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Article history: Feasibility of using high percentage of ethanol in diesel–ethanol blends, with biodiesel as a co-solvent
Received 13 July 2010 and properties enhancer has been investigated. The blends tested are D70/E20/B10 (blend A), D50/E30/
Received in revised form 4 July 2011 B20 (blend B) D50/E40/B10 (blend C), and Diesel (D100). The blends are prepared to get maximum per-
Accepted 5 July 2011
centage of oxygen content but keeping important properties such as density, viscosity and Cetane index
Available online 28 July 2011
within acceptable limits. Experiments are conducted on a multicylinder, DI diesel engine, whose original
injection timing was 13° CA BTDC. The engine did not run on blends B and C at this injection timing and it
Keywords:
was required to advance timing to 18° and 21° CA BTDC to enable the use of blends B and C respectively.
Diesel–ethanol–biodiesel blends
DI diesel engine
However advancing injection timing almost doubled the NO emissions and increased peak firing pres-
Injection timing sure. The P–h and net heat release diagrams shows that the combustion process of these blends delayed
Emissions at low loads but approaches to the diesel fuel at high loads. The comparison of blend results with baseline
diesel showed that brake specific fuel consumption increased considerably, thermal efficiency improved
slightly, smoke opacity reduced remarkably at high loads. NO variation depends on operating conditions
while CO emissions drastically increased at low loads. Blend B which replaced 50% diesel and having oxy-
gen content up to 12.21% by weight has given satisfactory performance for steady state running mode up
to 1600 RPM however, it does not showed any benefit on peak smoke emission during free acceleration
test.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0306-2619/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.07.008
D.B. Hulwan, S.V. Joshi / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 5042–5055 5043
Nomenclature
have small quantity of ethanol in the blends because additives only use of blends B and C respectively. Experiments are conducted for
helps for solubility and could not improve properties of blend wide variety of operating conditions of engine to see effects of
[7,12–15]. The low flashpoint of ethanol–diesel blend is also a excess ethanol on performance and emissions. Cylinder pressure
technical barrier to the application of this fuel blend. Studies variation against crank angle is recorded to study the nature of
showed that a presence of emulsifiers has no effect on flashpoint combustion process inside the cylinder. The net heat release rate
[9]. analysis is also carried to know more details of combustion process
Biodiesel derived from different sources is reported to act as an of blends.
emulsifier for ethanol [16–19]. Adding biodiesel in diesel–ethanol
blend dramatically improves the solubility of ethanol in diesel fuel
over a wide range of temperature. The diesel–ethanol–biodiesel 2. Materials and methods
fuel blends are stable well below zero temperature and have equal
or superior fuel properties to regular diesel fuel [20]. The solubility 2.1. Experimental setup
of biodiesel fuel components in fossil diesel–methanol–rapeseed
oil methyl ester, fossil diesel–ethanol–rapeseed oil methyl ester Fig. 1 shows a schematic representation of diesel engine testing
and fossil diesel–ethanol–rapeseed oil ethyl ester systems has been facility used for studying engine performance, emission, and com-
characterized earlier [21]. The studies on diesel–ethanol–biodiesel bustion characteristics. The specifications of engine are listed in
blends have showed that, biodiesel could improve properties of Table 1. Engine was loaded by a hydraulic dynamometer of
ethanol–diesel blends and showed a promising way to formulate 60 kW capacities and load was measured with spring balance.
a new form of biofuel and diesel fuel blend. The spring balance is calibrated with a calibration arm and cali-
Particulate matter (smoke) reduction appeared to be related to brated weights. Engine lubricating oil temperature, coolant tem-
the amount of oxygen content in the fuel blends [22]. It is also peratures, and exhaust gas temperature were measured using
obvious that to have more percentage of oxygen in blend, ethanol resistance temperature detector (RTD) and K type thermocouples
percentage should be higher in the blend. Smoke emissions are during the experiments. A special cooling system of mixing water
substantial when engine works at high loads and acceleration type was designed and used to maintain constant engine temper-
mode and it was increased to 65 HSU during the free acceleration ature. The maximum coolant temperature was maintained at
test of a four cylinder turbocharged diesel engine [23]. High oxygen 90 °C for all the tests. Fuel consumption on mass basis was mea-
content in fuel can be more beneficial for smoke reduction during sured by a digital weighing machines and stop watch. A special fuel
such working modes. system was designed and used to run the engine on diesel and
A review of previous work as mentioned above shows that most blends. An optical speed sensor with a digital indicator was used
of the researchers have used diesel ethanol blends with a small for engine speed measurement. The result of power output and
percentage of ethanol. Aim of this work is to replace diesel with brake specific fuel consumption was corrected for the standard
maximum fraction of ethanol in diesel–ethanol blends with a sup- atmospheric conditions (STP) i.e., 298 K temperature, 100 kPa pres-
port of biodiesel. Ethanol is being main replacement of diesel fuel sure and 30% relative humidity as per ISO 3046 standards.
