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7/3/2018 Heat conduction from a sphere to a stagnant fluid
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Transport Phenomena - Heat Transfer Problem :

Heat conduction from a sphere to a stagnant fluid
Problem.
A heated sphere of diameter D is placed in a large amount of stagnant fluid. Consider the heat
conduction in the fluid surrounding the sphere in the absence of convection. The thermal conductivity
k of the fluid may be considered constant. The temperature at the sphere surface is TR and the
temperature far away from the sphere is Ta.
Figure. Heated sphere in a large amount of

stagnant fluid.
a) Establish an expression for the temperature T in the surrounding fluid as a function of r, the
distance from the center of the sphere.
b) If h is the heat transfer coefficient, then show that the Nusselt number (dimensionless heat transfer
coefficient) is given by
hD
Nu = = 2
k
Hint: Equate the heat flux at the sphere surface to the heat flux given by Newton's law of cooling.
Solution.
Click here for stepwise solution
a)
Step. Differential equation from heat balance
From a heat balance over a thin spherical shell in the surrounding fluid,
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d 2
(r qr) = S r2 (1)
dr
where S is the rate of generation of heat per unit volume. In this case, S = 0 in the fluid.
dT
Since the thermal conductivity k for the fluid is constant, on substituting Fourier's law (qr = −k dr )
we get
d dT
(r2 ) = 0 (2)
dr dr
Step. Temperature profile by solving differential equation
On integrating,
dT C
r2 = C1 or T = − 1 + C2 (3)
dr r
The integration constants are determined using the boundary conditions:
BC 1: r → ∞, T = Ta or C2 = Ta (4)
BC 2: r = R, T = TR or −C1 = (TR − Ta) R (5)
where R is the radius of the sphere.
On substituting the integration constants, the temperature profile is
R T − Ta R
T = (TR − Ta) + Ta or = (6)
r TR − Ta r
b)
Step. Nusselt number from heat flux
Using Fourier's law and differentiating the temperature profile, the heat flux is
dT R
qr = −k = k(TR − Ta) 2 (7)
dr r
Equating the heat flux at the sphere surface (r = R) to the heat flux as per Newton's law of cooling,
we get
T − Ta hR
k R = h(TR − Ta) or =1 (8)
R k
The Nusselt number (which is the dimensionless heat transfer coefficient) is

hD
Nu = = 2 (9)
k
where D is the diameter of the sphere.
Note:
This is a well-known result that is worth remembering. It provides the limiting value of the
Nusselt number for heat transfer from a sphere in the presence of convection at low Reynolds
and Grashof numbers.
The Nusselt number Nu must not be confused with the Biot number Bi. Though the two
dimensionless groups are similar-looking, they differ as given below.
hD convection
Nu = or Nu = (10)
kfluid conduction in fluid
hD convection
Bi = or Bi = (11)
ksolid (internal) conduction in solid
Related Problems in Transport Phenomena :
Transport Phenomena - Heat Transfer Problem : Forced convection heat transfer for plug flow in
circular tube
- Problem of determining Nusselt number for forced convection in cylindrical coordinates
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7/3/2018 Heat transfer problem solution BSL : Heat transfer from a radial circular fin

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Heat Transfer Problem :

Heat transfer from a radial circular fin
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Problem.
A pipe of radius R0 has a circular fin of radius R1 and thickness 2B on it (as shown in the figure below).
The outside wall temperature of the pipe is Tw and the ambient air temperature is Ta. Neglect the heat
loss from the edge of the fin (of thickness 2B). Assume heat is transferred to the ambient air by surface
convection with a constant heat transfer coefficient h.
Figure. Radial circular fin on heated pipe.
a) Starting with a shell thermal energy balance, derive the differential equation that describes the radial
temperature distribution in the fin.
b) Obtain the radial temperature distribution in the circular fin.
c) Develop an expression for the total heat loss from the fin.
Solution.
A circular fin is also called a radial fin or circumferential fin.
a)
Step. Differential equation from thermal energy balance
From a thermal energy balance over a thin cylindrical ring of width Dr in the circular fin, we get
Rate of Heat In - Out + Generation = Accumulation
The accumulation term (at steady-state) and the generation term will be zero. So,
(1)
where h is the (constant) heat transfer coefficient for surface convection to the ambient air and qr is the
heat flux for conduction in the radial direction.
Dividing by 4p B Dr and taking the limit as Dr tends to zero,
(2)
(3)
If the thermal conductivity k of the fin material is considered constant, on substituting Fourier's law (
) we get
(4)
Let the dimensionless excess temperature be denoted by q = (T - Ta)/(Tw - Ta). Then,
(5)
Using the chain rule on the left-hand side of the above equation and dividing throughout by r,
(6)
Alternatively, starting with the general expression for the cooling fin, we have
(7)
For the radial fin, the cross-sectional area (for conduction) is A = 2p r 2B and the perimeter (for surface
convection) is P = 4p r. Also, r = R0 + z, where z is the coordinate measuring distance from the outside
wall of the pipe. Substituting these expressions for A and P with dr = dz, we get
(8)
The above equation on simplifying is identical to equation (5).
b)
Step. Radial temperature profile by solving differential equation
Equation (6) is a modified Bessel equation of order zero. Its solution is
(9)
where c2 = h/(kB). Note that I0 and K0 are modified Bessel functions (of order zero) of first and second
kind, respectively.
The integration constants C1 and C2 are determined using the boundary conditions:
(10)
(11)
The second boundary condition suggests no heat loss through the edge of the circular fin (of thickness
2B), and requires the evaluation of derivatives of Bessel functions as given below:
(12)
Equations (10) and (11) may be solved to yield C1 and C2. Thus,
(13)
On substituting the integration constants, the dimensionless temperature profile is
(14)
c)
Step. Total heat loss from the fin
The heat flux at the base of the fin (r = R0) is given by
(15)
On multiplying the heat flux by the cross-sectional area for heat conduction, the total heat loss from the
fin is obtained as
(16)
7/3/2018 Heat transfer problem solution BSL : Maximum temperature in lubricant by viscous heating

