection that a family
provides to a child.” They resolved that the community should be supported in
caring for orphans, even while recognizing that the “fraying of family safety nets
is driving orphans to assume the role of head of household at a very young age”
(Segu & Wolde-Yohannes, 2000). A range of organizations are assisting CBC in
Ethiopia. According to a recent unpublished PACT survey, ten formal
organizations in Ethiopia are specifically providing financial and material
support of orphans.
Comprehensive Community-Based Care & Support Guideline of HAPCO (2006,
P. 26) for PLWHA, OVCs and Affected Families have identified seven packages
(areas where support is evident). These include:
(1) Health care and support (medical package);
(2) Food and nutrition;
(3) Shelter and clothing;
(4) Economic;
(5) Psycho-social;
(6) Spiritual;
(7) Legal; and Information, education and communication (IEC)/BCC
The policy further stated the role and responsibilities of social organizations
including Iddirs in the Home and Community Based Care (HCBC) program.
These include:
 Participate in identifying eligible individuals for support and keep record
of same
 Participate in needs assessment
 Mobilize resources

27
  Make relentless efforts towards empowering households for the use of
support services
 Sensitize the community for the purpose of reducing stigma and
discrimination
 Facilitate networking among and between appropriate units
 Train and deploy HBC (home based care) providers
 Participate in monitoring and evaluation of activities and submit periodic
reports to appropriate bodies (HAPCO, 2006, P. 57).

The situation of orphans cannot be examined without the historical and socio-
cultural context of child fostering practices that existed before the devastating
impacts of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. In order to reduce the problem the Ethiopian
government develops various legal and policy frame works to protect orphan
and vulnerable children. Moreover numerous governmental and non
governmental institutions establish alternative cares for orphan and vulnerable
children.

2.3. Challenges of Iddirs

The involvements of Iddirs in social welfare activities and sustainable
community development efforts have exhibited complex and perplexing
problems. In this regard Shiferaw (2002) has noted that:

Iddirs have administrative problems which can be complex at times.

Embezzlement, non-execution of official decisions, power struggle among
the leadership, mishandling of Iddir property, etc, could be identified as
some of the problems. There are also some members who make attempts
to utilize the benefits of Iddirs when they are not eligible for such services.

Furthermore, Shiferaw (2002) has added that numerous institutional and

structural limitations have hampered positive contributions of Iddirs in
development programs.

28
There are also procedural constraints (such as the requirement of spending too
much time on consoling mourners); and problems of governance (such as lack
of transparency and problems of embezzlement) (Dejene, 2010). Shortage of
skilled professional like community mobilizes social workers and counselors and
Para-counselors mentioned as the main challenges for community based
organization particularly for Iddirs (Alula, 2001).

Iddirs may face increasing challenges which could be hard to overcome. In

recent decades, Iddirs have become increasingly uncertain about the
occurrences and magnitudes of shocks. This was, in part, due to
macroeconomic and institutional instability (Dejene, 2010). The savings and
assets of Iddirs may dwindle resulting from increased payouts paid to a
members experiencing death of family member due to HIV/AIDS. Anecdotal
evidence indicated that some types of Iddir in certain areas have already
encountered shortages of payouts to cover losses incurred by members.
Besides, the prevailing inflationary pressure in the country may undermine the
ability of Iddirs to augment capital and build assets. Moreover, outside
interference (for example on the part of NGOs and political cadres) may
encroach upon the independence of Iddirs and thus likely to create division and
conflict within as well as among Iddirs (Dejene, 2010).

Regarding the problems related to the leadership of Iddirs, diverse issues may
be raised. Generally Iddir leaders are part time workers. Indeed, some leaders
are pensioners, and others are private or government employees (Dejene,
2010). Hence, Iddir leaders do lack time and labor to spare for poverty
alleviation and development efforts, which is completely different from the role
of conventional Iddir leadership role and service. In this connection, the
challenging question is whether a good leader of Iddir can be a good
development leader. This question needs further verification. Development
projects require leaders with relevant skill, vision, commitment and appropriate
leadership quality (Shiferaw, 2002).

29
 2.4. Empirical Studies on Roles of Community based Organization such
as, Iddirs
It is believed that making a review of previous studies conducted on different
issues related to the current research is necessary, for it will help readers
understand what has been going on this area. For an identical reason, in the
sub-sections below, attempts were made to review and summarize the results of
researches conducted on roles of Iddirs in different contexts.

There are a number of empirical studies about roles of community based

organization on supporting orphan written by foreign writers; however, as far as
the reading of this researcher he could not find any local empirical studies in
this area particularly on roles of Iddirs on supporting orphans. And it was good
there is a local research for this study to raise some points in local context but it
was difficult to get it. In this regard, this study tried to address some of the
studies and their findings as empirical studies.

2.4.1. Foreign Research work

Fortune, (2011) “The role of community-based organizations in response to
HIV/AIDS in Botswana: the case of Gabane community home-based care
organization” He examined the role of CBOs in the response to HIV/AIDS. The
study adopted qualitative methods of research and used group discussions,
relative unstructured interviews, direct observation and literature review as
methods of data collection. The study found out that HIV/AIDS is indeed a
development problem and that it can be dealt with using some existing
development approaches such as the sustainable livelihoods approaches. The
study further identified specific roles that CBOs play in the response to
HIV/AIDS. It also revealed the potential that CBOs have in achieving
development. In addition, the study identified and outlined challenges that CBOs
face in responding to HIV/AIDS.

30
Lucie (2009), The role of community-based organizations in stimulating
sustainability practices among participants. He assessed the role of community-
based organizations, such as social clubs, places of worship and schools, in
promoting sustainability practices among participants. Existing evidence that
such initiatives could change participants’ practices was rather limited, as was
the understanding of the relationship between community and sustainability.
Using a methodology from social policy (realistic evaluation) the research
consisted of a broadly qualitative exploration of five diverse case studies based
in the UK, in which a community-based organization attempted to change the
sustainability practices of its members. The results of the research were
inductively linked to practice theory, which has recently emerged in the study of
sustainable consumption, and which links structural changes in society with the
agency of the citizen-consumer to explain change. There were two main findings
of the research. First, people do change their sustainability practices as a result
of involvement in community-based organizations which are active on
sustainability. Participants in these processes report a range of sustainability
practice histories, along with differing degrees of engagement in the
communities to which they belong. These two factors, along with the nature of
the community-based organization and the activity that it runs, predict the
intensity of change in sustainability practices. Second, this change in
sustainability practices can best be explained using a practice theory model
which integrates structure and agency in explanations of how change occurs. In
this study the rules and resources that the organization and its members
mobilize to effect change, and participants’ reaction to these rules and
resources, determine how change takes place.

In theorizing the role of community-based organizations in promoting

sustainability practices, this thesis expands the current contribution of practice
theory to sustainable consumption. It also adds subtlety to the understanding of
the relationship between community and sustainability practice in the literature.

31
2.4.2. Local Empirical Studies
Shiferaw (2002), The role of Civil Society Organizations in Poverty Alleviation,
Sustainable Development and Change:- The cases of Iddirs in Akaki, Nazreth
and Addis Ababa. The thesis has emphasized the additional roles and functions
of Iddirs as incipient labor unions, political platforms, non-profit making
insurance organizations, change and development agents for socio-politico-
cultural and economic life of the people, Iddir as entry points to undertake
poverty alleviation and business activities, and recently as an instrument to fight
hazards of HIV/AIDS and to support orphans of deceased members.

Regarding poverty alleviation and development efforts, Iddirs participated in

building schools, clinics, water pipelines, internal road construction and
provision of other social facilities and services and the like. Both joint efforts of
Iddir-state and Iddir-NGOs have serious limitations. Generally the so called co
operations or collaborations seem to be co-optations. Also, Iddirs own efforts
were severely hampered due to their limited capacity and inherent limitations.

In the face of the limited capacity of Iddirs, their umbrella organizations can be a
viable coping mechanism to undertake competitive business to benefit Iddirs
and their members, provided favorable policy is formulated by the government
and if other stakeholders contribute their share. Also there are non-profit
oriented efforts such as Limat Akef Mahiber of Kolfe Iddirs. To achieve better
results at the levels of individual Iddirs and umbrella organizations their
independence and capacity building and empowerment measures are highly
essential.

Steven (2001), Promoting Child Protection through Community Resources: Care

Arrangements for Ethiopian AIDS Orphans: He investigated; one of the key
development challenges posed by AIDS in Ethiopia is providing care for the
vastly increased number of orphans resulting from the pandemic.
Organizational initiatives and policy responses will affect a wide range of

32
developmental indicators, as well as the formative experiences of millions of
Ethiopian children in years to come. This paper explores the strategies and
basic assumptions of community-based care, which has become the orthodox
approach to orphan care in Africa.

Two limitations of this approach are discussed. First, it is often based on an

outdated understanding and assessment of the capabilities of traditional
institutions to care for children. Second, it provides inadequate protection and
condones a variety of arrangements that are inconsistent with the needs and
interests of orphan children. A set of practices and normative principles is then
reviewed by which innovation in orphan care consistent with child protection
functions as well as the utilization of available community resources may be
promoted.
Yohannes (2006), Community Response to Provision of Care and Support for
Orphans and Vulnerable Children, Constraints, Challenges and Opportunities:
The Case of Chagni Town, Guangua Woreda. His thesis begins to address
orphans problems in existing scholarship by presenting a case study of one
community’s response to the care of orphan and vulnerable children (OVC). Its
purpose is to come up with inputs for designing community-based programs and
strategies to address the problem in the study area. The methods employed are
qualitative, utilizing data collection techniques such as interviews with OVC
caregivers, service providers, community-based organizations (CBOs), civil
society associations, and faith-based organizations (FBOs). The research
methods also include three case interviews with OVC and field observation. The
main findings suggest that community awareness to the problem of OVC is
relatively high in Chagni- town, but response to the problem is low. HIV/AIDS and
poverty are the main factors that attribute to the vulnerability and problems of
OVC and their caregivers. Almost all OVC and their caregivers live in abject
poverty and are unable to meet their basic needs. The extended family and local
HIV/AIDS projects are the main providers of care and support to OVC in the
community. Nevertheless, some community initiatives exist. These include Egna-

33
Legna Orphan and Street Children Association (ELOSCA), an OVC association,
and care and support by community Iddirs. The types of care and support
provisions are mainly financial and material; medical, legal support and
psychosocial support are generally non-existent. The main challenges that the
community encounters in OVC care and support are stigma and discrimination,
poverty and lack of OVC policy and guidelines on community-based care and
support. Policy and practice implications of the study include the need for more
extensive community assessments of the situation of OVC and their caregivers.
There is also a need to build the capacity of local communities to respond to
OVC, including advocating and lobbying for adoption and foster care, as well as
resource mobilization for comprehensive care and support for OVC living in the
community. Moreover, there is a need for the endorsement of OVC policy as
guidelines for implementing community care and support. The study also
suggests the need for more comprehensive community based, integrative
approaches that incorporate the prevention of HIV/AIDS in the community and
poverty alleviation programs for children and families.