while biodiesel is added as a co solvent and properties improver. An exhaust gas analyzer (AVL 444) with diesel probe and rec-
The blends are prepared in order to have high oxygen content, as ommended filters was used to measure the concentrations of HC,
well as keeping the important properties within acceptable limits. CO, NO, CO2 and O2 in the exhaust emissions. It measures HC, CO
A commercial diesel fuel, analysis-grade unhydrous ethanol (99.7% and CO2 with spectrum analysis principle and NO and O2 by the
purity) and a biodiesel (methyl ester) derived from Jatropha seed electrochemical sensors. Smoke opacity during steady state and
oil used to make the diesel–ethanol–biodiesel blends. Experiments free acceleration mode was measured with a smoke meter (AVL
are conducted on a three cylinder, DI, naturally aspirated diesel en- 437).
gine at 1200, 1600, RPM for BMEP of 0.1–0.6 MPa and different Pressure versus crank angle history was measured by water
injection timings of 13°, 18° and 21° CA BTDC. Original injection cooled piezo-electric pressure transducer and crank angle encoder.
timing of the engine was 13° CA BTDC. However, engine did not The signal of cylinder pressure was acquired for every 1° CA and
run on blends B and C at this injection timing and it was required the acquisition process covered 120 completed cycles, the average
to advance injection timing to 18° and 21° CA BTDC to enable the value of these 120 cycles being used as pressure data for
5044 D.B. Hulwan, S.V. Joshi / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 5042–5055
Table 1 viscosity, calorific value, Cetane index, flash point, pour point were
Engine specification. measured experimentally, and carbon contents, oxygen contents,
Engine specification Details hydrogen contents, Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio of the fuel blends
Number of cylinders 03 were calculated theoretically. The fuel density was measured by
Bore stroke 110 mm 116 mm weighing a known volume of fuel; the viscosity was measured by
Displacement 3300 CC using a dynamic viscometer, the measurement principle consisted
Compression ratio 18:1 of measuring the time needed for a known volume of fuel to drop
Power 27.9 kW (38 BHP) at 1500 RPM
from a Viscometer. The flash point was measured using a close-cup
Nozzle diameter 0.2 mm
Number of holes in nozzle 5 method of ABEL flash point equipment. Bomb calorimeter was used
Original injection timing 13° CA BTDC to find the calorific value of test fuels. Pour point is determined by
Fuel injection pressure 500 bar cooling the fuel in a glass tube of standard size. All properties were
measured with standard procedure given in the ASTM standards
respectively. The detailed variation in the properties of blends is
calculation of the combustion parameters. The pressure signal was listed in Table 2 and properties of diesel, ethanol, and biodiesel
fed into a charge amplifier then to a data acquisition card linked to are also provided for comparison.
the computer and crank angle signal was fed into a degree marker
shaper channel and output of which was fed into data acquisition 3. Results and discussions
card. The dynamic top dead center was determined by motoring of
engine. Data acquisition card collects data at the rate of 250 KS/s. Results are discussed with the perspective to add some new
Pressure versus crank angle data was stored in the computer and information of blended fuel investigation on engine performance,
used to calculate rate of heat release and analyse the combustion creative results of the blend combustion in the CI engine or more
characteristics. detailed emissions reduction benefits compared to the other re-
The net heat release rate, dQn/dh, is calculated using the formula searches for diesel–ethanol–biodiesel blends with high ethanol
given in Ref. [34], content.
dQn c dV 1 dp
¼ p þ V ð1Þ
dh c 1 dh c 1 dh 3.1. Combustion characteristics
Here c is the ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv. An appropriate range for The cylinder pressure variation with respect to crank angle for
c for diesel heat release analysis is 1.3–1.35. The wall heat transfer blends, in comparison with diesel fuel at different engine operating
and blow by losses are not considered to find the heat released due conditions, is shown in Figs. 2 and 3. It shows that cylinder pres-
combustion of fuel inside cylinder. This helps to eliminate addi- sure is increased with increase of engine load as well as advance
tional approximation in the analysis of heat release. of injection timing and peak cylinder pressure occurs later in terms
of the crank angle for blends at low loads. The residual gas temper-
2.2. Fuel properties testing ature decreases as load decreases, which leads to lower charge
temperature at injection time in comparison to that of full/high
Diesel–ethanol–biodiesel blends were prepared on volume ba- load condition, and lengthens the ignition delay. In addition, lower
sis and objective was to replace diesel fuel in maximum quantity Cetane number of the blended fuel and higher latent heat of evap-
in order to increase fuel oxygen level to maximum, but keeping oration of ethanol, increases the ignition delay further at low loads.
the important properties within the acceptable limits. The Figs. 4 and 5 shows that the combustion process of the test fuels
biodiesel is added as a co solvent as well as a properties improver. is similar, consisting of a phase of premixed combustion following
The blending method consists of first adding ethanol in diesel fuel, by a phase of diffusion combustion. It also shows that the
mixing it properly and then adding biodiesel to form the solution premixed combustion is delayed, and the maximum rate of heat
of diesel ethanol blend. The basic properties such as density, release increases for blends. It is suggested that increase in total
D.B. Hulwan, S.V. Joshi / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 5042–5055 5045
Table 2
Fuel properties.