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Maximum temperature in lubricant by viscous heating
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Problem.
An oil (of viscosity m and thermal conductivity k) acts as a lubricant between two coaxial cylinders. The
inner cylinder is stationary and the outer cylinder of radius R rotates at an angular velocity W. The
clearance between the cylinders is b, which is small compared to the radii of the cylinders; so,
curvature effects can be neglected and the cylindrical system can be approximated by a plane narrow
slit (to be solved in Cartesian coordinates) as shown in the figure. Derive an expression for the
maximum temperature in the lubricant if both cylinders are at temperature T0. Neglect the temperature
dependence of m and k, but explicitly take into account the heat generated by viscous dissipation.
Figure. Temperature profile for viscous heat generation. The rectangular section in the flow between
two coaxial cylinders can be approximated by the plane narrow slit on neglecting the curvature of the
bounding surfaces.
Solution.
Step. Velocity profile in narrow slit
The clearance between the cylinders is b, which is small compared to the radii of the cylinders; so,
curvature effects are neglected and the cylindrical system is approximated by a plane narrow slit. From
a shell momentum balance in Cartesian coordinates over a thin rectangular slab of thickness Dx, the
momentum flux (shear stress) distribution is obtained as
(1)
The flow is solely due to the movement of the top surface and there is no pressure gradient imposed
on the system.
On substituting Newton's law of viscosity ( ), the expression for the velocity profile is
(2)
The integration constants K1 and K2 are determined using the boundary conditions:
(3)
(4)
On substituting the integration constants, the velocity profile is given by
(5)
Step. Rate of generation of heat by viscous dissipation
During viscous flow, fluid layers rub against adjacent layers of fluid and the internal friction produces
heat. In other words, mechanical energy is degraded into thermal energy irreversibly. The heat
generation by viscous dissipation per unit volume depends on the local velocity gradient and is given
by
(6)
For the system under consideration, S is found to be constant.
Step. Differential equation for heat flux from shell balance
Now,
At steady-state, the accumulation term is zero. From a thermal energy balance over a thin rectangular
slab of thickness Dx in the fluid, we get
(7)
where A is the cross-sectional area of the narrow slit and qx is the heat flux for conduction in the x-
direction.
Dividing by A Dx and taking the limit as Dx tends to zero,
(8)
(9)
On integrating, the heat flux is given by
(10)
On substituting Fourier's law ( ), we get
(11)
On integrating, the temperature profile is given by
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
Step. Maximum temperature in lubricant
The maximum temperature occurs when
(16)
Thus, the maximum temperature occurs at the mid-plane of the slit and is obtained as
(17)
7/3/2018 Heat transfer problem solution BSL : Radial temperature distribution in annular chemical reactor

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Radial temperature distribution in annular chemical reactor
Glass-lined Glass-lined reactors

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Reactors effect!
Problem.
An annular chemical reactor consists of a packed bed of catalyst between two coaxial cylinders. The
inner and outer cylinders have radii of r0 and r1, respectively. It is reasonable to assume that there is
no heat transfer through the surface of the inner cylinder, which is at a constant temperature T0. The
catalytic reaction releases heat at a uniform volumetric rate S throughout the reactor, whose effective
thermal conductivity k may be considered constant. Neglect the temperature gradients in the axial
direction.
a) Derive a second-order differential equation to describe the radial temperature distribution in the
annular reactor starting with a shell thermal energy balance.
b) Establish the radial temperature distribution by solving the differential equation.
c) What viscous flow problem is analogous to this heat conduction problem?
d) Derive an expression for the volumetric average temperature in the reactor.
e) Develop an expression for the temperature at the outer cylindrical wall of the reactor. What will be
the outer wall temperature if both the inner and outer radii are tripled?
Solution.
a)
Step. Differential equation from thermal energy balance
From a thermal energy balance over a thin cylindrical shell of thickness Dr in the annular reactor, we
get
At steady-state, the accumulation term will be zero. So,
(1)
where S is the rate of generation of heat by chemical reaction per unit volume and qr is the heat flux in
the radial direction.
Dividing by 2p Dr L and taking the limit as Dr tends to zero,
(2)
(3)
Since the effective thermal conductivity k of the reactor bed may be considered constant, on
substituting Fourier's law ( ) we get
(4)
b)
Step. Radial temperature profile by solving differential equation
On integrating,
(5)
(6)
(7)
The first boundary condition suggests no heat transfer through the inner cylindrical wall of the annulus.
(8)
c)
Step. Analogous problem in fluid mechanics
Figure. Velocity profile in falling film on circular tube is analogous to temperature profile in annular
chemical reactor.
The velocity profile for the falling film on the outside of a circular tube (see Figure) is given by:
(9)
Substituting aR = r0 and R = r1,
(10)
The maximum velocity (which occurs at r = r0) is
(11)
The difference between the above two equations yields
(12)
Equations (8) and (12) are identical in form. Thus, the analogous viscous flow problem is the laminar
flow of a falling film on the inside of a circular tube. The equivalent quantities are
(13)
d)
Step. Expression for volumetric average temperature
The volumetric average temperature in the reactor may be defined as
(14)
On substituting the temperature profile in the above expression and integrating [using
], we get
(15)
e)
Step. Expression for outer wall temperature
The temperature at the outer cylindrical wall (r = r1) of the reactor is given by
(16)
When both the inner and outer radii are n times their original values, the term in square brackets gets
multiplied by n2 and the outer wall temperature is thus given by
(17)
For the case when both the radii are tripled, n = 3 in the above expression.
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7/3/2018 Transport phenomena heat transfer problem solution BSL : Forced convection heat transfer for laminar Newtonian flow in plane slit

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Tranport Phenomena - Heat Transfer Problem :