Mohammed (2007), Exploring the Role of Community Based Organizations

Specially Iddirs in Mitigating the Spread of HIV/AIDS in Adama Town. According
to his study, Iddirs are traditional community based organizations (CBOs)
primarily established to facilitate burial ceremonies and comforting the
bereaved. With the advent of HIV/AIDS pandemic, the role of Iddirs has
transformed from such single communal functions to HIV/AIDS prevention and
control. Ten Iddirs in Adama have been implementing HCBC program to improve
the quality of life of bed-ridden patients and their families. The study employed
qualitative research method. Three Iddirs that included in the study were
selected randomly. After the three Iddirs identified, the research participants
were selected using purposive sampling technique. The qualitative data
gathering instruments included in-depth interview, focus group discussion and
observation. Subjects of the study include program beneficiaries, voluntary care

34
givers and Iddirs HCBC committee members. Key informant interview also was
carried out with government & non-government organizations representatives.
The study involved strict respect for informed consent, voluntary participation
and confidentiality. The findings of the study indicated that Iddirs HCBC
program has significantly contributed to improve the life of bed-ridden patients.
Despite the important work of Iddirs HBCB program, patients expressed unmet
needs. Hence, insufficient nutrition support, housing problem, and care for AIDS
orphans were major challenges of the program. The study recommended the
strengthening of HCBC program referral chain, local resource capacity,
protecting and care of AIDS orphans and intervening in income generating
activity (IGA) and integrating family planning services with HIV/AIDS prevention.

Ephrem (2010), “Beyond the Costmary View” The Role of community-based

organizations in local development: A comparative study of three “Iddirs” in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. This research investigates the role of “Customary” CBOs
in local development within a broader context of state-civil society dynamics and
interactions. By putting CBOs in the middle of the state-society interactions, the
research addresses the conditions under which “customary” CBOs become a
local development agent. It is argued that, the existing members’ level of
participation, inclusive decision making process , formalization and organization
set-up, the proximity of CBOs to the needs and problems of their members and
their responsiveness justify the notion that “customary” CBOs are the “right”
organization to execute local development roles both as a conduit of service
delivery and self-determined change. Through case oriented approach, the
research made strong efforts to highlight and discussed the conditions that
facilitate a shift of roles .By doing so, it identified six “essential ingredients” that
are of paramount importance to assume local development roles in such
organizations. These essential ingredients which are internal and external to the
organization includes:-organizational adjustment and formalization, growing
awareness among members and leaders on their role and potential, capacity
building and enhancement to mobilize resources, government and market

35
failures, government recognition and enabling efforts and the existence of aid to
support such initiatives. The research also draws the distinction between
“internal and external ingredients”, and argues that both ingredients are equally
important to make meaningful change in people life and to the locality at large.
Beginning with an overall review of “customary” CBOs and their interaction with
other actors, it identified six essential ingredients that are important for
“customary” CBOs to making organizational shifts and to assume different roles
that transcend membership boundaries.

From this survey of related research, it seems possible to summarize that:

 Results from roles of community based organization in general, Iddirs in
particular shows that, positive contribution for alleviating poverty, minimizing
spreads of HIV/AIDS, support orphans and vulnerable children’s problem and
community problems in general.
 Studies show that contributions of CBOs (such as, Iddirs), on different
aspects. For instance, in social, economic and other aspects of the
community through helping tasks of government.

2.5. Summary of Key Issues

The chapter looked at the definition and concepts of orphan and their status. It
was noted that the definitions do vary from region, country and community. The
chapter further discussed problems of orphan hood. Challenges facing on
orphans were further discussed in this chapter and these ranged from access to
school and education in general, school uniforms and school fees. Though there
are many challenges only a few were discussed. The factors affecting the
orphans were noted to be vast but those discussed were mostly disease, basic
needs of orphans, stigma, poverty and income for families looking after orphans.
In addition to this I am discussing on definition of Iddirs, historical over view of
Iddirs and types & roles of Iddirs were discus.

36
 3. Data and Methods
3.1. Research Design
This study has employed a qualitative research method to explore the roles of
Iddirs in supporting orphans. There are different strategies of qualitative
research, case study was employed. Because, case study is a strategy of inquiry
in which the event, activity, process one or more individual is studied (Creswell,
2009).

Qualitative research strives for depth of understanding in natural settings.

Unlike the positivist, quantitative tradition it does not focus on a world in which
reality is fixed and measurable but one in which the experiences and
perspectives of individuals are socially constructed’ (Greig, Taylor & Mackay,
2007). It is ‘a form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people interpret and
make sense of their experiences and the world in which they live’ (Greig, Taylor
& Mackay, 2007). Qualitative research enables the voice of the participant to be
heard and is concerned with unique situations and phenomena. It would
describe in detail and interpret with a view to explaining the object of study
(Greig, Taylor & Mackay, 2007). Qualitative research method focuses on the
depth of information rather than generalization the whole population.
Qualitative research method is done in naturalistic setting and interpret
phenomenon in terms of meaning people brings to them. This method focuses on
process, qualities and meaning that cannot be experimentally measured or
frequency (Creswell, 2009).

3.2. Study Area

3.2.1. Description of the Study Area
Bahir Dar City is located in the Northwestern Ethiopia at a physical distance of
565 km away from Addis Ababa through Dabramarkos and 490 km through
Motta. It is situated at the southern shore of Lake Tana, the source of the
Blue Nile (or Abay), at latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates of 110 35’

37
30’’N and 37023’E, respectively. The altitude of the town is 1801metre above
sea level (BDCA, 2004).

Oral traditions assert that Bahir Dar was established as a religious settlement
since the 14th century (Seletene, 1988). It was by this time that the church of
Kidane Mihret was erected around Lake Tana. During the reign of Iyasu I
(r.1682-1706), the settlement came to be Bahir Dar Giorgis instead of Bahir Dar
Kidane Mihret. Since then Bahir Dar appears both a settlement and a religio-
administrative centre of the locality (Seletene, 1988). During the Italian
occupation period, Bahir Dar began to serve both a military base and an
administrative center for the Italians. Following the Italian occupation, Bahir Dar
showed a new phase of development. The former religio-administration came to
an end and secular administration was established. Basic urban
infrastructures and other facilities such as air field, drainage system,
motor roads, and telegram were introduced (Seletene, 1988; BDCA, 2004).

It was in the 1940s, post liberation periods, Bahir Dar showed a remarkable
improvement in both social and economic activities. It was by this time that
the Ethiopian government introduced various reforms on social, economic
and administrative activities. Moreover, it was during this time that Bahr Dar
was registered as a municipality (BDCA, 2004). During the Imperial period, the
government enhanced the infrastructures of the town by improving the air field,
constructing modern schools and hospital, providing pipe water, and other
services (Seletene, 1988). During the Derg period, the military government of
Ethiopia made the town the center of socio-economic and political activities
which enhanced the development of the town (BDCA, 2004; Seletene, 1988).

Bahir Dar is now the capital city of the Amhara National Regional State.
Currently, the nearby rural kebeles and other satellite towns of Meshenti, Zeghie
and Tis Abay were put under the Bahir Dar Town Administration and the total
population is estimated to be 297,749. Out of this, 123,072 are children under 18

38
year (BDCA, 2015). It was during the Italian occupation and in the post
liberation periods that the town showed a significant growth in terms of
urbanization and other socio-economic development (Seletene, 1988). After
the end of the Italian rule, the Imperial government established textile mill, bank,
hydroelectric power, and other institutions in the town. During the Derg period,
many development activities were carried out in the town and these enabled
the town to become the centre of many economic activities (ibid). Currently,
there are many factories in the town such as flour, tannery, soap, plastic, metal
and furniture workshops (BDCA, 2004).

In the 1960s, different educational institutions, including the Bahir Dar

Polytechnic Institute, were established in the town. A Polytechnic Institute, built
by the Soviet Union at a cost of Ethio $ 2.9 million, opened in 1963, with courses
in agricultural mechanics, industrial chemistry, electrical technology, wood-
working and processing technology, textile technology, and metal technology. In
the 1970s, the Bahir Dar Academy of Pedagogy was established (BDCA, 2004;
Seletene, 1988). After 1991, following the coming of EPRDF to power,
educational institutions has expanded in the town. Today, there are fifty-five
educational institutions in the town. Out of this, twenty-four are governmental
whereas thirty-one of them are private. Regarding health institutions, at present,
there are forty-six health institutions in the town (BDCA, 2004).

The town is equipped with an airport and Ethiopian Airlines operates scheduled
flights between Bahir Dar and the capital as well as with Gondar to the
northwest. The town is also connected through roads (and bus lines) to these
cities. Bahir Dar is an important starting point for tours of the fall. The Blue Nile
Falls (Tis Abay) are located about 30 km to the south. The town is now serving as
a centre of various social, economical and political activities that attract many
people’s from urban and rural areas. In Bahir Dar, there is different community
based organization which is established to help them. These associations are
established to fight gender biased traditional practices, to struggle for the right

39
of disabled person, to protect the interest of those members professional and to
enhance their contribution in their professional carriers, to help each other at
the time of death and others. Currently, there are a total of 43 officially
registered employees associations in the city administration. Among these 20 of
them are established by governmental employees and the remaining 23
associations are formed by employees of private organizations (BDCA, 2004).
Now days, in Bahir Dar there are 81 Iddirs in the city, including satellite Kebeles
(Zegie, Meshinttie, Tis Abay and Zenzelema). From those 81 Iddirs 31 were
involved in developmental activities, the remaining were only provide burial
services for their members (sources from Bahir dar CCSA representative).

3.2.2. Organization Overviews of Selected Iddirs

This research was conducted in two selected Iddirs, namely, Addis Ketema and
Addis Alem support and development Iddirs in bahir dar city. Both Iddirs were
established by full consent and participation of Iddir members. Those Iddirs
have their own bylaws that are approved by general assembly. The by-laws
include the rights and duties of members, penalties imposed on members in
case of failing to fulfill duties, registration fee and the monthly contribution. The
numbers of members varies depending on various factors such as the age of the
Iddirs and the area of coverage.