Fuel property Diesel (D100) Ethanol (E100) Biodiesel (B100) D70/E20/B10 (blend A) D50/E30/B20 (blend B) D50/E40/B10 (blend C)
Chemical formula C12 H23 C2 H6 O C19 H36 O2 – – –
Density (kg/m3) at 15 °C 837.8 799.4 896.9 832.87 834.55 820.4
Viscosity (mm2/s) at 40 °C 2.649 1.10 4.643 2.380 2.401 2.018
Calorific value kJ/kg 44,893 28,180 38,085 39,930 38,965 36,338
Cetane index 54 8 – 50 50 41
Flash point (°C) 50 12 – 14.0 12.5 12
Pour point (°C) 0 – 0 3 9 12
Oxygen content (%by weight) 0 34.73 10.79 7.77 12.21 14.53
Carbon content (%by weight) 86.14 52.14 76.97 78.69 74.49 72.07
Hydrogen content (%by weight) 13.86 13.13 12.24 13.54 13.30 13.41
Stoichiometric A/F ratio 14.75 9.06 12.67 13.45 12.69 12.34
Pressure (MPa)
D70/E20/B10
Pressure (MPa)
4
4
3
3
2
2 Diesel
1 D70/E20/B10
1
0 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (ºCA)
0.2 MPa BMEP, 1200 RPM, 18º BTDC 0.5 MPa BMEP, 1200 RPM, 18º BTDC
8 8
7 7 Diesel
Diesel D70/E20/B10
6 6
Pressure (MPa)
D70/E20/B10
Pressure (MPa)
D50/E30/B20
D50/E30/B20 5
5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (ºCA)
0.2 MPa BMEP, 1200 RPM, 21º BTDC 0.5 MPa BMEP, 1200 RPM, 21º BTDC
8 8
7 Diesel 7
D70/E20/B10 Diesel
6 D50/E30/B20 6
Pressure (MPa)
Pressure (MPa)
D70/E20/B10
D50/E40/B10
5 5 D50/E30/B20
D50/E40/B10
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (ºCA)
0.2 MPa BMEP, 1600 RPM,13º BTDC 0.6 MPa BMEP,1600 RPM,13º BTDC
7 7
Diesel
6 6
D70/E20/B10
Diesel 5
Pressure (MPa)
Pressure (Mpa)
5
D70/E20/B10
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (ºCA)
0.2 MPa BMEP, 1600 RPM, 18º BTDC 0.6 MPa BMEP, 1600 RPM, 18º BTDC
7 7
Diesel Diesel
6 D70/E20/B10 6 D70/E20/B10
D50/E30/B20 D50/E30/B10
5 5
Pressure (MPa)
Pressure (MPa)
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (ºCA)
Pressure (MPa)
5
D50/E40/B10
4 4
3 3
Diesel
2 2 D70/E20/B10
D50/E30/B20
1 1
D50/E40/B10
0 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (º CA)
ignition delay is responsible for this behavior. In this premixed and low surface tension of ethanol blended fuels. Although the
combustion stage, ethanol having lower density and viscosity, beginning of heat release is retarded for blends, the end of heat
leads to better fuel atomization and mixing to form a fuel air mix- release remains at almost the same crank angle as that for diesel.
ture burning rapidly and releasing more heat. As increasing the That indicates diffusive combustion would decrease for blends,
blending ratio of ethanol fuel, the blended fuels with the lowered which would be due to improved atomization, mixing and avail-
surface tension and density were well mixed with the air, because ability more oxygen (inbuilt in fuel blend). Similar results are
of the evaporation of ethanol droplets. This indicates that the noticed for the diesel blends with different oxygenates like meth-
macroscopic spray behavior and atomization performance are anol and dimethyl carbonate also [25,26]. The net heat release rate
improved [24]. The added ethanol fuel slightly affected spray tip curve showing negative at some crank angle as wall heat loss and
penetration and spray cone angle, whereas the droplet size of blow by loss is not considered in this analysis.
diesel–ethanol blended fuels decreased with an increase in the eth- Net heat release rate curve tends to shift from top dead center
anol blending ratio. The mean droplet size decreased as the ethanol (TDC) towards right for blends at low load (BMEP = 0.2 MPa), this
blending ratio increased because of the low kinematic viscosity tendency is increased with increase of ethanol fraction in blends.