Forced convection heat transfer for laminar Newtonian flow in
plane slit
- constant wall heat flux in thermally fully developed flow
region
Problem.
A Newtonian fluid is in fully developed laminar incompressible flow in a plane narrow slit formed by
two flat parallel walls a distance 2B apart. The length L and width W of the slit are such that B << W
<< L, so end effects can be neglected. For z < 0, the fluid temperature is uniform at the inlet
temperature T1. For z > 0, heat is added at a uniform constant flux q0 through both the slit walls. The
heat conduction in the z-direction and the viscous dissipation effect may be neglected. The thermal
conductivity k and thermal diffusivity a may be assumed constant.
Figure. Laminar Newtonian flow in plane narrow slit being heated by a uniform heat flux.
a) Show that the temperature profile T(x, z) far downstream in the thermally fully developed region
(i.e., for large z) is given by the following dimensionless asymptotic solution:
where
and vz,max is the maximum velocity in the slit.
b) Determine the limiting local Nusselt number far downstream for laminar Newtonian flow in a plane
slit with constant wall heat flux.
Solution.
Step. Differential equation and boundary conditions
For forced convection heat transfer, the equation of energy (on neglecting the viscous dissipation
effect) simplifies to
(1)
In Cartesian coordinates for flow in a plane narrow slit, the above equation gives
or (2)
where is the thermal diffusivity and vz,max is the maximum velocity in the slit. Note that
the velocity profile for laminar Newtonian flow in a narrow slit is parabolic. Also, the heat conduction in
the z-direction is neglected because it is typically small compared to the heat convection in the z-
direction.
The solution of the above partial differential equation gives the temperature profile T(x, z). The above
equation in dimensionless form is
(3)
where the dimensionless quantities are defined as
(4)
The dimensionless quantities are typically chosen such that the number of parameters in the problem
is minimized. In this problem, the choice of dimensionless x-coordinate s and the dimensionless z-
coordinate z naturally follow from the differential equation, while the choice of the dimensionless
temperature Q logically follows from the boundary conditions given below.
The boundary conditions are given by
(5)
(6)
(7)
The first two boundary conditions state that heat is added at a uniform constant flux through the two
walls, i.e., qx = -q0 at x = +B and qx = q0 at x = -B with qx in accordance with Fourier's law.
Step. Temperature profile in thermally fully developed region
The asymptotic solution far downstream in the thermally fully developed region (i.e., large z) is
postulated to be of the form:
(8)
where C0 is a constant to be determined. The above form suggests that the constant wall heat flux will
cause the fluid temperature to rise linearly with z once the fluid is far downstream from the start of the
heated section. Furthermore, the shape of the temperature profile T(x) will eventually remain the
same for increasing values of z.
On substituting the above form for Q in the partial differential equation (3), the following ordinary
differential equation is obtained.
(9)
On integrating twice, we get
(10)
Thus, the dimensionless temperature profile is of the form:
(11)
On imposing the boundary conditions, BC 1 gives (2/3)C0 + C1 = 1 and BC 2 gives -(2/3)C0 + C1 =

-1. Thus, C0 = 3/2 and C1 = 0. However, it is not possible to satisfy BC 3 because the postulated
function is the asymptotic solution (and not the complete solution); therefore, BC 3 is replaced by the
following condition:
(12)
The above condition states the heat entering through both the walls over the distance z equals the
heat leaving with the fluid at z (with T1 as the reference temperature at z = 0). On substituting the
temperature profile and integrating, the condition gives
(13)
On substituting C0 = 3/2, C1 = 0 and C2 = -39/280, the asymptotic solution for the dimensionless
temperature profile in the thermally fully developed region is finally obtained as
(14)
Step. Calculation of bulk temperature
The bulk temperature is defined as the temperature obtained if the fluid flowing at z were collected in
a vessel and completely mixed. This average temperature is therefore also called the flow-average
temperature or the cup-mixing temperature. Thus, on noting that the velocity and temperature profiles
are symmetric about the mid-plane of the slit, the bulk temperature is mathematically defined by
(15)
On substituting the temperature and velocity distributions, integration gives the bulk temperature as
(16)
Step. Expression for Nusselt number
The heat flux is the product of the heat transfer coefficient h and the local heat transfer driving force
(which is the difference between the wall temperature and the bulk temperature at an axial distance
z). Thus,
(17)
Thus the Nusselt number for laminar Newtonian flow in a plane slit far downstream for constant wall
heat flux is
(18)
Note that the characteristic length used above for noncircular conduits is the equivalent diameter = 4
(mean hydraulic radius), where the mean hydraulic radius Rh is the ratio of the flow cross-sectional
area to the wetted perimeter. For the plane slit, Rh = 2BW / (4B + 2W). Since B << W, the hydraulic
radius is approximately given by Rh = 2BW / (2W) = B. Thus, the equivalent diameter for the plane slit
is 4B.
Related Problems in Transport Phenomena - Heat Transfer :
plane slit
- Similar problem for flat velocity profile rather than parabolic velocity profile
7/3/2018 Transport phenomena heat transfer problem solution BSL : Forced convection heat transfer for plug flow in circular tube

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Forced convection heat transfer for plug flow in circular tube
- constant wall heat flux in thermally fully developed flow region

