Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3. Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2. Cadmium Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4. Cadmium Compounds and Com-
2.1. Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 1 plexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2. Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.1. Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3. Occurrence, Raw Materials . . . . . 2 4.2. Individual Compounds . . . . . . . . 7
2.4. Refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.3. Storage and Transportation . . . . . 9
2.4.1. The Starting Materials . . . . . . . . . . 2 5. Environmental Protection . . . . . . 9
2.4.2. Leaching of the Starting Materials and 5.1. Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Cementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
5.2. Waste Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.3. Electrolytic Recovery . . . . . . . . . . 3
5.3. Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.4. Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.5. Other Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5.4. Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.6. Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6. Economic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5. Quality Specifications and Analysis 5 7. Toxicology and Occupational Health 11
2.6. Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
is produced. This is leached in an acid solution, cadmium, and thallium are almost completely
and the cadmium is subsequently precipitated as dissolved in the solution along with almost no
cadmium carbonate. The cadmium in secondary copper, cobalt, nickel, and arsenic [6].
raw materials, such as steel mill dust, leaching Copper chloride mixed with other metal chlo-
sediments, and sludge from water treatment, can rides or iron(III) chloride can be used as an oxi-
be processed at the same time. However, before dant instead of air [7], [8]. Dust from the sinter-
they are mixed with the concentrates they are ing process can also be roasted to give sulfates
enriched in a rotating tube furnace (Waelz pro- and then be extracted in a similar fashion with
cess). water [9].
In hydrometallurgical zinc refining, the Independent of the further processing of the
cadmium-containing zinc concentrate is leached cadmium, it is precipitated from the solution as
with sulfuric acid. The cadmium is removed a metal sponge by reduction with zinc. If neces-
from the solution together with copper by re- sary the solution is purified first.
duction with zinc dust to give a metallic sludge. The cadmium raw solution resulting from the
Similar cadmium sludges form in the purifica- leaching step at Ruhr Zinc contains about 30 g/L
tion of zinc solutions used in the production of of zinc and small amounts of cobalt, nickel, thal-
zinc sulfide pigments or zinc carbonate. These lium, and copper in addition to the 30 – 40 g/L
cadmium sludges are the most important starting of cadmium. The cadmium is precipitated in a
materials for cadmium refining today. The sec- 50 m3 tank at a temperature of 60 ◦ C. In order
ondary starting materials mentioned above can to avoid excess zinc in the cadmium sponge,
be added to the primary raw materials without only 80 % of the stoichiometric amount of the
causing large alterations in the refining process. zinc is added initially. The remaining zinc dust
Also of economic significance is the recy- is added in small portions until the cadmium
cling of used nickel – cadmium storage batter- concentration of the solution is below 0.1 g/L.
ies; cadmium-containing alloys, such as Sn – Cd After decanting, the cadmium sponge is left in
metallizing alloys from the manufacture of rec- the reaction container. The precipitation is car-
tifiers; defective industrial batches; residues ried out three times, principally to reduce the
from the production of cadmium pigments; and amount of zinc. After the final precipitation, the
cadmium-containing fluorescent materials. Spe- sponge is washed, and the wash water is recy-
cial processes are usually necessary to convert cled to the zinc plant. The precipitated sponge
the cadmium content into a form that can be pro- contains 90 % cadmium and only 2.5 % zinc [6].
cessed normally. The most important processes The procedure of the Outokumpu Zinc Works
of this type are discussed in Section 2.4.6. starts with a purified cadmium solution because
of the nature of the succeeding metal recovery
(see Section 2.4.5). Copper is removed with zinc
2.4.2. Leaching of the Starting Materials powder, and lead is removed with barium car-
and Cementation bonate. The separation of the cadmium sponge
from the solution, however, scarcely deviates
Cadmium is extracted from the enriched starting from the Ruhr Zinc processes. The greatest dif-
materials by oxidizing solutions. The extraction ference is that the cementation is interrupted at
must be carried out in such a way that all the cadmium concentrations of 3 – 5 g/L, and the so-
cadmium as well as the zinc dissolves. The pro- lution recirculated. Together with a very careful
cedure of Ruhr Zinc, Datteln, Federal Repub- wash, this reduces the residual content of zinc
lic of Germany, is described here as an exam- in the compacted cadmium-sponge briquettes to
ple. The liquid from electrolytic baths, which 0.5 – 2.0 % [5].