D.B. Hulwan, S.V. Joshi / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 5042–5055 5047
0.2 MPa BMEP, 1200 RPM, 13º BTDC 0.5 MPa BMEP, 1200 RPM, 13º BTDC
120 120
Diesel Diesel
D70/E20/B10 D70/E20/B10
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
-40 -40
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (ºCA)
0.2 MPa BMEP, 1200 RPM , 18º BTDC 0.5 MPa BMEP,1200 RPM, 18º BTDC
100 100
Diesel Diesel
Net heat release rate J/ºCA
40 40
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
-40 -40
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA)
Crank Angle (ºCA)
0.2 MPa BMEP, 1200 RPM, 21º BTDC. 0.5 MPa BMEP, 1200 RPM, 21ºBTDC
100 100
Diesel Diesel
Net heat release rate J/ºCA
80 D70/E20/B10 80 D70/E20/B10
D50/E30/B20 D50/E30/B20
60 D50/E40/B10 60 D50/E40/B10
40 40
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
-40 -40
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (ºCA)
Heat release rate curves maintain the same position from TDC at of 1200 RPM (shown in Fig. 4). On the other hand at low load of
high loads (BMEP = 0.5 and 0.6 MPa) and at the same time the peak 1600 RPM the considerably increased ignition delay for the blends
for blend is higher than that for diesel; ending at the same position shifted the entire combustion process in the expansion stroke. This
on its downward path, this is reasonable since the mass of pre- tendency of blend is increased as the percentage of ethanol in the
mixed burned fuel increases with load and the duration of diffusive blends increased. At high engine load (BMEP = 0.5 MPa and
combustion decreases even though the heat release start point is 0.6 MPa), with an increasing amount of fuel injected into the
retarded. The higher peak for the blend indicates more heat release engine, the gas temperature inside the cylinder is higher, which
than diesel meaning higher output thermal power. reduces the physical ignition delay period. From the Figs. 2–5 it
The variation of combustion characteristics with respect to can be seen that the start of combustion is delayed especially for
speed for the blend is also noticeable. Sufficient time available high ethanol content blend compared to the diesel fuel, however
for combustion resulted in a strong premixed burning phase and it has started much earlier compared to the lower loads. This
gives rise to the peak cylinder pressure near TDC at low engine load means that influence of lower Cetane number of blends on the
5048 D.B. Hulwan, S.V. Joshi / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 5042–5055
0.2 MPa BMEP,1600 RPM, 13º BTDC. 0.6 MPa BMEP, 1600 RPM, 13º BTDC
100 100
Diesel
Diesel
80 D70/E20/B10
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
-40 -40
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (ºCA)
0.2 MPa BMEP,1600 RPM, 18 ºBTDC 0.6 MPa BMEP, 1600 RPM, 18 ºBTDC
100
100 Diesel
Diesel
80 D70/E20/B10
D50/E30/B20
D50/E30/B20 60
60
40 40
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
-40 -40
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (ºCA)
0.2 MPa BMEP,1600 RPM, 21ºBTDC 0.6 MPa BMEP,1600 RPM, 21º BTDC
100 100
Diesel Diesel
D70/E20/B10
Net heat release rate J/ºCA
D70/E20/B10
Net heat release rate J/ºCA
80 80
D50/E30/B20 D50/E30/B20
60 D50/E40/B10 60 D50/E40/B10
40 40
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
-40 -40
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank Angle (ºCA) Crank Angle (ºCA)
ignition delay is reduced at high engine load. On the other hand, pared to diesel fuel at 13° injection timing. This is mainly because
addition of ethanol leads to decrease in viscosity of the blended of delayed combustion due to ethanol content and shifting of the
fuel which helps to form better air–fuel mixture and results in a peak cylinder pressure location to right of the TDC position. Peak
larger percentage of fuel burned in the premixed burning phase. cylinder pressure is decreased at low load for the blend but re-
Therefore, peak cylinder pressure occurs at nearly the same crank mains unchanged at higher loads of both speeds at 18° injection
angle for blends as well as diesel fuels at high engine loads of both timing. This indicates that the nature of combustion of blend is
speeds. very much similar to the diesel fuel, at medium and high load for
The variation of the peak cylinder pressure for blends at differ- this injection timing. Peak cylinder pressure is decreased for blends
ent injection timing and speeds for all loads is as shown in Fig. 6. compared to diesel fuel at both speeds at 21° injection timing;
Peak cylinder pressure is decreased for blend at both speeds com- however, the decrease is more significant at low loads of both
D.B. Hulwan, S.V. Joshi / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 5042–5055 5049
Peak Cylinder Pressure, 13º CA BTDC of injection and point of sudden rise of heat release rate is noted as
8 start of combustion. Ignition delay period is decreased as load in-
Peak Cylinder Pressure (MPa)
Diesel 1200
D70/E20/B10 1200 creases for all blends at all injection timing and speeds as shown
7 Diesel 1600 in Fig. 7. This is mainly due to influence of cylinder gas tempera-
D70/E20/B10 1600 ture within the ignition delay period, as the gas temperature
increases with increase of engine load. The ignition delay is in-
6
creased with increase of ethanol mass fraction in blends. The blend
with highest ethanol content showed the increase about 40–50% at
5 1600 RPM and 21° injection timing. Low Cetane index, more latent
heat of vaporization, higher self ignition temperature of ethanol
4
blends is mainly responsible for the increase in the ignition delay.