Problem.
A very thick slurry flows in a circular tube of radius R. Since it flows nearly as a solid plug, the velocity
profile is approximately flat over the pipe cross-section and vz = V (constant) may be assumed. For z < 0,
the fluid temperature is uniform at the inlet temperature T1. For z > 0, heat is added at a uniform constant
radial flux q0 through the tube wall. The axial heat conduction and viscous dissipation effect may be
neglected. The thermal conductivity k and thermal diffusivity a may be assumed constant.
Figure. Plug flow in circular tube being heated by a uniform heat flux.
a) Show that the temperature profile T(r, z) far downstream in the thermally fully developed region (i.e., for
large z) is given by the following dimensionless asymptotic solution:
where
b) Show that the limiting local Nusselt number far downstream for plug flow in a circular tube with constant
wall heat flux is Nu = 8.
Solution.
For forced convection heat transfer, the equation of energy (on neglecting the viscous dissipation effect)
simplifies to
(1)
In cylindrical coordinates for flow in a circular tube, the above equation gives
(2)
where is the thermal diffusivity. Note that the heat conduction in the axial direction is
neglected because it is typically small compared to the heat convection in the axial direction. The solution
of the above partial differential equation gives the temperature profile T(r, z).
For plug flow, vz = V (constant) and the above equation in dimensionless form is
(3)
(4)
The dimensionless quantities are typically chosen such that the number of parameters in the problem is
minimized. In this problem, the choice of dimensionless radial coordinate x and the dimensionless axial
temperature Q truly follows from the boundary conditions (BC 2 and BC 3) given below.
(5)
(6)
(7)
The second boundary condition states that heat is added at a uniform constant radial flux through the tube
wall, i.e., qr = -q0 at r = R with qr in accordance with Fourier's law.
The asymptotic solution far downstream in the thermally fully developed region (i.e., large z) is postulated
to be of the form:
(8)
heated section. Furthermore, the shape of the temperature profile T(r) will eventually remain the same for
increasing values of z.
On substituting the above form for Q in the partial differential equation (3), the following ordinary differential
equation is obtained.
(9)
(10)
(11)
On imposing the boundary conditions, BC 1 gives C1 = 0 and BC 2 gives C0 = 2. However, it is not

possible to satisfy BC 3 because the postulated function is the asymptotic solution (and not the complete
solution); therefore, BC 3 is replaced by the following condition:
(12)
The above condition states the heat entering through the wall over the distance z equals the heat leaving
with the fluid at z (with T1 as the reference temperature at z = 0). On substituting the temperature profile
and integrating, the condition gives
(13)
On substituting C0 = 2, C1 = 0 and C2 = -1/4, the asymptotic solution for the dimensionless temperature
profile in the thermally fully developed region is finally obtained as
(14)
The bulk temperature is defined as the temperature obtained if the fluid flowing at z were collected in a
vessel and completely mixed. This average temperature is therefore also called the flow-average
temperature or the cup-mixing temperature. Thus, the bulk temperature is mathematically defined by
(15)
(16)
The heat flux is the product of the heat transfer coefficient h and the local heat transfer driving force (which
is the difference between the wall temperature and the bulk temperature at an axial distance z). Thus,
(17)
Thus the Nusselt number for plug flow in a circular tube far downstream for constant wall heat flux is
(18)
Note that the characteristic length used above is the tube diameter D (= 2R).
Transport Phenomena - Heat Transfer Problem : Forced convection heat transfer for plug flow in plane slit
- Similar problem for narrow slit in Cartesian coordinates rather than circular tube in cylindrical coordinates
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7/3/2018 Transport phenomena heat transfer problem solution BSL : Forced convection heat transfer for plug flow in plane slit

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Forced convection heat transfer for plug flow in plane slit
- constant wall heat flux in thermally fully developed flow
region
Problem.
A very thick paste flows in a plane narrow slit formed by two parallel walls a distance 2B apart. The
length L and width W of the slit are such that B << W << L, so end effects can be neglected. Since the
paste flows nearly as a solid plug, the velocity profile is approximately flat over the slit cross-section
and vz = V (constant) may be assumed. For z < 0, the fluid temperature is uniform at the inlet
temperature T1. For z > 0, heat is added at a uniform constant flux q0 through both the slit walls. The
heat conduction in the z-direction and the viscous dissipation effect may be neglected. The thermal
conductivity k and thermal diffusivity a may be assumed constant.
Figure. Plug flow in plane narrow slit being heated by a uniform heat flux.
a) Show that the temperature profile T(x, z) far downstream in the thermally fully developed region
(i.e., for large z) is given by the following dimensionless asymptotic solution:
where
b) Show that the limiting local Nusselt number far downstream for plug flow in a plane slit with constant
wall heat flux is Nu = 12.
Solution.
For forced convection heat transfer, the equation of energy (on neglecting the viscous dissipation
effect) simplifies to
(1)
In Cartesian coordinates for flow in a plane narrow slit, the above equation gives
(2)
where is the thermal diffusivity. Note that the heat conduction in the z-direction is
neglected because it is typically small compared to the heat convection in the z-direction. The solution
of the above partial differential equation gives the temperature profile T(x, z).
For plug flow, vz = V (constant) and the above equation in dimensionless form is
(3)
(4)
The dimensionless quantities are typically chosen such that the number of parameters in the problem
is minimized. In this problem, the choice of dimensionless x-coordinate s and the dimensionless z-
temperature Q logically follows from the boundary conditions given below.
(5)
(6)
(7)
The first two boundary conditions state that heat is added at a uniform constant flux through the two
walls, i.e., qx = -q0 at x = +B and qx = q0 at x = -B with qx in accordance with Fourier's law.
The asymptotic solution far downstream in the thermally fully developed region (i.e., large z) is
postulated to be of the form:
(8)
heated section. Furthermore, the shape of the temperature profile T(x) will eventually remain the same
for increasing values of z.
On substituting the above form for Q in the partial differential equation (3), the following ordinary
differential equation is obtained.
(9)
(10)
(11)
On imposing the boundary conditions, BC 1 gives C0 + C1 = 1 and BC 2 gives -C0 + C1 = -1. Thus,
C0 = 1 and C1 = 0. However, it is not possible to satisfy BC 3 because the postulated function is the
asymptotic solution (and not the complete solution); therefore, BC 3 is replaced by the following
condition:
(12)
The above condition states the heat entering through both the walls over the distance z equals the
heat leaving with the fluid at z (with T1 as the reference temperature at z = 0). On substituting the
temperature profile and integrating, the condition gives
(13)
On substituting C0 = 1, C1 = 0 and C2 = -1/6, the asymptotic solution for the dimensionless