Addis Ketema support and development Iddir was established in 1997 G.C by 15
individuals living Ginbot 20, sub-city, Kebele 14 of Bahir dar for the purpose of
mutual support and assistances at the time of death. Initially, the member
contributed one birr but now it proceeds to five ETB. Numbers of Iddir members
also, increased to 365(174 female and 191 male). Since the introduction of the
first bylaws, it has been under constant amendment and changes depending on
the existing situations and changing need of matters as well as the dynamism
within the organization. So far they were modified their bylaws three times the
last being in 2011 GC. According to the Iddir officials of Addis Ketema, “the most

40
important of the changes and amendment in our bylaws was the amendment that
Addis Ketema made in 2011 G.C to include developmental agendas and roles by
supporting orphan and vulnerable children and vulnerable elderly in Bahir Dar
town”.

Addis Alem support and development Iddirs was established in Addis Alem sub
city, Kebele 11 in Bahir Dar. It was established around 1990 G.C like other Iddirs
for the purpose of mutual support and assistances at the time of death. In the
courses of time and organizational development, (AASDI) made an important
development within the organization such as bylaws formation, creation of
organizational structure, and membership increment main growth as the
organizational level. Know a days, numbers of AASDI members were, increased
to 402 (108 female and 177 male). Membership monthly contributions are for
each member eight birr.

41
Table 1 Summery of the Cases (Iddirs)
The following table shows number of Iddir members, organization structure, by
laws and years of formation.
Cases (Name of Iddirs)
Point of com. Addis Ketema Addis Alem
Total member of the 369 402
Iddirs
Amount of Earlier(1989) 0.25 cent 0.25 cents
saving Recent(2007) 5 birr 8 birr
Year of formation 1997 G.C 1990 G.C
Organization structure There is a clear There is a clear
organizational organizational structure
structure with general with general assembly
assembly and and executive body at its
executive body at its major decision making
major decision making bodies
bodies
Written by law A written by law with A written by law with
six articles eight articles
Numbers of 2003 80 95
beneficiaries 2004 82 90
Supported 2005 105 120
by those 2006 96 85
Iddirs 2007 101 100
Sources: Compiled from informants response

3.2.3. Research Setting and Selections of Study Participants

The settings for this study were two Iddirs in Bahir Dar city administration of
Amhara regional state. The study was covers purposively selected Iddirs which
was engaged on developmental activities. Because those selected Iddirs have

42
similar experience on service provision, their years of establishment, and
numbers of beneficiaries they have and others shared phenomena. According to
the information obtained from city municipality, in Bahir Dar 81 Iddirs found from
these 31 were engaged on developmental activities by empowering themselves.
To undertake this study, gathering accurate data was of a paramount
importance. To do so, appropriate sampling techniques needed to be used.
According to Koul (2006) depends on three situations; nature of the population
the type of investigation, and the degree of precision at a minimum cost.

The target populations of this study were Orphans 10-17 year-old, Guardians,
Iddirs members and Iddirs committee. Purposive sampling techniques were
used in order to select study participants. I deliberately employed purposive
sampling technique to select research settings (AASDI and AKSDI) and
research respondents in order to obtain important information. The logic and
power of purposive sampling depends on the selection of information-rich cases
for the study in depth. Cases that are considered to have rich information are
those from which one can acquire and learn a great deal about issues essential
for the rationale of the research (Kumar, 1996).

To determine the sample size of the study participants of Orphans (Maternal,

Paternal and Dual Orphans) the list of all orphans who are beneficiaries of the
selected Iddirs are taken as a sampling frame. From this sampling frame, with
the help of the chairperson of both Iddirs, four children were interviewed pre-
tested before two days that the final interview was conducted. After minor
modifications on individual interview, from this sampling frame, 12 orphans were
selected (6 female and 6 male) purposively. Data saturation was my rationalities
to participate 12 orphans for in-depth interview. Focus group discussion was
used to collect information from orphan beneficiaries of both Iddirs. Participants
of this study were selected according to the following criteria’s: willingness to
participate, informed consent, beneficiaries of selected Iddirs, being orphan,
committees of selected Iddirs and members of selected Iddirs.

43
The inclusion criteria for selecting research participants were; willing to
participate, being orphan (maternal, paternal and dual orphan) and children who
were direct beneficiaries of AASDI and AKSDI. For the purpose of this study
Orphans 9-17 year were participating in the study considering their capacity to
share their experiences related to the support they received from Iddirs. Here it
is important to mention that the study mainly focus on orphans between the age
of 9 and 17 years. The reason to focus on children above the age of 9 is related
with the logic stated in the Ethiopian criminal code (2005) article 52, infant
exoneration from criminal code. As it is stated under the Ethiopian criminal code
(2005) article 52 children who have not attend the age of 9 will never been asked
for their act because they are considered as mentally and physically un
matured. On the other hand, any Ethiopian who attained the age of 9 is
responsible for his/her act because they can differentiate what is right from
wrong and what is good from bad. However, attempt is still made to lighten the
punishment for those who are below the age of 18. The same logic is raised in
this study that children below the age of 9 cannot fully understand and explain
their situation.

Table-2 List of research participants code (Iddir Committee) with their sex, duty,
residence and sex
No. Selected Participant Sex Age Duty Residence
Iddir Code
1 AASDI IC-1 M 58 Chair person k-11
2 AASDI IC-2 M 52 Secretary k-11
3 AKSDI IC-3 M 55 V. Chair k-14
person
4 AKSDI IC-4 M 50 Chair person k-14

44
Table-3 List of Research Participant’s Code (Iddir Members), with their Sex,
Occupation, educational background etc
No. Selected Participant Sex Age Occupation Residence
Iddirs Code
1 AASDI IM-1 M 41 Teacher k-11
2 AASDI IM-2 F 45 Housewife k-11
3 AKSDI IM-3 M 44 Merchant k-14
4 AKSDI IM-4 F 34 Bureau k-14
secretary

3.3. Data Collection Instruments

The instruments employed for the data collection were in-depth interviews and
focus group discussions. In-depth interview guide was prepared to secure
information from orphans, Iddirs members and Iddirs committee. The focus
group discussion was employed as principal data collection instrument because
the fact that it is possible to study the processes whereby meaning is
collectively constructed within each session. Moreover, in-depth interview was
considered as the main data collection instruments for this study to get ample
information.

3.3.1. In-Depth Interview

An in-depth interview was used to collect data from orphans, caregivers, Iddirs
members and Iddirs committee of Addis Ketema and Addis Alem support and
development Iddirs. An in-depth interview aims to obtain rich, meaningful,
subjective data viewed through the eyes of the participant (Gubrium &
Sankar, 2005). Place of interviews and FGDs for all respondents were
conducted in respondent’s house and Kebele administration hall. Medium of
communication during interview was Amharic and I was used voice recorder
when I got permission from the informants. The duration and breaks varied
between the children, so the length of the interviews will be set by the pace with

45
which each child make comfortable. The older children will be able to talk at
length and in more detail about their past experiences and their situation than
the younger ones.

3.3.2. Focus Group Discussion

Focus group discussion is a method which offers the researcher the opportunity
to study the ways in which individuals collectively make sense of a phenomenon
and construct meanings around it (Bryman, 2004: 349), provides detailed
information on the major problems of orphans and community response on the
adverse impact of orphans. FGDs were used to collect data’s from orphans
those direct beneficiaries of both Addis Ketema and Addis Alem Iddirs. The
focus group discussions were conducted in Amharic language for the purpose
of clarity and to allow the respondents give their views freely and
compressively. Thus a total of two focus group discussions were conducted with
orphans. AASDI FGD participants (5 male and 4 female), in the orphan focus
group discussions were both double and single orphans ranged from the age 10-
16 and grade 2 to 5. Whereas, AKSDI FGD participants (4 female and 4 male),
were conducted with both double and single orphan ranged from 9-17 and grade
2 to 5. Generally two FGDs were conducted and 17 individuals were participated
in FGDs. The researcher was a moderator to all the FGD and each FGD costs 45
minutes on average.

3.4. Procedure of Data Collection

At the outset, the researcher contacted each respondent to get relevant
information in selecting the participants who are orphans, Iddirs members,
guardians, Iddirs committee. Concerning the respondents, discussions have
been made with them and regard the objective of the interview to minimize
misunderstanding and made an appointment to conduct interview. Finally, the
researcher with the help of tape recorder conducted the interview and focus
group discussion because the quality of the recording tends to be superior. But
some of interviews participants were not recorded with tape recorder because
they were not willing to be recorded because they fear electronic devices.

46
According to Guba (1996), the use of mechanical aids like audio or video may be
seen as obtrusive in some situations. Respondents may not wish their view to be
recorded on tape or video. The interview carried out lasted between thirty and
forty minutes. The focus group discussions were carried out lasted around 45-
60 minute.

3.5. Data Analysis and Interpretation

After finishing the data collection activity, the next task was translating the
collected data into English without losing their original meaning. The data will be
analyzed in terms of its emerging themes and subthemes. Content analysis will
be used to analyze data in this research. Notable is that in the analysis of data
the researcher made use of the model for analyzing the role of Iddirs in
addressing the needs of orphan children.

The information collected through all the above methods and techniques will be
summarized by using and categorizing the research concerns according in to
the main thematic issues. The findings are presented by dividing the research
informants and the information obtained into two groups. The first group is
orphan children respondents and the other group consisted of different
community members and service providers (Iddirs) and caregivers (families).
This method of analysis adheres to address the different research questions and
objectives by looking at different groups and analyzing all information obtained
from both groups separately. Next, the information will be collect together by a
method known as the triangulation of content analysis. Conclusions and
recommendations, in the context of care and support for orphan at the
community level, are based on the overall findings. Analysis of data will be done
using the following procedures: Familiarization with the data through review,
reading and listening, Transcription of tape recorded material, Organization and
indexing of data for easy retrieval and identification, Anonym sings of sensitive
data, Coding (may be called indexing), Identification of themes, Re-coding,
Development of provisional categorize, Exploration of relationships between

47
categories refinement of themes and categories, Report writing, including
excerpts from original data’s (e.g. quotes from interviews). The researcher will
analyze the data to give structure and meaning to it. The data analyzed is
extracted from transcribed interviews and field notes. The data will be analyzed
to understand the participant’s experiences, as obtained from the interviews
(Omery 1983).