has a sulfuric acid concentration of 25 – 30 g/L,
is conveyed into 50 m3 tanks. In order to oxi-
dize the cadmium, either air is blown in or man- 2.4.3. Electrolytic Recovery
ganese dioxide is added. Fresh cadmium sludge
or cadmium carbonate is added to decrease the The largest amounts of cadmium are recov-
acidity of the solution, and a copper-containing ered electrolytically. It is customary to extract
precipitate is removed with a filter press. Zinc, the cadmium sponge in the same tank with
4 Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds
copper and iron [14]. Aliphatic carboxylic acids the cadmium is distilled under a reducing atmo-
[15] and o-aminomethylphenols [16] selectively sphere at 850 ◦ C and returned to the production
extract cadmium from aqueous solution. department. Even sealed cells can be processed
by distillation after the plastic is destroyed by
pyrolytic pretreatment in a slightly oxidizing at-
2.4.6. Recycling mosphere [22].
For the often necessary attachment of differ- quickly. Because they do not have to be melted,
ent metals, such as copper alloys, stainless steel, production costs are lower. In many cases, the
and titanium alloys to aluminum or magnesium high purity of the sheet allows direct use of the
alloys, cadmium coating is an absolute prereq- cadmium solution without additional purifica-
uisite to avoid corrosion. Cadmium plating is of- tion, especially as the noble impurities remain
ten required in military procurement contracts to as residue.
ensure that the weapons and equipment function A small amount of cadmium is converted
reliably over many years. into cadmium sulfide – copper sulfide solar
cells (→ Photoelectricity), which directly con-
Nickel – Cadmium Accumulators (→ Bat- vert light into electrical energy. The yield at
teries, Chap. 3.2.). The second most widely present is ≈ 10 %. A yield of 15 % is thought to
used storage battery is based on cadmium and be attainable. It is expected that these cells can be
nickel. In the charged state the negative electrode produced inexpensively. Other cadmium com-
consists of cadmium powder, and the positive pounds − cadmium telluride, cadmium selenide,
electrode consists of nickel(III) hydroxide. As and the combination cadmium sulfide – indium
the battery discharges, cadmium hydroxide and phosphide − have also been tested successfully.
nickel(II) hydroxide form. Charging reestab- The amounts of cadmium consumed for the
lishes the original composition. The starting most important uses are given in Table 2.
material for the production of the negative elec-
trode is usually cadmium metal, which is dis-
solved in nitric acid and then precipitated as 3. Alloys
cadmium hydroxide. In another technique, cad-
mium hydroxide is repeatedly precipitated into Numerous binary and tertiary cadmium alloys,
the pores of sintered bodies, which become the often with complicated phase diagrams, are
negative electrode. A further variation uses elec- known. For practical purposes, cadmium does
trodeposited cadmium powder, which is mixed not dissolve in molten iron or aluminum. A tabu-
with an electrical conductor such as graphite. lar summary of cadmium alloys is available [24],
A properly designed accumulating system does and there is special literature about cadmium al-
not release gas, even when overcharged, and can loys [25]. A number of cadmium alloys, as a rule
be sealed gastight. This development opened the produced simply by melting, are used industri-
way for new applications, such as rechargeable ally. They can be divided by their principal use:
accumulators not larger than a single primary solder, electrical conductors, and other.
cell for use in portable electronic products.