temperature profile in the thermally fully developed region is finally obtained as
(14)
The bulk temperature is defined as the temperature obtained if the fluid flowing at z were collected in a
vessel and completely mixed. This average temperature is therefore also called the flow-average
temperature or the cup-mixing temperature. Thus, on noting that the velocity and temperature profiles
are symmetric about the mid-plane of the slit, the bulk temperature is mathematically defined by
(15)
(16)
The heat flux is the product of the heat transfer coefficient h and the local heat transfer driving force
(which is the difference between the wall temperature and the bulk temperature at an axial distance z).
Thus,
(17)
Thus the Nusselt number for plug flow in a plane slit far downstream for constant wall heat flux is
(18)
Note that the characteristic length used above for noncircular conduits is the equivalent diameter = 4
(mean hydraulic radius), where the mean hydraulic radius Rh is the ratio of the flow cross-sectional
area to the wetted perimeter. For the plane slit, Rh = 2BW / (4B + 2W). Since B << W, the hydraulic
radius is approximately given by Rh = 2BW / (2W) = B. Thus, the equivalent diameter for the plane slit
is 4B.
circular tube
- Similar problem for circular tube in cylindrical coordinates rather than narrow slit in Cartesian coordinates
Transport Phenomena - Heat Transfer Problem : Forced convection heat transfer for laminar
Newtonian flow in plane slit
- Similar problem for parabolic velocity profile rather than flat velocity profile
7/3/2018 Transport Phenomena heat transfer problem solution BSL : Heat conduction in a conical solid

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Heat conduction in a conical solid

Problem.
A solid is formed from the conical section of a sphere of radius R as shown in the figure. The spherical
surface at r = R is insulated, while the two conical surfaces at q = q1 and q = q2 are held at
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively. The thermal conductivity k of the solid material may be assumed
constant.
Figure. Heated conduction in a solid bounded by two conical surfaces and a spherical surface.
a) Establish an expression for the temperature T (q) in the solid object at steady state.
b) Find the total rate of heat flow across each of the conical surfaces.
Solution.
a)
Step. Differential equation by simplifying the equation of energy
The problem involves pure heat conduction in a solid and therefore the equation of energy simplifies to
.q = 0 (where q is the heat flux). On substituting Fourier's law (q = -k T), we get 2T = 0 (because
the thermal conductivity k is constant). Since the temperature in the conical solid is a function of q only,
the equation in spherical coordinates is
(1)
7/3/2018 Transport Phenomena heat transfer problem solution BSL : Heat conduction in a conical solid
The above differential equation in dimensionless form is
(2)
where Y is the dimensionless temperature.
The ordinary differential equation may be solved by integrating twice. Thus,
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
b)
Step. Total rate of heat flow across conical surface
Using Fourier's law and differentiating the temperature profile, the heat flux is
(7)
The total rate of heat flow is obtained by integrating the product of the heat flux and the area. Thus,
(8)
As expected, the total rate of heat flow across each of the conical surfaces is the same (since there is
no generation of heat within the solid).
7/3/2018 Transport phenomena heat transfer problem solution BSL : Maximum current in an electric wire

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Home > Engineering > Transport Phenomena - Heat Transfer >

Maximum current in an electric wire
Problem.
An electric wire with radius r0 of 0.50 mm is made of copper [electrical conductivity = 5.1 x 107 ohm-1
m-1 and thermal conductivity = 380 W/(m K)]. It is insulated (see figure) to an outer radius r1 of 1.50
mm with plastic [thermal conductivity = 0.350 W/(m K)].
Figure. Heating of an insulated electric wire.
The ambient air is at 38.0oC and the heat transfer coefficient from the outer insulated surface to the
surrounding air is 8.500 W/(m2 K). Determine the maximum current in amperes that can flow at
steady-state in the wire without any portion of the insulation getting heated above its maximum
allowable temperature of 93.0oC.
Solution.
Step. Thermal resistance representation for insulation and air
In general, the heat flow is given by Q = DT/Rth, where DT is the temperature driving force (thermal
potential difference). The thermal resistance for a cylindrical annulus is Rth = ln (r1/r0)/(2 p kL) and the
thermal resistance for a fluid film at a solid-fluid interface is Rth = 1/(hA). Here, k is the thermal
conductivity, h is the heat transfer coefficient and A is the surface area for convection.
The thermal resistances for the insulation and air film are in series as shown in the figure below.
Figure. Thermal resistance representation of insulation and air film.
Based on the above thermal resistance representation, the heat flow is
(1)
where k is the thermal conductivity of the plastic insulation.

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7/3/2018 Transport phenomena heat transfer problem solution BSL : Maximum current in an electric wire
Step. Heat flow due to current in wire
The flow of an electric current results in some electrical energy getting converted to thermal energy
irreversibly. The heat generation by electrical dissipation per unit volume is given by S = I 2/ke where I
is the current density (in amp/m2) and ke is the electrical conductivity (in ohm-1 m-1).
The total heat generated within the wire is simply the product of S and the volume of the wire. At
steady-state, all this heat generated within the wire by electrical dissipation must leave through the
wire surface and therefore the heat flow is given by
(2)
Step. Expression for current
On eliminating Q from the above two equations, the current density is
(3)
On multiplying the current density by the cross-sectional area of the wire, the current is obtained from
(4)
For the maximum current, the temperature T0 must be maximized.
Step. Substitution of numerical values
On setting the temperature T0 to 93.0oC (i.e., the maximum allowable temperature for the insulation),
the maximum current that can flow through the wire may be calculated as 13.027 amp.
The numerical values substituted in the equation are given below.