3.6. Ethical Consideration

3.6.1. Informed Consent
Even though this research is with children, they are children between the ages
of 10 and 17. This group of children were able to say “No” or “Yes” to being part
of the research. The parents or guardians is given an option to be present
during the data collection process. The researcher would assure that, their
participation is voluntary and they are at liberty to withdraw from the research
process at any time. Robson (2002) argued that the child will be able to
appreciate at least something of what is involved and should be asked directly,
in addition to the parent. I informed them about the research and its purpose. I
thoroughly explained to them why I am interested in doing my research with
them. Amharic language is a medium of communication to deal with research
informants.

3.6.2. Confidentiality and Privacy

Particular attention was paid to the issue of privacy due to the nature of
research participants, i.e. orphans. At the beginning of each interview, I
discussed with the children their freedom to either or not tell me their names. All
of them mentioned their names to me, perhaps trusting that I said whatever they
told me would remain confidential. For reasons of anonymity, pseudonyms have
been used in place of the real names of the children. All the individual names in
the thesis are not real names of children involved in the research.

48
Permission was sought from the department of social work at Bahir Dar
University. I completed an ethical clearances form which was approved. Ethical
issues on revealing of one’s HIV status are going to be another issue, in
instances where either the guardian or the child is positive or both. Therefore
this information should be confidential according to the wish of the participant
unless otherwise, they willingly disclose their status to the public or community.

4. Data Presentation
This chapter deals with the major findings of the study, which is obtained
using different data collection instruments from various segments of the
community by including literature reviewed. The findings of the study are
analyzed based on the specific objectives listed of the first chapter of this
paper. In other words, I made an effort to present major types of care and
support services provided for orphans, major challenges Iddirs faced,
opportunities Iddirs have to support orphan in the study areas. In order to
meet the objectives, data were collected from 12 orphans and caregivers (4),
Iddirs members (4), Iddirs committee and focus group discussions
participants (17) with orphan. Accordingly, summary of findings will be
presented in the following manner.

4.1. Profiles of Study Participants

This section tries to describe background information about the target
population. The study participants were orphans and guardians drawn Adiss
Alem and Addis Ketema support and development Iddirs.

4.2. Profiles of Orphans

This section discusses profiles of 12 orphans who participated in the study as
respondents.

49
 Table 4 Profiles of Children
Name Se Age Grade Number of Duration of receiving Orphan type
x level Sibling support from Iddir
Bete F 12 4 1 2011 Maternal
Mulu F 11 4 1 2013 Paternal
Rosa F 11 3 - 2012 Paternal
Seble F 12 4 4 2012 Paternal
Selam F 12 4 1 2011 Dual orphan
Senite F 13 4 4 2013 Maternal
Belay M 11 3 3 2012 Paternal
Dannie M 12 4 2 2011 Dual orphan
Gashaw M 12 3 3 2012 Paternal
Leuel M 13 2 1 2011 Paternal
Mike M 13 4 2 2011 Dual orphan
Yohannis M 15 5 1 2011 Paternal

A total of 12 orphans (n=12, that is 6 girls and 6 boys) participated in this study.
Regarding their age composition, 5 children were 12 years old whereas, 3
children were 11, 3 children were 13 years old and 1 child was 15 years old. The
average age of orphans was 14. The youngest child was 11, and the oldest child
was 15 years old marking 4 years of difference.

Regarding their level of education, more than half of (that is 7 orphans) orphans
were grade 4, and 3 orphans were grade 3 students. Only one orphan was
attending class in grade 5 and he was 15 years old. One orphan was grade 2
student and he was 12 years old. During the interview all of the children were
attending school, however, they were at lower grade in relation to their age. In
the assessment of types of orphanage, 6 children lost their father (parental
orphan), 3 children lost their mother (maternal orphan), and 3 children lost both
their mothers and fathers (dual orphans).

Regarding duration that orphans receiving support from Iddir, almost half of
(that is 6) orphans were start receiving services since, 2011 whereas, 4 children
were 2012 and 2 children start receiving 2013. According to the demographic

50
information obtained from the interview session, in relation to the numbers of
siblings of orphans have: 5 orphans had 1 brother or sister, 6 orphans had 2 or
more siblings, and only one child had no sister or brother. Studies participants
show that, their guardians were engaged on daily labor work with small income
to support their kids.

4.2.1. Brief Description of Orphans

1. Bete
Bete was born in 2003 in Bahir Dar and lived with HIV virus. She is a fourth grade
student in Dona Ber primary school. Bete’s mother died from HIV/AIDS in 2010
and she had 3 year old brother and no sister. Bete’s father was living with HIV
virus marrying and born one baby called Ermias (3 years). Both her father and
step mother were living with HIV/AIDS. They lived in their private house. Both
her father and step mother were working in daily labor in construction site and
their average daily income is 50-60 per day. Bete has good relation with her step
mother. She received support Addis Ketema support and development Iddirs
since 2011.

2. Mulu
Mulu was born in 2004 in Bahir Dar. She has one sibling. She was 3 grades
student in Meskrium-16 Primary School. She is a medium ranking student in her
class. She is a maternal orphan. Her father was died by car accident in 2011. In
2013 her mother was marry other man and born one baby. Her step father is a
daily laborer but her Mother is working on petty trade. They lived in rented
private house. She has good relation with her step-father. During my
observation, she is very friendly girl. She received support from Addis Ketema
Support and development Iddir since, 2013.

3. Rosa
Rosa was born in 2004 in South Gondar zone, Amhara Region state. She had no
siblings. She was 3 grade students in Dona Ber Primary School. Her parents

51
were divorced in 2007, and her mother never received any child support from
her husband. Rosa was a small girl, when her mother took her to Bahir Dar, to
start petty trade. Later on Rosa’s mother became a daily laborer in construction
site. During that occasion, she tried her second marriage and became a
housewife. As with the first one, her second marriage also failed. Now average
income for her mother is around 400 birr per month (she wash cloth, baking
Injera). They lived in rented house. Rosa helps her mother selling goods along
the street. Before 2012 she was not entering in to school due to shortage of
money to purchase school materials. But in July 2012, Rosa life was changed
when Addis Ketema Support and development Iddir began providing support
through its OVC program.

4. Seble
Seble is 13 years old and 4th grade in Dona Ber primary school. She was born
and grew up in Bahir Dar city. She has 3 brothers and one sister. She lives with
her mother. She doesn’t know her dad as he died when she was very young. As
a result she was raised in a female headed household being protected from
burden in life at a younger age. Her mom used to work hard in preparation and
selling local beer in their small house to earn income for the family. Seble’s
brother is 18 years old and youngest sister who is born from a step dad is eight
years old. Her brother helps their family by repairing bicycle. During the
interview I observed that there are religious pictures that indicate her religious
inclination. But in 2012, Seble’s life was changed when Addis Ketema Support
and development Iddir began providing support through its OVC program.

5. Selam
Selam is 12 years and 4th grade student. She looks happy and feels she has a
bright future. She wants to be doctor when she finished her education. She is
the girl with better opportunities compared to the other girls interviewed. This is
partly explained by her background and responsibilities which were different
from the others. She has lost both parents (dual orphan). She doesn’t have that

52
much attachment to her parents since she doesn’t know her father at all and
that her mom died when she was 5 years old. Being the youngest in the family
and with the presence of a grandparent and older siblings in the household, she
was not burdened by the responsibility of heading the household. Selam’s family
gets support from her aunt and uncles; I can say their condition is fairly better
than that of the rest of the study informants. She explains their life to be
improving “our life condition is ok though I cannot say that it is fully
satisfactory it has been improving from time to time”. Particularly when I
became a beneficiary of Addis Alem support and development Iddir in 2011 our
life was changed.

6. Senayit
Senayit is 13 years old and fourth grade student in Teyema primary school. She
had one brother and three sisters. Both parents used to work but had a very low
income. Her mom used to sell spices prepared at home. Her dad was a daily
laborer in construction site. He drinks a lot and did not have much income to
support the family. When in that way they lead their life, her mother was
accidentally die since, 2011. After 6 months, her father was marrying other
women and lives together. Her stepmother is a house wife. But after the deaths
of her mother the only sources of income for six family members were her
father’s income only. Due to that reason their families are unable to meet their
basic need. But in 2013 Addis Alem support and development Iddir committee
selected her to become a beneficiary.

7. Belay
He is 13 years old and grade 3 students in Donan Ber Primary School, Bahir Dar.
He lives with his mother (parental orphan). His parents were divorced, when he
was a one year’s baby. But after three years she married other and born two
children (MM-9 and YY-8). His mother was a house wife, she do experienced on
generating money by doing anything else. In 2009 his step father was died by
car accident. Before his stepfather death, all expense of a family covered by him

53
(step father). But now her mother lead their life by doing different tasks like
washing cloth, baking Injera, working door to door daily works. They were
purchase different house equipment by car accident insurances (15,000 ETB).
Belay receives care and support services from OSSA, Mekdium Ethiopia, and
Addis Ketema Iddirs…etc. Addis Ketema support and development Iddirs was
identified me as “orphan and vulnerable child” since 2012.

8. Daniel
Perhaps the most serious consequences of children are the lost of parents. I do
not have a mother, because she was died six years later. I do not know my
father. After my mother was died and I have been living with my uncle. I am a
grade 4 student. I have one brother and sister, those lived with our aunt. I
always feel when I remembered my mother. As Dannie explained:
My mom used to take care of us all providing what we need
and protecting us. It is now after her death that I realize the
care and attention we had and wonder how she was able to
manage (Daniel).
My uncle is working as a daily laborer in the construction sector with very low
income by which he tried to support his family. To support my families’ income I
was starting shoe shining since 2010. But in 2011, Addis Alem support and
development Iddir select him to become a beneficiary in their OVC program.

9. Gashaw
Gashaw was 12 year old and grade 3 students in Teyema Primary School. He
lives with his mother (parental orphan). Gashaw lives with three of his siblings,
15 years old boy, 8 years old girl and 10 years old boy. Life was not easy for his
mom heading the house with 4 children. To support her children she used to
selling local beer (Tella) and work as volunteer at the Kebele when she was free.
They are living in rented house. Gashaw’s mother was not able to raise her
children as she was very young and lacked resources to raise the children. But
this daily income cannot satisfy four families basic need. As indicated by

54
Germann (2005:243), siblings are often divided out among relatives so that
the economic burden of each family is reduced if they take responsibility for
one rather than several children in one family. But in 2012, Addis Alem support
and development Iddir committee selected Gashaw to become a beneficiaries.