In addition to the general advantages of ac- Solder. Cadmium forms alloys with silver,
cumulators, nickel – cadmium cells have a long copper, and zinc that have low melting points
life and are insensitive to low temperature and and are widely applicable for the hard solder-
storage in the uncharged condition. Nonsealed ing of metals. The cadmium lowers the melting
nickel – cadmium accumulators are used in air- point. More than 80 % of the cadmium used in
planes; telephone, telegraph, and radar stations; alloys is used for this purpose.
computer installations; and emergency power Aluminum or aluminum alloys can be sol-
stations. Gastight cells are used in transportable dered to copper, brass, or stainless steel by
pocket computers, razors, flashlights, etc. lead alloys that contain antimony, tin, and
2.6 – 17 wt % cadmium [26], [27]. Similar al-
Other Uses. Cadmium compounds, stabiliz-
loys that contain between 0.6 and 60 % cad-
ers for plastics, and pigments (→ Pigments, In-
mium join glass and ceramics at temperatures
organic) are generally produced from cadmium
under 180 ◦ C [28]. For soldered connections
metal. The metal is dissolved in a mineral acid,
on gold-plated electrical conductors, cadmium-
usually sulfuric acid. Dissolution requires con-
containing zinc – lead – indium alloys are rec-
siderable time even at high temperatures. In-
ommended [29], [30]. Occupational-medicine
creasingly, cadmium sheets from electrodeposi-
aspects of cadmium-containing soldering are
tion are used because they, unlike metal blocks,
treated in [31].
have a larger surface area and dissolve more
Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds 7
Electrical Contacts and Conducting Wire. insoluble cadmium carbonate. Sodium cyanide
The addition of cadmium or cadmium oxide to reacts with aqueous cadmium solutions to give
silver, often the contact material in electrical cadmium cyanide, which redissolves in excess
switches, reduces the metal loss due to sparking. reagent to form [Cd(CN)4 ]2− . This complex is
In addition, the welding tendency is decreased. weak enough that the cadmium can be com-
Cadmium (0.8 – 1 wt %) improves the mechan- pletely precipitated with hydrogen sulfide. Cad-
ical properties of copper wire without reducing mium solutions react with hexacyanoferrate(II)
its electrical conductivity. This is especially use- to give a white precipitate, whereas they react
ful in the case of the overhead wires supplying with hexacyanoferrate(III) to give a yellow pre-
power to electrically powered locomotives [32], cipitate. Cadmium sulfite is only slightly solu-
[33]. ble and can be precipitated from cadmium solu-
tion with sodium sulfite. All insoluble cadmium
Other Alloys. Cadmium is a component of a compounds can be dissolved in mineral acids.
few bearing alloys based on tin, copper, and alu- A few cadmium compounds fluoresce or phos-
minum, usually in amounts under 1 %. Wood’s phoresce, the silicate yellow to rose, the borate
alloy and Lipowitz’s alloy, which contain be- rose. Silver- or copper-activated cadmium – zinc
tween 6 and 14 % Cd, are used as fusible alloys sulfide gives colors spread over the entire spec-
in automatic fire-protection sprinklers and other trum.
devices. Cadmium in the form of a 5 % alloy
with silver and indium is put to use in the con-
trol rods of nuclear reactors because 113 Cd has 4.2. Individual Compounds
a particularly large neutron capture cross sec-
tion. A cadmium – selenium – indium alloy is an The properties and uses of numerous cadmium
important component of a white-light laser for compounds are described in [24]. The following
optical data processing systems [25]. text is limited to the most important industrial
cadmium compounds.
unsaturated fatty acids, and as a mixed catalyst izing the solution. The salt is used in electro-
component to produce methanol from carbon plating. An aqueous solution absorbs hydrogen
monoxide and water. Further uses include resis- sulfide. Molten cadmium chloride dissolves cad-
tant enamels, metal coatings for plastics, heat- mium metal. Upon cooling, the metal precipi-
resistant plastics, selenium ruby glass, starting tates.
material for other cadmium compounds, and sta- The significance of cadmium chloride as
bilizers for poly(vinyl chloride). Cadmium ox- a commercial product is declining. It occurs,
ide combined with an alkali-metal cyanide is the however, as an intermediate in the produc-
salt mixture used in the baths for cadmium elec- tion of cadmium-containing stabilizers and pig-
troplating. Cadmium oxide is a component of ments, which are often obtained from a cadmium
batteries. It is temperature resistant and together chloride solution itself obtained from cadmium
with silver useful in heavy-duty electrical con- metal, oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate.