The values below may be changed and the problem solution recalculated with the new values
provided in consistent units.
Variable name Symbol Value Unit

electrical conductivity ke 51000000 ohm-1 m-1
maximum temperature T0 93.0000 oC
ambient temperature T2 38.0000 oC
outer radius r1 0.001500 m

wire radius r0 0.000500 m
plastic thermal conductivity k 0.35000 W/(m K)
heat transfer coefficient h 8.50000 W/(m2 K)
Calculated Variable Symbol Value Unit
Maximum current 13.027 amp
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7/3/2018 Transport phenomena heat transfer problem solution BSL : Minimum thickness for a composite furnace wall

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Minimum thickness for a composite furnace wall
Problem.
The wall of a furnace comprises three layers as shown in the figure. The first layer is refractory (whose
maximum allowable temperature is 1400oC) while the second layer is insulation (whose maximum
allowable temperature is 1093oC). The third layer is a plate of 6.35 mm thickness of steel [thermal
conductivity = 45 W/(m K)]. Assume the layers to be in very good thermal contact.
Figure. Layers in a composite furnace wall.
The temperature T0 on the inside of the refractory is 1370oC, while the temperature T3 on the outside
of the steel plate is 37.8oC. The heat loss through the furnace wall is expected to be 15800 W/m2.
Determine the thickness of refractory and insulation that results in the minimum total thickness of the
wall.
Given thermal conductivities in W/(m K):

Layer k at 37.8oC k at 1093oC
Refractory 3.12 6.23
Insulation 1.56 3.12
Solution.
Step. Thermal resistance representation for composite furnace wall
In general, the heat flow is given by Q = DT/Rth and the thermal resistance for a rectangular slab is Rth
= Dx/(kA), where DT is the temperature driving force (thermal potential difference), Dx is the slab
thickness, k is the thermal conductivity, and A is the cross-sectional area of the slab.
The thermal resistances for the three layers are in series as shown in the figure below.
Figure. Thermal resistance representation of composite furnace wall.
Based on the thermal resistance representation for the composite furnace wall, the heat flux q is
(1)
In the refractory and insulation, the thermal conductivity k varies with temperature. If a linear variation
is assumed, then the arithmetic mean is to be used for the thermal conductivity.
Step. Temperature at insulation - steel interface
The temperature T2 at the interface between the insulation and steel layers is given by
(2)
The above expression can be used to calculate temperature T2 (as done later).
Step. Thickness of refractory and insulation
The thickness of the refractory (x1 - x0) and insulation (x2 - x1) are
(3)
On adding the above two equations, we get
(4)
Since q, T0 and T2 are known in the above expression, the first two terms on the right-hand side are
nearly fixed. The last term is negative as k12 is less than k01 (i.e., thermal conductivity of insulation is
less than that of refractory). Since the aim is to minimize (x2 - x0), the temperature T1 must be
maximized.
Step. Substitution of numerical values
The temperature at the insulation - steel interface is
(5)
Next, the temperature T1 is set to 1093oC (i.e., the maximum allowable temperature for the insulation).
By linear extrapolation, the thermal conductivity of the refractory at 1370oC is 7.05 W/(m K).
Substitution of numerical values gives the thickness of refractory as
(6)
and the thickness of insulation as
(7)
Transport Phenomena - Heat Transfer Problem : Maximum current in an electric wire

- Problem involving thermal resistances in cylindrical coordinates rather than Cartesian coordinates
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Electromagnetic Flow Meter
System Solutions. Download
Your Guide.
7/3/2018 Transport phenomena mass transfer problem solution BSL : Diffusion with homogeneous chemical reaction of a solid sphere in a liquid

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Transport Phenomena - Mass Transfer Problem :

Diffusion with homogeneous chemical reaction of a solid
sphere in a liquid
Problem.
A solid sphere (of radius R and density r) made of substance A (of molecular weight M) is suspended
in a liquid B. Solid A undergoes a first-order homogeneous chemical reaction with rate constant k1'''
being slightly soluble in liquid B. Let cA0 be the molar solubility of A in B, and DAB be the diffusivity of A
in B.
Figure. Diffusion with chemical reaction of sphere in liquid.
a) Establish the concentration profile for A at steady state (i.e., when the mass diffusion is in exact
balance with the chemical reaction).
b) Using a quasi-steady-state approach, derive an expression for the time t required for the sphere
radius to decrease from an initial radius R0 to R.
Solution.
a)
Step. Differential equation for diffusion with homogeneous chemical reaction
The problem involves mass diffusion with homogeneous chemical reaction. At steady state, the
equation of continuity for species A in molar quantities simplifies to .NA = RA (where NA is the molar
flux of A and RA is the rate of homogeneous chemical reaction per unit volume). For a first - order
homogeneous reaction in spherical coordinates, the species continuity equation gives
(1)
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where NAr is the molar flux of A in the radial direction and cA is the molar concentration of A. The
above equation can also be simply obtained by a molar balance for A over a thin spherical shell in the
liquid.
Neglecting the convection term and describing the diffusion of A by Fick's law (NAr = - DAB dcA/dr), we
get
(2)
where DAB is the diffusivity of A in B.
The differential equation may be rewritten as
(3)
where a = (k1'''/DAB)1/2.
Step. Concentration profile by solving differential equation
The solution of the above ordinary differential equation is of the form:
(4)
(5)
(6)
The first boundary condition states that species A is not present far from the sphere, whereas the
second boundary condition states that cA0 is the concentration at the sphere surface based on the
molar solubility of species A in liquid B.
On substituting the integration constants, the steady-state concentration profile is obtained as
(7)
b)
Step. Expression for time required for decrease in sphere radius
An unsteady - state molar balance on A over the sphere gives
- rate of moles of A out by diffusion = rate of change of moles of A (due to volume change)
(8)
where r is the sphere density and M is the molecular weight of species A.
Now, NAR is the molar flux of A at the sphere surface (r = R). A quasi-steady-state approach implies
that the sphere radius is changing slowly enough for the system to be considered at steady state at
each moment in time. Therefore, the steady-state concentration profile (Eq. 7) may be differentiated
and NAR obtained from Fick's law can be substituted in Eq. 8. Thus,
(9)
Integration now gives
(10)
Note that
(11)
Using the limits of integration, we get
(12)
On rearranging, the time required for the sphere radius to decrease from R0 to R is finally obtained as
(13)
Related Problems in Transport Phenomena - Mass Transfer :
Transport Phenomena - Mass Transfer Problem : Oxidation of silicon - a diffusion problem in

microelectronics
- Another quasi-steady-state problem with heterogeneous (rather than homogeneous) chemical reaction
Transport Phenomena - Mass Transfer Problem : Oxygen metabolism of a spherical bacterial

aggregate
- Another problem in spherical coordinates with zero order (rather than first order) homogeneous chemical reaction
7/3/2018 Transport phenomena mass transfer problem solution BSL : Oxidation of silicon - a diffusion problem in microelectronics