The overall results of the combustion characteristics showed
the ignition delay is increased considerably, cylinder pressure
3 diagrams are slightly displaced at high load and considerably
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
BMEP (MPa)
Delay period, 13º CA BTDC
Peak Cylinder Pressure, 18º CA BTDC
8 40
Diesel 1200
Peak Cylinder Pressure (MPa)
D70/E20/B10 1200
35 Diesel 1600
6 25
20
5
Diesel 1200
D70/E20/B10 1200 15
D50/E30/B20 1200
4 Diesel 1600
D70/E20/B10 1600
10
D50/E30/B20 1600
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
3 BMEP (MPa)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
BMEP (MPa) Delay period, 18º CA BTDC
40
Diesel 1200
Peak Cylinder Pressure, 21º CA BTDC D70/E20/B10 1200
35 D50/E30/B20 1200
8
Peak Cylinder pressure (MPa)
Diesel 1600
Delay period (ºCA)
D70/E20/B10 1600
30 D50/E30/B20 1600
7
25
6
20
5 Diesel 1200 15
D70/E20/B10 1200
D50/E30/B20 1200
D50/E40/B10 1200
4 Diesel 1600 10
D70/E20/B10 1600 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
D50/E30/B20 1600
D50/E40/B10 1600 BMEP (MPa)
3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
BMEP (MPa) Delay period, 21º CA BTDC
40
Diesel 1200
Fig. 6. Peak cylinder pressure. D70/E20/B10 1200
D50/E30/B20 1200
35 D50/E40/B10 1200
Diesel 1600
Delay period (ºCA)
D70/E20/B10 1600
speeds. The decrease in peak cylinder pressure for the blend at 21° 30
D50/E30/B20 1600
D50/E40/B10 1600
is mainly due to delayed combustion process and shifting of peak
cylinder pressure location to right of the TDC and at low loads of 25
both speeds. It is also observed that the peak cylinder pressure is
drastically increased with the advancing of the injection timing. 20
Advancing the injection timing means starting the combustion
process earlier and getting the peak heat release rate closer to 15
the TDC and the content of ethanol in the blend does not changed
this trend to the considerable extent especially at high loads. 10
Ignition delay is one of the important combustion parameter as 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
it affects start of combustion, cylinder pressure and rate of heat BMEP (MPa)
release. The ignition delay is a period between start of injection
and start of combustion. The static injection timing is noted as start Fig. 7. Ignition delay.
5050 D.B. Hulwan, S.V. Joshi / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 5042–5055
displaced at low load (delayed), and maximum cylinder pressures attributed to heating value per unit mass of the ethanol, which is
are affected depending on the working conditions. The heat release noticeably lower than that of the diesel fuel. Therefore, the amount
analysis also shows rapid premixed combustion and improved dif- of fuel introduced into the engine cylinder for a desired fuel energy
fusive combustion at high loads for high ethanol content blends. input has to be greater with the ethanol. These results agree with
those found by other authors [27,28].
3.2. Brake specific fuel consumption The general trend of decrease in BSFC with load is observed for
blends similar to the diesel fuel at all the injection timing and
The effects of diesel–ethanol–biodiesel fuel blends and injection speeds. The decrease in BSFC could be explained by the fact that,
timings on the BSFC are shown in Fig. 8. The figure shows that the as the engine load increases, the rate of increasing brake power
brake specific fuel consumption trend for diesel and blends are is much more than that of the increased fuel consumption owing
similar in nature. The results showed that increasing ethanol to a rise in the combustion temperature (indicated by cylinder
proportion in the fuel blend increased the BSFC. This behavior is pressure) with load. The conversion of heat energy to mechanical
work increases with rise in combustion temperature and that leads
decrease of BSFC with respect to load.
BSFC, 13º CA BTDC Advancing the injection timing has very little effect on the BSFC
800 for all the blends and loads at both speeds. The combustion tem-
Diesel 1200
D70/E20/B10 1200 perature and pressure increases with advanced injection timing.
700 Diesel 1600 However, it is seen from the P–h and heat release diagrams that
D70/E20/B10 1600 the combustion process is started in compression stroke itself
BSFC (g/Kw-hr)
200 BTE indicates the ability of the combustion system to accept the
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0. 5 0.6 0.7 experimental fuel, and provides comparable means of assessing
BMEP (MPa) how efficient the energy in the fuel was converted to mechanical
output. BTE results are presented in Fig. 9. It is observed that the
BSFC, 18 º CA BTDC BTE increased with load for high ethanol contents blends also like
800 the diesel fuel at all injection timings and speeds.