10. Leuel
Leuel is 13 years old and grade 2 students in Diele Chibo Primary School, Bahir
Dar. His parents were divorced since, 2009 and his father were died 2013. His
father lived in Gondar but he does not provide any support for him. His mother is
engaged on different works like, work as daily laborers, handpicking haricot
beans and coffee. His mother wage was 20 to 30 ETB per day. Leul support his
mother, in different means, for instances, he sold gum, candy, sometimes lottery
and generate money to help his mother. However, when he was grade 1 (2012),
his mother was ill, so he forced to become the sole breadwinner for his family. In
this case, to save his mother and young sister life, Leul decided to drop out to
school. After a lot of hardship, Addis Ketema Support and development Iddir
committees select provide support for him through its OVC program since,
2011.

11. Mikyase
Mikyase is 13 years old and grade 4 student in Donan Ber Primary School. He is
living with HIV virus since his birth. He has one brother and one sister. His
parents were divorced when he was 2, and he becomes dual orphan following
the death of his mother and father in 2007 and 2010 respectively. After the
deaths of his mother he obligated to live with his grandmother. But after three
years, his grandmother was also died since 2013. Now he is living with his aunt
she has good relation with him. They are lived in their own house. Mikyas’s aunt
is unmarried women (29 years old women). She is a daily laborer and earned
around 500 per month. He received care and support from OSSA, Mekdium
Ethiopia, and Addis Ketema Iddirs… Addis Ketema support and development
Iddirs was identified his as “orphan and vulnerable child” since 2011.

55
12. Yohannis
Yohannis is 15 years old and grade 5 student in Teyema primary school. He is
the first child for his mom not for his mother, was born at Bahir Dar. While he
was a child he moved to another area named Gondar, to live with his aunt. When
he was 10 years old, he came back to live with his mom and youngest sister.
Yohannis doesn’t know his father, due that reason his sister and him grew up in
a female headed household. For many years, their mother was engaged on daily
laborers in the construction sector with very low income by which she tried to
support the family till she was sick; but know his mom is a waver (traditional
cloth maker). After he returns back to school, he sold different goods like Gum,
candy, Lottery in different time to support his mother income. Now he is a
beneficiary of Addis Alem support and development Iddirs starting from since
2011.

4.2.2. Brief Profiles of Guardians

Guardians were other unit of analysis from which information were collected. In
order to have full understanding about the situation of orphans, I tried to
incorporate profiles of guardians (orphans guardians). The explored results
were presented in the following manner.

56
Table: 5 Brief profiles of Guardians and relationships with orphans
Name Se Ag Marital Edul R/ship Famil Orphans Occupation
e
x status Background y size name
Huly F 40 widow Grade 2 Mother 4 Belay Baking Injera
Gedu M 40 Marrie Non- Father 4 Bete Daily labor
d literate
Addis M 40 Marrie Grade 5 Uncle 2 Daneil Daily labor
u d
Messa F 41 Widow Non- Mother 5 Gashaw Selling local
y literate beer

Aster F 35 Widow Non- Mother 3 Yohnnis Weaver

literate
Rahel F 32 Widow Non- Mother 3 Leuel Daily labor
literate
Maeza F 29 Single Grade 6 Aunt 2 Mikyase Daily labor
Zebyd F 35 Marrie Grade 8 Mother 1 Mulu Petty trade
er d
Lemel F 30 Widow Non- Mother 2 Rosa Daily labor
m literate
Genet F 40 Widow Non- Mother 6 Seble Local beer
literate
Azeb F 55 Widow Non- G/moth 3 Selam House wife
literate er
Demik M 43 Marrie 4 Father 6 Senayit Daily laborer
e d

As Table 5, shows, guardians of 9 orphans were biological mother and fathers,

and the guardians of 3 orphans’ were grandmother, uncle and aunt. Out of 12
orphan guardians, 9 guardians’ of studied participant were female whereas, 3
were male. This refers female guardians were dominantly participating in these
studies. Guardians age compositions ranges from 29-55 years old. Concerning

57
their marital status 4 guardians were married, 7 were widows and 1 female
guardian was single. Concerning family sizes of guardians, 5 guardian’s family
size ranges from 4-6 family members, whereas, 7 guardian’s family size ranges
from 2-4 family members.

The occupational backgrounds of guardians of children were assessed.

Accordingly, 6 guardians were in daily laborers as sources of income. Whereas,
2 guardians sources of incomes, were engaged on selling local beer (local
drinking prepared in a traditional system), and 4 guardians generating income in
waver (traditional cloth maker), house wife, petty trade and baking Injera (tiny
bread made from the dough of Teff).

Educational statuses of guardians were also examined. As shown from the table
above, 5 guardians were reached primary education, whereas, 7 guardians
were illiterate i.e. unable to read and write. Parental relationship with the
guardians were one basic question that I forwarded to guardians, in relation to
this, 7 children’s were lived with their mother, whereas, 2 children’s were living
with their father. But 3 children’s were living with their uncle, grandmother, and
aunt. This refers that, 9 children’s are living with one of their biological parents,
but 3 children’s were living with their extended families.

4.2.3. Types of Support Iddirs Provide to Orphans

A. Sources of Income for Iddir
Iddir generate revenues from different sources such as, member’s monthly
contribution, penalties, material rents, donor’s contribution and other sources.
According to my informant from (IC-3) discus in this way; “we have different
sources of income for our Iddir from these members contribution take lion
share. For example in 2013/2014, we collected 38,592 ETB from member’s
monthly contribution” (Iddir committee member’s informant IC-3).

58
In addition to member’s contribution, Iddir generate income from penalties;
Penalties can be linked to mistake of members as well as omission in performing
the Iddir commitment. Fines are adjusted regarding the importance of the fault.
Financial sanctions can vary depending of the Iddir bylaws. For instances, if
members not paying monthly contribution on time (1 ETB), not attending
quarterly and semi-annually general meeting (5 ETB form both Iddir, but they do
not always practically applied) and other fault lead Iddir members become
penalized.
According to my informants from (IC-1) in 2014 we were collecting
441 ETB from penalty. When he guesses their average year income
of their Iddirs due to penalty is approximately 300-400 ETB. This is
can be considerably heavier for defaulting members. But these
monetary sentences can be sources of income for our Iddirs.
Additionally, Iddirs generated incomes in new member’s entrances fees. New
Iddir members can be seen two ways:

Local resident members: For example, young man that used to be living in the
house of his parents, themselves members of the Iddir will be considered as an
indirect member of the Iddir. As a household member he will benefited the Iddir
service, but he does not himself contributed to the Iddir individually. If this young
man get married and settle in a new house, he will have to be a full member to
benefit the Iddir assistance. At that time they are expected to pay entrances
fees. But the amount of fee which is paid for entrances is the same with distant
resident entrances fee. Distant resident member: This refers to a fee paid by a
resident external to the Iddir /new comers for the residents and who want to join.
In these contexts, Iddir entrance fee is fixed at 500 ETB (AASDI) and 500 ETB
(AKSDI).

Other sources of income were linked with Iddir material renting. In case of social
event such as wedding, and other ceremonies Iddir rent benches, tents (250
ETB for 3 days including benches), and plate (0.50 cent to1.00 birr for 1 plate) to

59
the community. On the same trend, neighboring Iddir with no or small payment
can rent other Iddir material for funeral purposes. The informants from both
Iddir committees told to the researcher that:
AASDI have two Bajaj which was purchased in 2012 and one
computer center in kebele 11. From those assets AASDI maximized
5500-6000 ETB per month on average. In addition to that, they rent
tents, plate and benches and generate 200-500 ETB per month. In
the same instant, AKSDI have two Bajaj and material for rents from
those materials, the association generate 6000-7000 ETB per
month.
In addition to the above sources of income for Iddirs donor’s contribution
from governmental or non-governmental organization also play crucial role for
sustainability’s of their services provision. In relation to these, both Iddirs
received different material and financial support from GOs and NGOs. For
instances, in 2014 AASDI in addition to internal sources of finance for their
support, they received income from governmental and nongovernmental
organization this support is described in terms of their level of contribution
(percentage) in this way: Forum on sustainable child empowerment (FSCE) 10%,
Care Ethiopia 18%, Aflagat Hospital 15%, Organization for social services for
AIDS (OSSA) 2%, Government (30%), JeCCDO 25% from their total expense to
support orphans in 2013 (from document review).

Non-governmental organization for example, Care Ethiopia provides office

equipment for AASDI and AKSD in 2014, 2 computer, 1 printer, 2 table and 5
chairs for those selected Iddirs. In addition to this, Iddir receive support for
governmental organization such as, from local governments (local sub-cities),
offices and store (helps to keep their materials). In the same way, OSSA provide
income generation training (including saving skill and financial record keeping)
for orphan guardians in 2014 for 1 week.

60
Table 6, Sources of income for Iddirs during 2014 (2006 Ethiopian budget year)
AASDI AKSDI
Financi Material othe financial material Others
al rs
Intern Member con. 38.592 - - 32426 - -
al Penalties 572 - - 441 - -
Material rents 4104 - - 3154 - -
New member 1500 - - 2000 - -
E.
Bajaj 39500 - - 41250 - -
Computer 9400 - - - - -
center
Others
Exter Government - Office - - Offices -
nal NGOs 100,500 Office Trai 88000 Office Trainin
equipme n equipme g
nt ing, nt
soap
,
Sources, Document review

4.2.4. Type of Care and Support Iddirs Provide to Orphans

Now a day, in addition to burial objectives; Iddirs organize themselves and do
different developmental and humanitarian activities in their locality. For
instances, Addis Alem support and development Iddir members affirmed that,
Iddirs aggressively work on provision of social services and social security,
peaces maintenances, and help vulnerable groups of the society (like orphan,
elderly) in addition to burial services for their member.

Why Iddirs were engaged on supporting orphans. They mentioned various

reasons that given as a source of initiation for Iddirs to engaged on care and
support activities. According to AASDI Iddir officials, a reason for taking part in
care and support activities includes both internal and external reasons. Internal
reasons include increased number of deaths and orphaned children in the

61
community. External reason includes those initiations coming from outside
bodies like partner NGOs, local authorities and other bodies.