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Oxidation of silicon - a diffusion problem in microelectronics
Problem.
A diffusion problem that occurs in the field of microelectronics is the oxidation of silicon according to
the reaction Si + O2 SiO2. Consider the the oxidation of a material M given by the general reaction
M + (1/2)x O2 MOx (with x = 2 for silicon oxidation). When a slab of the material is exposed to
gaseous oxygen (species A), the oxygen undergoes a first-order reaction with rate constant k1" to
produce a layer of the oxide (species B). The task is to predict the thickness d of the very slowly-
growing oxide layer as a function of time t using a quasi-steady-state approach (which suggests that
the rate of change of the dissolved oxygen content in the layer is small compared to the rate of
reaction). Let the oxygen, whose dissolved concentration is cA0 at the free surface of the oxide layer at
z = 0, diffuse through the layer as per Fick's law to reach the reaction surface at z = d as in the figure
below.
Figure. Diffusion of oxygen through an oxide layer formed by oxidation of silicon.
a) Write unsteady-state molar balances on the oxide and oxygen over the thickness of the layer.
b) Find the concentration profile of oxygen in the layer at steady-state.
c) Using quasi-steady-state arguments, show that the oxygen concentration at the reaction plane (z =
d) is given by
where DAB is the oxygen diffusivity through the oxide film and cB is the molar density of the oxide
layer.
d) Derive an expression for the thickness of the very slowly-growing oxide layer when the quadratic
term on the right-hand side of the above equation is negligible.
e) Reduce the above results for the limiting case of diffusion - controlled oxidation where the reaction
rate constant k1" tends to infinity.
Solution.
a)
Step. Unsteady-state molar balance on oxide over thickness of layer
The unsteady-state balance on the moles of oxide is
rate of moles of oxide generated = rate of moles of oxide accumulated
Thus,
(1)
where cB is the molar density of the oxide layer and S is the cross-sectional area of the slab. Note that
(2/x) moles of oxide are generated for each mole of oxygen consumed in accordance with the
stoichiometry of the reaction.
Step. Unsteady-state molar balance on oxygen over thickness of layer
The unsteady-state balance on the moles of oxygen is
rate of moles of oxygen in by diffusion - rate of moles of oxygen consumed by reaction = rate of moles
of oxygen accumulated
Thus,
(2)
where NAz is the molar flux of oxygen in the z-direction. Dividing throughout by S (since the cross-
sectional area is constant) and then using Leibniz formula on the right-hand side of the above
equation, we get
(3)
Since the rate of change of the dissolved oxygen content in the layer is small compared to the rate of
reaction, the first term on the right-hand side above is neglected. Then, on substituting Fick's law for
NAz,
(4)
where DAB is the oxygen diffusivity through the oxide layer.
b)
Step. Steady-state concentration profile of oxygen in layer
At steady-state in the absence of homogeneous reaction, the species continuity equation and the
diffusion equation simplify to .NA = 0 (where NA is the molar flux of species A) and 2cA = 0. Since
the oxygen concentration is a function of z only, the differential equation in Cartesian coordinates may
be simply integrated twice as follows:
(5)
(6)
(7)
On substituting the integration constants,
(8)
Thus, the steady-state profile for the dissolved oxygen concentration is linear. The oxygen
concentration at the reaction plane is so far unknown and is determined next.
c)
Step. Expression for oxygen concentration at reaction plane
On eliminating dcA/dz (using Eq. 8) and dd/dt (using Eq. 1), Eq. 4 yields
(9)
On rearranging the above equation, the oxygen concentration at the reaction plane is given by the
following expression.
(10)
d)
Step. Solution of differential equation for thickness of oxide layer
The quadratic term on the right-hand side of the above equation has been shown to be negligible in
the microelectronics literature. Thus, the oxygen concentration at the reaction plane is simply given by
(11)
It must be emphasized that the above equation can be directly obtained from a simple steady-state
oxygen balance (rather than the unsteady-state balances in Eqs. 2 - 4). In other words, the quasi-
steady-state arguments could include a steady-state balance where the moles of oxygen in by
diffusion are exactly equal to the moles of oxygen consumed by the oxidation reaction.
On combining Eq. 1 with Eq. 11, the following ordinary differential equation for d(t) is obtained.
(12)
Noting that d = 0 at t = 0, integration gives
(13)
On solving the above quadratic equation, the oxide layer thickness is obtained as
(14)
e)
Step. Limiting solution for diffusion - controlled oxidation
For the limiting case of diffusion - controlled oxidation, the reaction rate constant tends to infinity and
the dissolved oxygen concentration tends to zero at the reaction plane. Thus, the above results at the
diffusion - controlled limit yield
(15)
The oxide layer thickness is seen to be predicted by a quadratic law.
Transport Phenomena - Mass Transfer Problem : Diffusion with homogeneous chemical reaction of a
solid sphere in a liquid
- Another quasi-steady-state problem with homogeneous (rather than heterogeneous) chemical reaction
7/3/2018 Transport phenomena mass transfer problem solution BSL : Oxygen metabolism of a spherical bacterial aggregate