Diesel 1200
BTE is slightly increased for blends compared to diesel fuel at
D70/E20/B10 1200
700 high loads of both speeds and all injection timings. This can be
D50/E30/B20 1200
Diesel 1600
attributed to the rapid premixed combustion part possessed by
BSFC (g/Kw-hr)
600
D70/E20/B10 1600
ethanol blends because of improved mixing during ignition delay,
D50/E30/B20 1600
oxygen enrichment, leading to higher percentage of ‘constant vol-
500 ume’ combustion and to the lower heat losses and ‘leaner’ combus-
tion [29]. The improvement of diffusive combustion phase would
400 have also resulted due to oxygen enrichment. In addition, the total
combustion duration is shortened for blends. The heat release pro-
300 cess is almost completed at the position of same crank angle,
which is another aspect providing the evidence to support the fast
200 diffusive burning phases in the diesel–ethanol–biodiesel blends.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Based on these reasons, the energy consumption rate of blends de-
BMEP (MPa) creased and BTE increased as reported in [6,13,15]. However re-
sults obtained in [30] are showing the opposite trends. This
BSFC, 21 º CA BTDC indicates that the biodiesel, which is acting as a Cetane improver,
800 kept the combustion process centered also for high ethanol con-
Diesel 1200
D70/E20/B10 1200 tents blends especially at high loads.
D50/E30/B20 1200
700 D50/E40/B10 1200 It is also observed that the BTE is decreased for blends of high
Diesel 1600
D70/E20/B10 1600 ethanol content at low loads of 1600 RPM and 13° and 18° injection
BSFC (g/kW-hr)
600 D50/E30/B20 1600 timing. This is attributed to significantly delayed combustion pro-
D50/E40/B10 1600
cess and release of heat late in the expansion stroke owing to lower
500 cylinder temperature, lower Cetane index and high latent heat of
vaporization of high ethanol content blends.
400
3.4. Smoke emissions
300
The particulate matter (PM) is essentially composed of soot,
200 though some hydrocarbons, generally referred to as a soluble or-
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 ganic fraction (SOF) of the particulate emissions, are also adsorbed
BMEP (MPa) on the particle surface or simply emitted as liquid droplets. Among
the particulate matter components, soot is recognized as the main
Fig. 8. Brake specific fuel consumption. substance which is responsible for the smoke opacity. Smoke
D.B. Hulwan, S.V. Joshi / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 5042–5055 5051
60 D70/E20/B10 1200
35
Diesel 1600
50 D70/E20/B10 1600
30
Opacity %
40
BTE %
25
30
20 20
Diesel 1200
D70/E20/B10 1200
15 10
Diesel 1600
D70/E20/B10 1600 0
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
BMEP (MPa)
BMEP (MPa)
BTE, 18º CA BTDC Smoke, 18º CA BTDC
40 40
Diesel 1200
D70/E20/B10 1200
35 35
D50/E30/B20 1200
Diesel 1600
30 D70/E20/B10 1600
30
D50/E30/B20 1600
Opacity %
25
BTE %
25
Diesel 1200 20
D70/E20/B10 1200
20 15
D50/E30/B20 1200
Diesel 1600
15 10
D70/E20/B10 1600
D50/E30/B20 1600 5
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0
BMEP (MPa) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Diesel 1600
D70/E20/B10 1600
Opacity %
25 25 D50/E30/B20 1600
Diesel 1200 D50/E40/B10 1600
20
D70/E20/B10 1200
20 D50/E30/B20 1200
D50/E40/B10 1200
15
Diesel 1600
15 D70/E20/B10 1600 10
D50/E30/B20 1600
D50/E40/B10 1600 5
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0
BMEP (MPa) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
BMEP (MPa)
Fig. 9. Brake thermal efficiency.
Fig. 10. Smoke density.
Excessive smoke is observed for blend A at 0.1 and 0.2 MPa NO Emissions, 13º CA BTDC
BMEP of 1600 RPM and 13° injections timing. The heat release dia- 20
gram shows that the premixed combustion is very slow and entire 18 Diesel 1200
heat release is shifted late in the expansion stroke at these operat- 16
D70/E20/B10 1200
ing conditions. This would have resulted in insufficient timing for Diesel 1600
14 D70/E20/B10 1600
NO (g/kW-hr)
soot oxidation (exhaust valve opens before the completion of soot
oxidation) and produced smoke to such a high level. 12
It is also noticed that advanced injection timing reduced smoke 10
emissions significantly at high loads. The maximum reduction is 8
about 35% for diesel fuel and 52% for blend A at 1200 RPM, when
6
the injection timing is advanced from 13° to 21° CA BTDC. The ear-
4
lier injection leads to higher cylinder temperatures, more time
available for oxidation of the soot particles before the exhaust 2
valve opens [14]. Inbuilt fuel oxygen and improved mixing for 0
the blend utilized the additional time more effectively than the 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
diesel fuel. BMEP (MPa)
NO (g/kW-hr)
dependent on in-cylinder temperatures, the oxygen concentration,
12
and residence time for the reaction to take place [30,36]. The
changes in the NO emissions at different engine speed and injec- 10
tion timing are shown in Fig. 11. It shows that the NO emissions 8 Diesel 1200
are decreased for blends at low load (0.1 Mpa BMEP) at both D70/E20/B10 1200
6
speeds and all injection timings. The significant decrease in the D50/E30/B20 1200
4 Diesel 1600
peak cylinder pressure is also observed for blends at this load indi-
D70/E20/B10 1600
cating the decrease in-cylinder gas temperature owing to higher 2
D50/E30/B20 1600
latent heat of vaporization of ethanol and increased ignition delay 0
due to lower Cetane index. 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
It is also observed that NO emissions are increased for ethanol BMEP (MPa)
blended fuels compared to diesel fuel at other loads except 1600
RPM of 21° and 13° Injection timing. The ethanol blends are having NO Emissions, 21º CA BTDC
20
the oxygen contents, low viscosity which can lead to better mixing,
improved combustion and rise in-cylinder temperature. More igni- 18
tion delay of blend due to lower Cetane index increased fuel accu- 16
mulation during delay period. That is resulted in increased the 14
NO (g/kW-hr)
combustion. Emission of CO is, therefore, greatly dependent on the though enough oxygen was available for combustion. Slight reduc-
air–fuel ratio relative to the Stoichiometric proportions [37]. CO tion in CO emissions is noticed for blends at high load and that
emissions results are presented in Fig. 12. The trends of CO emis- would be due to inbuilt fuel oxygen and improved combustion pro-
sions shows that it depends on air fuel ratio as well as combustion cess due to better mixing. Some studies reported the reduction of
temperature and for a certain combination of air fuel ratio and CO emissions by using ethanol–diesel blends [39]; but our results
combustion temperature it is minimum. are opposite and reported as per [7].