Another participant of AKSDI members added that:

“…….government were failed to meet the socio-economic demands of the
community at the local level such as, caring orphans and elderly, fulfilling
infrastructure and basic services for the community”. According to the chair
person of Addis Alem support and development Iddir, they were stated working
on supporting orphans from 2011, through consolidating themselves through
income generating activities to support orphans. The chair person of AASDI
affirmed that:
Before 2011 Iddir members were pay their monthly contribution for
burial activities. But some of our Iddir members raised question in
relation to why we support vulnerable groups of the community
lived in our neighborhood particularly orphan and vulnerable
children. After that all our Iddir members discuss and agreed on it.
In the beginning of 2011 we decided to collect one birr from each
members of the Iddir and we tried to support school stationary and
uniforms for few orphans. Our work was got support from different
government and nongovernmental organizations. For example
OSSA, kebele administration, Mekdeum Ethiopia, Care Ethiopia
provide financial as well as material assistances for us to continue
our care and support activities. And we purchase two Bajaj and
opening computer center in Kebele-11 to sustain our income
generating activities.
In similar manner, AKSDI committee describes the reason that their
Iddirs were involved in support provision due to awareness raising and
sensitization workshops that are conducted by partner NGOs seem to be
reasons for engagement of AKSDI in care and support activities.
Generally, local government authorities and NGOs (OSSA, Care Ethiopia,
and Mekdium Ethiopia and others) seem to be sources of motivation for

62
Addis Ketema Support and development Iddirs to be involved in care and
support of vulnerable groups of the societies.

Thus, the response made by orphan beneficiaries like Selam, Mike, Dannie,
Bete, John and Luel affirmed that: They started getting services from Iddirs
starting from 2011. Whereas, informant likes Rosa, Seble, Belay and Gashaw
were getting services since 2012. Other informants like Seni and Mulu were
starting getting services since 2015.

In-depth interviews were held with orphan beneficiaries of both Iddirs. It was
found that interviewees generally receive different support from Iddirs such as:
psychological, emotional and economic support. The type of support that
association offers is provision of school materials like pen, exercise book,
pencil, ruler, rubber and school uniform. In addition to these, they receive soap
(for cloth and shower) to keep their hygiene, medical support, flour and receive
startup capital for their care giver after giving income generation and saving
skill training.

Like the interviewees, the focus group discussion participants were describing
the type of support provided by both Iddirs were similar with in-depth interview
participants. For example, 12 years old child during FGD stated that:
“…...in 2014 AASDI supporting me 10 exercise book, 6 pen, 2 ruler, and school
uniform without any payment.”
According to key informant interview results with Iddir committees; their
organizations offers 25 kg flour per month, school stationeries material (per-
year), school uniform (per-year), soap (2 per month), medical support (any local
medical expense), starting capital for their family 1500 ETB (it is similar for both
Iddirs). Interview with the informants from Iddir committee (IC-2) also strength
the argument that:
We are support those children’s they lose their biological parents
(parental, maternal or double orphans); financially, emotionally and

63
 psychologically. Know, each of the orphans which are direct
beneficiaries of our Iddir can attend their school and we strive to
fulfill their basic need by coordinating our self with governmental
and nongovernmental organization. (Interview from-Addis Ketema
support and development Iddirs committee)

In-depth interview was held with guardians of orphan beneficiaries. It was found
that interviewees generally felt that they were being helped by both Iddirs. For
instances, Maeza describe in the following way:
AKSDI, beyond its major objective, has been helping vulnerable
groups of the societies (like, my brother). For example, my brother
(Mikyase) is living with HIV virus since his birth and dual orphan. By
considering his problem, AKSDI provide 25 kg flour (not regular), 2
soaps and 3 liter oil (it is not regular) per month. Beside this, they
were providing me 1500 ETB for startup capital to support my
family’s income. In addition to this AKSDI cover all medical expense
of my brother.
The respondents from orphans (FGD and interview) participants describe that:
“…..psychological and emotional problems that orphan experienced are so
severe that they do not want to remained and think about it”. The most important
coping mechanism that orphans mentioned repeatedly is the existences of
Iddirs. This is also confirmed by the interview made with Iddir committee.

4.2.5. Orphans and Care givers Reflections about Support provided by the Iddirs
According to the information gathered from Iddir members and Iddir committee
indicates that, level of communities’ awareness to the problems of orphan hood
is relatively high. Because indigenous community based organization like Iddirs
are working to change the attitudes of communities by support orphans.

64
Iddirs members told to the researcher that, orphans are part of the societies.
Communities have an obligation to provide care and support for them. The
informant also mentioned that, orphans are living in poverty, the community
must give positive response for their request and tried to assist orphans as their
capital permits them. The involvement of Iddirs is justified as follows: “since
Iddirs are working closely with the community, it is believed that they know
members of community who are vulnerable societies very well and the kind of
intervention required to address the problem” (Iddir committee members).

In addition, one Iddir members describe in this way:

Human beings are a mortal creature, if we do not provide proper
care and support for orphans know; if I passed way my children may
face similar problem that exist know. So, provide care for present
orphan means, alleviating problems for future services provision.
In addition to the community the researcher was asked orphans perception
about the services. The response made by orphans (like selam, Mike and Beti)
told to the researcher about perceptions towards services provision by Iddirs,
they affirmed that:
“The services that we receive in the Iddirs are tailored to our needs
and have changed our life”.

In-depth interview participants discussed that, when parents are alive, they
tried to give their best to their children with their limited income and difficult
living conditions. In this regard Seyait, explained that, her parents particularly,
her mother was gave different care and support to them. Senyit further
explained in this way:
My mom used to take care of us all providing what we need and
protecting us. But after her death, my father takes me to live with
him. My father is a daily laborer his wife is a housewife. Due to the
above scenario, I stopped my education. I was engaged on selling
different goods around street to support my family. But 2014 Addis

65
 Ketema support and development Iddir propose me as a
beneficiary. And the association provides school stationeries
material, school uniform, medical care and others.
Other informants of care givers (Care Giver 2) describe how Iddirs support
changes life of her family in this way:
My life is changing mainly because of the startup capital and income
generating on skill training that I receive from Addis Alem support
and development Iddir in collaborations with OSSA. My initiative to
engage in income generative activities also increased. Thanks to
God, I start a petty trade around my house and I led a better life than
before with my children. My plan for future is to take money from
credit association on credit base and expand my business (Care-
giver-2 interview participants).
Similarly, leaders of AASDI Iddirs reported that, they incur their lots time for
non-burial activities (income generation activities of Iddirs). He briefly,
explained that “We run out of time to go further than burial activities to increase
numbers of beneficiaries and services that we provide for them. So, we are
highly committed to such activities." The commitment of Iddirs leaders is
assumed to be a determinant for the success of our activities with the regard
provision of services for orphans as well as other development activities
"(Interview with the Iddir leaders, AASDI).
A quotation from one of the informant (IC-3) states that:
The association is helpful in soliciting care and support to orphan
that could be in most cases financial and educational support. In
addition to these, our association is a source of psychological and
emotional support for children’s. But providing psychological and
emotional support for each of the orphans problems and difficulties
and search solutions are difficult. In this case, we meet Orphans
and care giver once every month in a separate session; and discuss
their issues with the assistance of volunteers in the community who

66
 are committee of the Iddirs and Iddir members (IC-3 Iddir committee
of Addis Alem support and development iddir).

4.2.6. Criteria’s to select Orphans Receiving Support

Iddirs apply different approaches and techniques that used to select orphan
beneficiaries from the community. The selections of beneficiaries were in
collaboration with the orphan task force at sub-city and Iddirs committee. The
association considers guardians background in terms of their education level,
employment and marital status because, it could contribute to see the ability of
the caregivers to support the orphans. If the guardians were well educated and
employed or married, they might be better able to support the orphans in
comparison to unemployed or single caregivers. Family sizes of the care givers
also considered, to select orphans because the more children in the family, the
pressure on those who were supporting the orphan and guardians increased
burden.

By considering the above points, both Iddirs always in September starting

2011till 2014, orphan task force of both Iddir were receive application from
orphan to become a beneficiaries. Those applicants were evaluated through the
above criteria. For example, a child lived with aunt or uncle is more chance to be
selected than child lived with his mother. In the same manner, a child lived with
7 family members has get a chances to become a beneficiaries than a child lived
with 3 family members.

Both Iddir employees similar age limit criteria to select orphan to become
beneficiaries, i.e. a child less than 18 years. But after children become
beneficiaries and their age limit to got support has different orientation that both
Iddirs follow. For example, AKSDI rules justified that, if orphans age is above
18years they stop their support provision. According to AKSDI committees:

67
 “…..a child above 18 years can support himself/ herself by
engaging different works so we stop our provisions of support to
fulfill the needs of other young orphan children’s”.
In contrary, AASDI, support their beneficiaries even their age is above 18
years. For example in AASDI Iddir, there are 3 beneficiaries their age
were beyond 18 years. According to AASDI committee,
We support 3 orphans their age is more than 18 years, 2 orphans
learn in Bahir Dar TVET collage and 1 orphan in Deretabour
University follow their education. And we provide 250 ETB per
month, by changes material values (e.g flour, school uniform) to
monetary values.

In general, both Iddirs employee the following criteria to select beneficiaries:

 Orphan hood status (single or double orphan) – double orphans have a
higher possibilities to be selected than single orphan because their levels
of vulnerability is may vary.
 Orphans’ health condition: means, if an orphan who is lived with HIV/AIDS
has big chance to be selected than orphans lived in good health condition.
 Family size: numbers of children which is dependent in the household.
 Care givers situation: like economic situation, care givers age, and other
condition
 Parental relation with orphans: with whom children lived now? Uncle,
mother, aunt, relatives, father etc.

By using the above criteria, screening committee which constitute community

care and support association (CCSA), Kebele officials, orphan representative
committee from Iddirs selected orphans who were eligible to receive support
from both Iddirs. Moreover, respondents from Iddir community explained that:
Target orphans were selected by Community care and support
association (CCSA) and rechecked by our Iddir committee. In order
to see, selected beneficiaries were fulfilled our selection criteria to

68
 select beneficiaries. CCSA are combination of different parties like,
kebele official, Iddir representative, village elderly and other
community member of a society. By organizing those stakeholders
we select our beneficiaries to attain transparency (IC-1, in Addis
Ketema Support and development Iddir).

4.2.7. Orphans’ Relation with Their Caregivers and Iddirs

Orphans’ interaction with others is one of the main factors influencing
resilience. Thus, assessing orphans relation with caregivers and others has a
paramount importance for their resilience. Participating in household activities
and giving respect for others among other things influence caregivers’
companionability to orphans. As a result of these the researcher first asked
sampled orphans about their respect for caregivers.

Participants in the FGD of orphans indicate that their caregivers are good and
willing to do whatever they asked them if they have money to offer. Most of the
caregivers are unable to satisfy the demands of orphans since they are poor.
The orphans acknowledge this situation and admit most of the custodies as
companionable. On the other hand, orphans look other alternatives if they feel
that their caregivers are not companionable for them.