tacts. Cadmium oxide improves the behavior of
some high-temperature plastics. Cadmium nitrate tetrahydrate
[10325-94-7] , Cd(NO3 )2 · 4 H2 O, M r 308.49,
Cadmium hydroxide [21041-95-2] , has a density of 2.46 g/cm3 . The small colorless
Cd(OH)2 , M r 146.43, isa colorless powder with deliquescing crystals readily dissolve in water.
a hexagonal, layered lattice. The precipitation of They have a mp of 59.9 ◦ C, and the liquid has
fine-grained cadmium hydroxide is only possi- a bp of 132 ◦ C. There are three hydrates, in-
ble from nitric acid solution, basic salts often re- cluding the tetrahydrate, and the anhydrous salt
sulting from precipitation from other solutions. (stability ranges):
In the presence of halogenide ions, X− , the Cd(NO3 )2 · 9 H2 O (−16 to 3.5 ◦ C)
complex [CdX4 ]2− forms. In fact, precipitation Cd(NO3 )2 · 4 H2 O (3.5 to 48.7 ◦ C)
of Cd (OH)2 can be prevented by a high con- Cd(NO3 )2 · 2 H2 O (48.7 to 56.8 ◦ C)
centration of alkali-metal chloride. Cadmium Cd(NO3 )2 (> 56.8 ◦ C)
hydroxide is a component of cadmium – nickel Cadmium nitrate is produced by dissolving
accumulators and silver – cadmium batteries. cadmium metal in nitric acid, purifying if neces-
Cadmium hydroxide often replaces the oxide as sary, concentrating, and crystallizing. It is used
the starting material for other cadmium com- for the production of red lusters in glass and
pounds. porcelain and in cadmium – nickel sinter plates
of storage batteries.
Cadmium carbonate [513-78-0] , CdCO3 ,
M r 172.42, has a density of 5.3 g/cm3 . (The den- Cadmium sulfate [10124-36-4] , CdSO4 ,
sity of CdCO3 · H2 O is 4.3 g/cm3 .) The white M r 208.46, 4.7 g/cm3 . The melting point of the
crystalline powder with an orthorhombic lattice anhydrous salt is 1000 ◦ C. Anhydrous cadmium
of the calcite type decomposes above 360 ◦ C. sulfate is produced by melting cadmium with
Often precipitation with sodium carbonate pro- ammonium or sodium peroxodisulfate. A satu-
duces hydroxy products, which contain water rated aqueous solution contains 76 g CdSO4 per
difficult to remove. Cadmium carbonate is a 100 g of water at 0 ◦ C, 77.2 g at 20 ◦ C, 69.4 g at
starting material for the production of cadmium 74.5 ◦ C, and 58.0 g at 100 ◦ C.
pigments and other cadmium salts. CdSO4 · 8/3 H2 O [7790-84-3], M r 256.52,
3.09 g/cm3 . The colorless monoclinic crystals,
Cadmium chloride [10108-64-2] , CdCl2 , which effloresce in air, are soluble in water (see
M r 183.32, has a density of 4.05 g/cm3 . The above). This hydrate melts at 41.5 ◦ C in its own
colorless, lustrous orthorhombic crystals, which water of crystallization, converting to the mono-
melt at 568 ◦ C to a liquid that boils at 967 ◦ C, hydrate.
are slightly soluble in water. The hydrates are Cadmium sulfate monohydrate [13477-20-8],
CdCl2 · H2 O, CdCl2 · 21/2 H2 O, and CdCl2 · CdSO4 · H2 O, M r 226.48, 3.79 g/cm3 , which
4 H2 O. Cadmium chloride is produced by re- is the form usually marketed, is produced by
action of molten cadmium and chlorine gas at evaporating a cadmium sulfate solution above
600 ◦ C or by dissolving cadmium metal or the 41.5 ◦ C.
oxide in hydrochloric acid, subsequently vapor-
Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds 9
Cadmium sulfate is used in electroplating and only insignificantly, although in some restricted
as a starting material for pigments, stabilizers, areas environmental problems have developed.