The results showed that the CO emissions increased drastically The CO emission remains unchanged with respect to injection
at lower loads and decreased slightly at higher loads for the blends timing for blends as well diesel fuel at both speeds. The advanced
compared to diesel fuel. The drastic increase in the CO percentage injection timing should have produced a higher cylinder tempera-
at low load for blend is due to decrease in the cylinder gas ture to increase in the chemical reaction speed of combustion
temperature and delayed combustion process (noticed from P–h region. Also, the advanced injection timing should have increased
and heat release diagrams) The lower temperature and delayed the oxidation process between carbon and oxygen molecules to
combustion would have suppressed the oxidation process even
CO2 Emissions 13º CA BTDC
1600
CO Emissions 13º BTDC Diesel 1200
60 1500
D70/E20/B10 1200
Diesel 1200
1400 Diesel 1600
50 D70/E20/B10 1200
1300
CO2 (g/kW-hr)
D70/E20/B10 1600
Diesel 1600
CO (g/kW-hr)
1100
30
1000
20
900
10 800
700
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 BMEP (MPa)
BMEP (MPa)
CO2 Emissions, 18º CA BTDC
CO Emissions, 18º BTDC 1600
60 Diesel 1200
Diesel 1200 1500 D70/E20/B10 1200
D70/E20/B10 1200 D50/E30/B20 1200
50 D50/E30/B20 1200 1400 Diesel 1600
Diesel 1600 D70/E20/B10 1600
CO2 (g/kW-hr)
40
D50/E30/B20 1600
1200
30 1100
1000
20
900
10 800
700
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
BMEP (MPa)
BMEP (MPa)
CO2 Emissions, 21º CA BTDC
CO Emissions, 21º CA BTDC 1600
60 Diesel 1200
Diesel 1200 D70/E20/B10 1200
D70/E20/B10 1200
1500 D50/E30/B20 1200
D50/E30/B20 1200 D50/E40/B10 1200
50 D50/E40/B10 1200 1400 Diesel 1600
Diesel 1600 D70/E20/B10 1600
CO2 (g/kW-hr)
20 1000
900
10
800
0 700
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
BMEP (MPa) BMEP (Mpa)
reduce CO emissions as noticed in [41]. However the variation of 3.8. Free acceleration smoke emissions
CO emissions with respect to injection timing in this study is curios
and may be air fuel ratio would have played a major role compared One of the prime benefits of oxygenated fuel is to decrease
to the combustion temperature to keep CO emissions unchanged smoke emission of diesel engine and significant smoke reduction
with respect to injection timing. is observed for high ethanol content blends during steady state
running as discussed earlier (refer Fig. 10). Therefore peak smoke
3.7. CO2. emissions opacity during free acceleration mode is measured for diesel fuel,
blend A and blend B in order to check the benefits in transient
CO2 occurs naturally in the atmosphere and is a normal product mode also. It is observed that the peak smoke is decreased for
of hydrocarbon fuel combustion. Ideally, combustion of a hydro- blend A but substantially increased for blend B at 21° injection tim-
carbon fuel should produce only CO2 and water (H2O). Fig. 13 de- ing as shown in Table 3a–c. However, peak smoke emissions are
scribes effect of using ethanol blended diesel fuels on CO2 drastically increased for blend A also at 13° injection timing com-
emission. The CO2 emissions are not affected for blends compared pared to diesel fuel as shown in Table 3d and e. This indicates that
to diesel fuel at all the working conditions except low load combustion quality (ignition delay) is more effective than oxygen
(0.1 MPa BMEP). Poor combustion characteristics of blends at low content in fuel for smoke emission during free acceleration. More
load increased fuel consumption to get the same power and thus detailed combustion analysis, during this transient mode, is
CO2 emissions increased for blends. needed to know the reasons behind such behavior of high ethanol
It is clear from Fig. 13 that advanced injection timing has no ef- content blends.