One FGD participant, clearly put how his aunt (daily laborer) is more
comfortable than the rich uncle. He explained in this ways:
My uncle is relatively rich when we compare with my aunt; he has a
super market and he has his own house. However his face is always
cloud when he sees me so haven’t good relations with him because he
is fewer companions to help me. But my aunt is a daily laborer in a
construction site, she is generous and cared about me. I am
responsible to cook our lunch and engage in some domestic works
when she went out of home for job. We talk to each other and I am very
happy with her.

69
In addition to FGD studies participants, data’s were gathered through interview
described that: All most all participants indicate that, there were good
relationship with their caregiver and their caregivers have a good manner. One
orphan informant (Lule) affirmed that: “I am living with my father since the
death of my mom in 2003. My step mother is very sociable and she considers
me as her child. She always smiles. I freely talk with her and it is easier for me to
ask her when I need cloth, shoe and stationary materials”. Here I freely admits
that I didn’t use any other skill to measure relationship and companionship
for the orphans; rather the researcher simply asked the orphans to give
their personal judgment.

4.2.8. Rules of Iddirs to Support Orphans

Addis Alem and Addis Ketema support and development Iddirs have their own
organizational structure and decision making procedure (bylaws) in place that
allows participatory and inclusive decision making and consultation among
members and their committee members. The highest decision making body in
the association is general assembly which consists of all Iddir members and has
a powered to pass important decisions including the decision to dissolve the
association when deemed necessary decision. To pass any decision and to
endorse those decisions, the resolution must be supported by a simple majority
vote of members of the general assembly. Thus, any decision passed in the
absence of this requirement is considered as null and void. Both Iddir committee
members do not receive any remuneration for exercising their functions.

The internal dynamism of both Iddirs is relatively similar; they were starting their
contribution by 0.25 cents. Regarding growth or increment of contribution,
despite some variations the trend seems to be similar, this system was in
operation even with gradual increment of contributions in most cases until
contributions reached 5 ETB for AKSDI and 8 ETB for AASDI.

70
Both Iddirs have their procedure on collections of monthly contribution from
their members for burial services as well as developmental activities. For
instances, AASDI collect 8 ETB per month from their members, from this 90%
(7.20) ETB for burial activities whereas, 10% (0.80 cents) ETB for developmental
activities (supporting orphan, elderly…etc). In similar condition, AKSDI Iddir
members contribute 5 ETB per month, from this 1 ETB for developmental
activities whereas, 4 ETB for burial services.

In connection to payments paid to deceased family, it is significantly increased

in proportion to member’s monthly contribution. At the initial stage Iddirs were
simply covering funeral expenses, but now, additional payments were made to
the deceased family. Recently up to 1200.00 to 1800.00 ETB is being paid in both
Iddirs.

According to Iddir committee and members, in earlier period due to lack of

access and experiences to get bank services; they collected money and
accumulated in the hands of Iddirs’ leaders. As a result, Iddirs money was
exposed to embezzlement by leaders. But AKSDI (2000) and AASDI (2004)
opened bank account by the names of their association. As far as compositions
of ethnic and regional named Iddirs are concerned, both Iddir committee
informants argue that, from the very beginning those Iddirs were not strictly
composed of members of specified ethnic and regional groups. In both contexts,
Iddir members were originally based on ethnicity, religion, and kinship

Iddirs practices there own ethical principles like governmental organization and
non-governmental organization. One respondent from Iddir committee (IC-4)
further explained that:
AASDI is more democratic in their manner, transparent and
accountable to their members. General assembly meeting is held bi-
annually. To the general assembly, activity and audited financial
reports are submitted. Every four years free and fair elections are

71
 conducted. Hence, Iddir leaders claim that they are living up to the
standard of democratic, transparent and accountable leadership.
In addition to these, Iddirs are acting as change agents, in the case of AASDI
and AKSDI Iddirs, efforts to made change harmful traditional practices such as,
preparing costly monuments, unnecessary burial expenses have tended on
behavioral and attitudinal changes among community members. Both Iddirs
incorporated in their bylaws, members of Iddirs minimize unnecessary event
called Goji Bahilawi Dergitoch (Harmful traditional practices). For instances,
Selist (third day mourning) in the church, Yehazen Tikur Libise (Mourning black
cloth), Yehazen Melse Digis (feast after burial),Tezkar ( feasts on 7th, 12th, 40th,
80th days, 6th month and every up to 7th year of the deceased) and other harmful
traditional practices.

4.2.9. Opportunities and Challenges of Iddirs in Care and Support provision to

Orphans
Iddir is the most widespread association in Ethiopia but its composition, system,
approach and size may differ from place to place. But all over Iddirs are
community’s oriented organization and mostly religiously and ethnically
heterogeneous association.

4.2.9.1. Opportunities of Iddirs in supporting Orphan

One reasons that, Iddirs to become more involved in development arenas are
due to an enabling environment was created, because, their roles and activities
were supported by legal framework that encourages their activities. These help
those association gain acceptance from government and nongovernment
agencies, to playing in developmental issues. By considering these, GOs and
NGOs are working with Iddirs at the local level to maximizing two advantages.
One is that it is very easy to find the poor and marginalized groups such as
women and elders in community. The second, it helps external actors to get

72
legitimacy from the community which in turn has positive impacts for project
sustainability and sense of ownership.

Additionally, according to Iddir officials, major opportunities of Iddirs involving

in supporting orphan and vulnerable children are identified as follows:
 Iddirs can mobilize the community easily
 They can mobilize and recognized among members of the community
 Can be use as a bridge between community and GOs and NGOs.

4.2.9.2. Challenges of Iddirs to Support Orphans

Provide care and support activities for orphans are not easy tasks. The explored
challenges will be presented in the following manner. All the informants indicate
that in the study area number of orphans outnumbered the resources available
in the organizations hand. Selecting appropriate beneficiaries to the limited
resources is difficult task. In other hand, screening beneficiaries is a major
challenge for those who involved in care and support activities. Number of
orphans lived in the sub-city are many in number.

My informants revealed that, they were faced with a number of challenges at

different level from different actors. As indicated by most of the informants,
some of the challenges at the organizational level include limited commitment
and willingness among members to join leadership position, lack of
professional’s skills in the leadership position, and members’ limited labor and
time contribution in local development activities. For example, from both Iddir
committees’ informants (4 sample Iddir committee informants) currently, 3 were
pensioner (2 were labor in Bahir dar textile factory and 1 was involved in
informal sector) and 1 of the Iddir committee was teacher.
One informant from Iddir committee revealed that,
“We have Iddir members from different disciplines, such as,
doctors, bank managers, and other profession but those

73
 professional were not willing to take part in leadership position to
manage the day to day activities of our Iddir”.

Shortage of skilled professional such as, social workers and counselors

mentioned as the main factors that hinder Iddirs support provision. For example,
both Iddirs provide psychological and emotional support for orphan as well as
their guardians by not professional counselor rather by elderly Iddir member,
Iddir committee. In addition, social workers are important to mobilize
community about the problems and needs of orphans. Recently community
based intervention has been initiated by AKSDI and AASDI Iddirs in care and
support activities of orphans by mobilizing their members.

The other serious challenges, respondents indicated that, "lack of money or

financial shortages and related limitations are the major problems faced in their
support activities”. Financial problems are identified to be acute in the activities
of Iddir in provision of care and support for orphans. Due to HIV/AIDS and other
death, Iddir member death rate is high, this leads Iddirs spend lot of members to
cover burial cost and support deceased family members.

Other challenges which were described by Iddirs leaders were lack of interest
by some of Iddirs members. Because most of selected Iddir members generate
their income from the informal sector, i.e. low income settlers. Another
challenges mentioned by Iddir committee and members is the increasing
numbers of orphans living within the community. Poverty is the leading
challenges because many of the orphan guardians have reached the points in
which they no more able to provide proper care and support for orphans. Some
of these problems were so deep-rooted that they need the involvement of many
stakeholders and actors. These people are engaged in such informal economic
activities such as, petty trade, preparing local drinks and daily labor works that
provide subsistence life. This leads problems become multi-dimensional and
interrelated.

74
The other major problem that was underlined by the respondents is lack of
technical knowledge to run more complex and far reaching development
activities in their association. Because, most of the tasks which is executed by
Iddir members. In addition to this, Lack of access to external assistance,
commitment of Iddir members and fear of embezzlement and confiscation from
the government side is identified as major hindrances in supporting orphans in
selected Iddirs.

75
 5. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION

5.1. CONCLUSION
The numbers of orphans have been increasing sharply from time to time in
Ethiopia, but the phenomenon is not fully addressed in terms of studies. There is
no comprehensive and reliable data on the situation of orphans especially at a
local level. The main objectives are explore types of care and support Iddirs
provide to orphans, assess sources of income for Iddirs, explore orphan’s
relation with their caregivers, understand the efforts being made by the orphans
and their care givers to become resilient, explore how the community is
organized to provide care and mitigate the adverse impact of orphanage and
investigate the various care arrangements provided by the government and
nongovernmental organization for orphans.

Iddirs have been established for the sole purpose of providing burial services
for their members, but now they started to provide financial and emotional
support for vulnerable groups of the community. Therefore, the involvement of
Iddirs in care and support activity has a significant contribution in improving the
life of orphans and their guardians. The involvement of Iddirs in project
implementation is also crucial for the effectiveness of the project. The care and
support activities have also started local resource mobilization from Iddir
members in the form of monthly contribution and their income generation
activities.

The study finding shows that, even though there is awareness to the problem of
orphan hood living in the community, response to the problem is very low. But
local community based organization such as Iddirs; took initiative and able to
respond to orphans problem by providing basic care and support activities to
address the problems of orphans in the community. However, their care and
support provision is insufficient and fluctuated through time, because most of

76
their income (funds) for care and support activities generated from donors (local
and international NGOs).

The conclusion that can be drawn from this research on the relationship
between orphans and custody is that extended families regardless of their low
economic status are at the heart of the care and support activities. Caregivers
approach orphans on a companionable manner. This can be a counter argument
for those who (Foster, 2000) claim that the extended family loses its orphan care
and support role due to the high pressure of HIV/AIDS.

The life situation most orphans and their caregivers in the study areas are
experiencing is full of hardships severe and their life chances and choices are
very limited. They are living in small income, where they generate in the informal
sector as daily laborers, waver, petty trader and local drinks sellers (Tella).The
heavy burden on orphans care and support lies on female- headed households
and extended family. This makes the concern of care and support more
complicated and difficult for these groups are already under stress and socially
and economically weak and unable to meet their daily needs.