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Oxygen metabolism of a spherical bacterial aggregate
Problem.
Consider a spherical aggregate of bacterial cells (assumed homogeneous) of radius R. Under certain
circumstances, the oxygen metabolism rate of the bacterial cells is almost zero order with respect to
oxygen concentration and may be approximated by an effective volumetric reaction rate rO2 = -k0'''.
The diffusion may be described by Fick's law with an effective pseudobinary diffusivity for oxygen in
the bacterial medium DO2-M. Neglect transient and convection effects because the oxygen solubility is
very low in the system. Let r0 be the oxygen mass concentration at the aggregate surface. It is then
convenient to define the following dimensionless quantities:
If N is large enough, then an oxygen - free core may exist in the aggregate such that c = 0 for x < x0.
This requires that c and dc/dx both be zero at x = x0.
a) Establish the pseudo-steady-state oxygen concentration distribution c(x).
b) Derive an expression from which the dimensionless oxygen - free core radius x0 may be determined
as a function of N.
c) For what values of N does an oxygen - free core exist?
d) Sketch the oxygen concentration profile c for different values of N.
Solution.
a)
Step. Differential equation from oxygen mass balance
On neglecting the transient effects, an oxygen mass balance over a thin spherical shell in the bacterial
aggregate gives
(1)
where nO2 is the mass flux of oxygen and rO2 is the effective reaction rate for oxygen metabolism per
unit volume.
Neglecting the convective oxygen transport and describing the oxygen diffusion by Fick's law (
), we get
(2)
where DO2-M is the effective pseudobinary diffusivity for oxygen in the bacterial medium and rO2 is the
mass concentration of oxygen.
In dimensionless form, the ordinary differential equation is
(3)
(4)
and r0 is the mass concentration of oxygen at the aggregate surface (r = R).
Step. Oxygen concentration profile by solving differential equation
On integrating,
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
where x0 is the dimensionless oxygen - free core radius. Note that if N is large enough, then an oxygen
- free core may exist in the aggregate such that c = 0 for x < x0. Since the concentration and mass flux
(i.e., concentration gradient) must be continuous, this requires that dc/dx = 0 (as in BC 1) and c = 0 (as
in BC 2) at x = x0. The third boundary condition simply states that the mass concentration of oxygen
rO2 = r0 at the aggregate surface at r = R.
On substituting the integration constants, the oxygen concentration profile is obtained as
(9)
The first form of the expression for c above is obtained on substituting the integration constants from
BC 1 and BC 2, whereas the second form results from substituting the integration constants from BC 1
and BC 3. Note that c = 0 for x < x0.
b)
Step. Expression for dimensionless oxygen - free core radius
On eliminating C2 from Eqs. 7 and 8, we get
(10)
The above expression may be utilized to determine the dimensionless oxygen - free core radius x0 as
a function of N as discussed below.
c)
Condition for existence of oxygen - free core
On rearranging the above equation, we get
(11)
From the above equation, it is readily observed that N goes from 6 to infinity when x0 goes from 0 to 1.
Thus, the oxygen - free core exists only when N > 6.
d)
Sketch of oxygen concentration profile and oxygen - free core radius
On eliminating N from Eqs. 9 and 11, the dimensionless oxygen concentration profile is obtained as
(12)
For a particular value of x0, Eq. 12 may be used to compute c(x) and Eq. 11 to calculate N in order to
obtain the plot given below.
Figure. Oxygen concentration profiles for three different N values.
Transport Phenomena - Mass Transfer Problem : Diffusion with homogeneous chemical reaction of a
solid sphere in a liquid
- Another with in spherical coordinates with first order (rather than zero order) homogeneous chemical reaction

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7/3/2018 Heat conduction from a sphere to a stagnant fluid

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Transport Phenomena - Heat Transfer Problem :

Figure. Heated sphere in a large amount of

Click here for stepwise solution

Step. Differential equation from heat balance

Step. Temperature profile by solving differential equation

The integration constants are determined using the boundary conditions:

BC 2: r = R, T = TR or −C1 = (TR − Ta) R (5)

where R is the radius of the sphere.

On substituting the integration constants, the temperature profile is

Step. Nusselt number from heat flux

The Nusselt number (which is the dimensionless heat transfer coefficient) is

where D is the diameter of the sphere.

Related Problems in Transport Phenomena :

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Heat Transfer Problem :

Dapatkan cashback - Sampai $15 setiap lot per hari

Figure. Radial circular fin on heated pipe.

b) Obtain the radial temperature distribution in the circular fin.

A circular fin is also called a radial fin or circumferential fin.

Step. Differential equation from thermal energy balance

Rate of Heat In - Out + Generation = Accumulation

Dividing by 4p B Dr and taking the limit as Dr tends to zero,

Let the dimensionless excess temperature be denoted by q = (T - Ta)/(Tw - Ta). Then,

The above equation on simplifying is identical to equation (5).

Step. Radial temperature profile by solving differential equation

Equation (6) is a modified Bessel equation of order zero. Its solution is

On substituting the integration constants, the dimensionless temperature profile is

Step. Total heat loss from the fin

The heat flux at the base of the fin (r = R0) is given by

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Heat Transfer Problem :

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Step. Velocity profile in narrow slit

On substituting the integration constants, the velocity profile is given by

Step. Rate of generation of heat by viscous dissipation

For the system under consideration, S is found to be constant.

Step. Differential equation for heat flux from shell balance

Rate of Heat In - Out + Generation = Accumulation

Dividing by A Dx and taking the limit as Dx tends to zero,

Step. Temperature profile by solving differential equation

On integrating, the heat flux is given by

On substituting Fourier's law ( ), we get

On integrating, the temperature profile is given by

On substituting the integration constants, the temperature profile is

Step. Maximum temperature in lubricant

The maximum temperature occurs when

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Heat Transfer Problem :

Glass-lined Glass-lined reactors

b) Establish the radial temperature distribution by solving the differential equation.

c) What viscous flow problem is analogous to this heat conduction problem?

d) Derive an expression for the volumetric average temperature in the reactor.

Step. Differential equation from thermal energy balance

Rate of Heat In - Out + Generation = Accumulation

At steady-state, the accumulation term will be zero. So,

Dividing by 2p Dr L and taking the limit as Dr tends to zero,

Step. Radial temperature profile by solving differential equation

The integration constants are determined using the boundary conditions:

On substituting the integration constants, the temperature profile is

Step. Analogous problem in fluid mechanics

Substituting aR = r0 and R = r1,