fect on CO2 emissions. The CO2 emissions are unchanged at all
loads even if injection timing is increased to 21° from 13° CA BTDC. 4. Conclusions
However, as per the previous research [41] it is increased for diesel
as well as ethanol diesel blends by more than 40% when injection Jatropha derived biodiesel (methyl ester) addition, in adequate
timing is advanced to 33° from 21° CA BTDC. Their results also quantity, in the blends of diesel and ethanol, drastically improved
showed substantial rise in CO2 emissions for every 3° CA advance the solubility of ethanol in diesel fuel. Oxygen content increased up
in injection timing. However, increased CO2 with respect to ad- to 14.53% by weight keeping the Cetane index within limit for
vanced injection timing could have noticed with decrease in CO blend C (highest ethanol fraction blend). It is required to advance
emissions. injection timing up to 21° from 13° CA BTDC (original injection
timing), to run the engine on blend C. However, advancing the
injection timing almost doubled NO emissions and increased peak
Table 3
Peak smoke during free acceleration. cylinder pressure for blends as well diesel fuel. BSFC is increased
for blends as a consequence of reduced energy content, however,
Speed (RPM) Temperature Peak smoke Peak smoke (%
the thermal efficiency improved slightly.
(°C) (m1) opacity)
From To Smoke reduced remarkably for blends especially at medium and
high loads of both speeds and all injection timings. Maximum reduc-
(a) D100 (21° BTDC)a
742 2678 75 1.82 54.4 tion is about 60% to 70% at higher loads for respective high ethanol
728 2678 75 1.87 55.4 content blend at all injection timing and speeds. Advancing injection
731 2666 75 2.14 60.3 timing reduced the smoke for all blends and diesel fuel at both
735 2678 76 1.88 55.6 speeds. Significant reduction in smoke is observed for high ethanol
(b) D70/E20/B10 (21° BTDC)b content blends; however reduction in smoke does not indicate the
761 2714 81 1.46 46.7 reduction in particulate matter in same proportion. Therefore, the
765 2777 83 1.49 47.4
773 2740 83 1.72 52.4
effect of these blends on PM emissions needs to be checked.
773 2715 84 1.97 57.3 NO emissions are decreased for blends at lowest load of 0.1 MPa
773 2655 84 1.74 52.7 BMEP of all working conditions. It is slightly increased at other
775 2727 84 1.85 54.9 loads except 1600 RPM and 21° and 13° Injection timing. This
(c) D50/E30/B20 (21° BTDC)c indicates latent heat of vaporization is more effective than Cetane
765 2643 73 4.58 86.1 index and oxygen content at these operating conditions. The injec-
763 2643 73 5.28 89.7
tion timing is required to be advanced for use of high percentage
763 2643 73 6.39 93.6
763 2654 74 5.65 91.2 ethanol blends. However, it leads to increase in NO emissions
735 2690 74 6.39 93.6 drastically, therefore, suitable NO reducing methods such as EGR,
763 2777 75 6.02 92.5 catalytic converters; SCR shall be adopted to permit use of these
789 2655 75 5.59 91 blends.
749 2752 76 5.59 91
CO emissions are drastically increased at low loads and de-
753 2631 76 6.66 94.3
764 2643 76 6.78 94.6 creased slightly at high loads for the blends. This indicates that
(d) D100 (13° BTDC)d
combustion process of these blends approaches to the diesel com-
765 2690 73 2.07 59.1 bustion process with increase in load (engine working tempera-
761 2690 75 2.19 61.1 ture). This is also observed from the study of Pressure crank
749 2702 76 2.13 60.1 angle and net heat release rate diagrams.
742 2702 77 1.83 54.3
Blend B having oxygen content up to 12.21%, Cetane index of 50
(e) D70/E20/B10 (13° BTDC)e has given the satisfactory performance for the steady state running
761 2608 75 8.67 97.6
mode up to 1600 RPM. However, it does not show the benefit on
753 2643 76 10.70 99.0
735 2619 77 11.53 99.3 smoke emission during the free acceleration, rather it is increased
to maximum level. This indicates that ignition delay is more effec-
a
Remark: Average peak opacity 56.4%.
b
tive on smoke emission than inbuilt fuel oxygen during free accel-
Remark: Average peak opacity 54.3%.
c
Remark: Opacity more than 65% which is above the acceptable limit.
eration. Therefore performance of these blends at high RPM and
d
Remark: Average peak opacity 58.7%. transient running modes, need to be investigated further. The use
e
Remark: Opacity more than 65% which is above the acceptable limit. of Cetane enhancer and advancing the injection timing would
D.B. Hulwan, S.V. Joshi / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 5042–5055 5055
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