In the study areas, governmental and non-governmental organizations were

strived to support basic needs of orphans and their guardians. Governmental
organization like, local sub-cities and other governmental unit were busy in
awareness creation for communities in problems of orphans. On the other hand,
Non-governmental organizations such as Care Ethiopia, Mekdium Ethiopia,
OSSA and other NGOs made partnership with Iddirs and providing care and
support for orphans. They provide; school uniform, stationary materials,
counseling, IGA training and provision of seed money for their guardians to help
orphans.

In general, there is no question; therefore, that Iddirs could be successful

mechanisms in involving the community in the multispectral effort for alleviating

77
community problem in general orphans problem in particular. It can be argued
that they should be areas of special focus in the present situation when the
government is increasingly decentralizing spectral activities.

The literature that I have reviewed acknowledges that orphans still find it
difficult to access education, cloth, food and this is due to many factors and
challenges. The study also suggest that further research on problems of
orphans and their guardians for design and provision of services that focus on
children’s is needed. Provision of care and support given by Iddirs has to
continue and other care and support programs developed by local as well as
international NGOs necessary as the numbers of orphans is increasing at a
faster rate than the community response. However, in long run side by side with
the implementation of these projects should be community mobilization and
increased government’s commitment to care for orphan. The study show that
the main challenges that community encountered is its effort to provide care and
support emanated from different sources. Individuals, groups, community and
national and local governments would solve most of these challenges through
collective effort. For the future more research is needed on roles of Iddirs on
mobilization of community resources opportunities and challenges to alleviate
community problems. This would help to come up with best practices that would
help reduce dropout rates.

78
5.2. Implications
Depending on the results of the findings obtained and the conclusions drawn,
the following strategies (implications) are forwarded so as to increased roles of
local community based organization such as Iddirs on supporting orphans in the
study areas.
Concerning Research and Policy
Sharper analysis is needed
 Concerned government and non-governmental organization should strength
the effort made by the Iddirs and in order to bring a sustainable response for
the orphan’s problem.
 Efforts should be made to strength activities of Iddirs, for instances, one key
challenges for Iddirs facing in care and support activities were absences of
professionals human resources. So, concerned governmental, NGO’s, CBO’s
and FBO’s should have to support to recruit professional staffs such as,
social worker, psychologist, project developer and other professional is
important to the successful care and support provision for orphans.
 Iddirs is the most widespread indigenous voluntary organization, research is
seriously lacking on all its aspect. Hence, it is essential to undertake
extensive research on a national scale.
 Other Iddirs in the study areas, scale-up good practices of AASDI and AKSDI
in provision of care and support activities of vulnerable groups of the
community.
 Iddirs should expand their care and support activities (in terms types of
support, numbers of beneficiaries) by empowering themselves.

79
 References
Almayehu Seifu, (1968). "Eder in Addis Ababa: A Sociological Study", in
Ethiopian Observer (1968) edited by Richard and Rita Pankhurst, Vol. 12.
Anna Whitehouse. (2002) A Situational Analysis of Orphan and Vulnerable
Children in Mwanza Region, Tanzania.
ANRS BOLSA & save the children Norway, (2008). Situational analysis on OVCs
in Amhara Region with special references to urban towns. Bahir Dar.
Bahir Dar City Administration, (2004). The city of Bahir Dar: A profile. Bahir Dar:
Author.
Bimal Kanta, (2014). Orphan problems and community concern in Ethiopia.
International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research
(IJMSSR), vol. 3:1
Bustorf, D. & Schaefer C., (2003). “Idder” Encyclopedia Aethiopica, Volume 2,
Cardoso, I. D. B., (2010). National plan of action for orphans and vulnerable
children. Save the Children UK.
Cairnest, B., M. Harris, (2006). Servants of the community or Agents of
Government? The role of community-based organizations and their
contribution to Public services delivery and civil renewal. Institute for
Voluntary Action Research.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA), (2011). Ethiopian Demographic and Health
Survey. Addis Ababa, CSA.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA), (2015). Ethiopian Demographic and Health
Survey. Addis Ababa, CSA.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative.
London: Sage
Dejene Aredo. (2003), Iddir: A look as a form of social capital. In Pankhurst, A.
(ed.) Iddirs: participation and development. Proceedings of the Ethiopian
national conference ACORD: Addis Ababa.
Dejene Aredo, (2010), The Iddir: An informal insurance arrangement in Ethiopia,
Center for Development Research, 35(1), 53-72.

80
Degefa, M. Y. (2010). How Informal Institutions Strengthen Sustainable
Management of Common Pool Resources in Tigray , Ethiopia ?
Management
Dessalegn Rahmato (1999) ‘The Growth of Civil Society institutions in Ethiopia’.
Situation assessment Survey conducted for Forum for Social Studies
(FSS), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Ephrem Sheferaw, (2010). The role of community-based organizations in local
development: A comparative study of three “Iddirs” in Addis Ababa,
Unpublished MA Thesis in social work, Addis Ababa University.
Fowler, Alan; (2012). Institutional development and NGOs in Africa: Policy
perspectives fro European Development Agencies. INTRAC, NOVIB. 39-40
Gebru Mulugeta & Rebecca Atnafou, (2000). transitioning from institutional care
of orphans to community-based care: The experience of Ethiopia’s
Jerusalem
Greig, A. Talor, J., Mackay, T. (2007). Doing Research with Children. London:
Sage Publications Ltd.
Haile Gebriel Dagne; (2000). Traditional community Based Organizations in the
Service of Rural Development, A paper prepared for the XIV International
Conference on Ethiopia
Hailu Abatena, (2005). The Potential Contribution of Indigenous Self-help and
Mutual Aid organizations to the Socio-economic Development of Ethiopia,
LaData, New Orleans Louisiana.
HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control Office, (2009). Comprehensive Community-
based Care and Support Guideline for PLWHA, OVC Affected Families,
Draft. Addis Ababa
Hornby, A. S. (1998). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.
Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Korten, C. David; (1990). Getting to the 21st Century, Voluntary Action and the
Global Agendas; People - centered Development Forum, Kumarian Press
Kumar, R. (1996). Research Methodology.,Step by step guide for beginners.
London: Sage Publications.

81
Marta segu & Sergut Wolde-Yohannes, (2000). A Mounting Crisis: Children
Orphaned by HIV/AIDS in Semi urban Ethiopia. Orphan Alert: International
Perspectives on Children Left Behind by HIV/AIDS.
Mauri A., (2006), “The Role of Financial Intermediation in the Mobilization and
Allocation of Household Savings in Developing Countries: The Case of
Ethiopia”, Proceedings of Expert Meeting. East - West Center
Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. (MOLSA). (2009). Ethiopia’s plan of action
for children. Addis Ababa: MOLSA.
Mishra.V and Simona Bignami-Van Assche (2008). Orphans and Vulnerable
Children in High HIV-Prevalence Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Macro
International Inc. Calverton, Maryland, USA
Mohammed Yimer, (2007), Exploring the Role of Community Based
Organizations Specially Iddirs in Mitigating the Spread of HIV/AIDS in
Adama Town, Addis Ababa University.
Omery, P. (1983), Phenomenology: A method for nursing research, Advances
in Nursing Science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Ottaway, Marina, (ed.), (1976). Urbanization in Ethiopia: A Text with Integrated
Readings, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, A.A.U. Sociology
and Anthropology
Professional Alliance for Development in Ethiopia. (PADET) (2005). Children
and HIV/AIDS in North Wollo- CHAIN Phase Two. Unpublished Project
Document.
Pankhurst, A., & Mariam, D. H. (2000). The Iddir in Ethiopia : Historical
Development, Social Function, and Potential Role in HIVE/AIDS Prevention
and Control, 7(2), 35-57.
Pankhurst, Alula; (2001). The role and space for iddirs to participate in the
development of Ethiopia. A paper presented to a workshop prepared by
ACORD, Addis Ababa.
Pankhurst, Alula; (1998). Towards an understanding of Associative Society,
Characteristics, Potentials, Constraints, A concept paper for the
workshop ESSWA,

82
Pratten, T. David; (1997). "Local Institutional Development and Relief in
Ethiopia:" A Kire-based seed Distribution Programme in North Wollo, in
Disasters; The Journal of Disaster Studies, Policy and Management,
Volume 21, Number 2, June 1997, PP. 138 – 154
Save the Children UK (2008). A National Plan of Action for Orphans and
Vulnerable Children in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Seletene Seyoum,(1988). A History of Bahir Dar Town 1939-74. Unpublished
MA Thesis in History, Addis Ababa University.
Seifu Ruga, (1970); Moulding Traditional Self helps Societies of Meet Modern
Demands: A Case Study, in Marina Ottaway (ed.) (1976), Urbanization in
Ethiopia, a text with integrated readings. A.A.U., 1976.
Shiferaw Tesfaye, (2002). The role of civil society organizations in poverty
alleviation sustainable development and change: - the cases of iddirs in
Akaki, Nazreth and Addis Ababa. Unpublished MA Thesis in Social
anthropology, Addis Ababa University.
Smart, R. (2003). Policies for Orphans and Vulnerable Children: A Framework
for Moving Ahead:
Star Foundation, (2011). A report on the situational analysis of orphans and
vulnerable children in Tigray. Mekele.
Tekle, D. (2007). The psychological problems of orphans and vulnerable
children, and the responses of service provider organizations: the case of
Arada City, Addis Ababa. Unpublished.MA thesis, University of Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tirfe, M. ,(1999). The paradox of Africa´s Poverty: the role of indigenous
knowledge, traditional practices and local institutions – The case of
Ethiopia. The Red Sea Press, Inc. Asmara, Eritrea.
Tollfre, F. (2004). Whose children? Separated children‟s Protection and
Participation in emergencies Stockholm. RaddaBarnen: Save the Children
Sweden.
Tsegaye Chernet ,(2001). Overview of services for orphans and vulnerable
children in Ethiopia. Models of care, AIDS Care 19 (3):326-329.

83
UNAIDS (2010). Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva: UN
UN ICEF, (2007). Retrieved November 17th, 2007, from Ethiopia: the children:
UNICEF & UNAIDS, (2008). Launch the “OVCs in Africa” Initiative. Geneva:
UNAIDS.
Yigremew Adal; (2000). "Rural Organizations and Rural Development in
Ethiopia," in Issues in Rural Development, forum for social studies, Addis
Ababa.
Yohannes Mekuriaw, (2006). Community response to provision of care and
support for orphans and vulnerable children, constraints, challenges and
opportunities: The case Town, Guangua Woreda. Unpublished MA Thesis
in History, Addis Ababa University.
Zewdineh b. Haile, (2008). Review of the legal and policy frame works protecting
the Rights of vulnerable children in federal democratic republic of
Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.

84