and other cadmium compounds that can be pre- More than 90 % of the total nonsmoker intake
cipitated from aqueous solution. It is used to of cadmium is reported to be through food (see
produce fluorescent materials and in analysis. Chap. 7). All sources of cadmium that contami-
A cadmium sulfate solution is a component of nate cultivated soil, whether by air, fertilizer, or
the Weston cell, which has an almost constant water, should be reduced as much as possible.
voltage of 1.0186 V. Cases of cadmium poisoning caused by the
contamination of the environment are described
Cadmium cyanide [542-83-6] , Cd(CN)2 , in page 15.
M r 164.448, 2.226 g/cm3 , is cubic and
isostructural with Zn(CN)2 . The solubility in
water is 17 g per liter at 15 ◦ C. The solubility in 5.1. Emission
sodium cyanide solution is greater because tri-
cyanocadmium ions, Cd(CN)− 3 , form. Cadmium Cadmium emission in the Federal Republic of
cyanide is produced from dilute cyanic acid and Germany is given in Table 1. Summaries for
cadmium hydroxide by evaporation or by precip- the United Kingdom [38], the European Eco-
itation from a concentrated solution of cadmium nomic Community [39], and the United States
salt and alkali-metal cyanide. Cadmium cyanide [40] are difficult to compare because different
and its mixtures with an alkali-metal cyanide are parameters have been selected. However, this
used in electroplating. Cadmium cyanide baths literature cites its sources, so comparison based
for the electroplating of cadmium metal coat- on tabulations in these sources is possible. Data
ings have the advantage that they are easy to about industrial emission in the European Eco-
work with. Metal removed from the solution as nomic Community and extensive discussion of
electroplate is replaced by dissolution of the cad- the technologies to reduce emissions have been
mium anode. These cadmium anodes should be collected [41].
at least 99.95 % pure.
∗ Maximum.
∗∗ Forty percent of the 1.8 × 10−6 t of waste water sludge produced each year, or 0.72 × 10−6 t, is used agriculturally. If the sludge
contains, on the average, 5 ppm Cd, this corresponds to the minimum estimate, 3.6 t Cd. Twenty ppm corresponds to the maximum
estimate, 14.4 t Cd.
used. Clearly the most important factor is the re- which also work well enough with fine particles,
duction of the amount of cadmium carried into must be used. The laws vary from land to land.
the waste water. Consequently the guidelines of In TA-Luft (Technical Regulations for Air) the
the European Community concentrate on reduc- Federal Republic of Germany requires that not
tion of the amount of cadmium in waste water. more than 0.2 mg Cd per m3 of air be released.
The constant tightening of the standards for Larger gas effluents are usually subject to an
waste water purification is intended to prevent electrostatic purification, for example, the re-
excessive concentrations of cadmium in the moval of particles from gas exhausts of power
sludge produced in biological waste-water treat- plants and garbage disposal plants. For low cad-
ment. When the concentration of heavy metals mium contents this separation suffices. For high
is too high, the sludge can no longer be used cadmium concentrations filtration is used. The
in agriculture. In the Federal Republic of Ger- filters can be made from metal screen, ceramic,
many, maximum cadmium content in sludge is or a variety of textiles. Regulations and gas re-
restricted to 20 mg per kilogram of dry waste, lease must be carefully adapted to conditions.
along with a limitation on the total amount of Washing, especially with Demisters, has proved
waste [43]. Similar requirements are in prepara- useful for removal of water-soluble aerosols
tion for the European Economic Community. [44].
Tobacco may contain 1 – 2 µg Cd per gram, imately equal. However, with increasing cad-
and smoking twenty cigarettes a day has been es- mium levels in the body more cadmium will be
timated to result in an inhalation of about 3 µg. found in the cells. In the red blood cells cad-
Because a large part of that dose will be ab- mium is bound to several proteins, a major part
sorbed, exposure via cigarette smoking may con- to metallothionein. In plasma only a minor part
tribute to the internal dose as much as that ab- is bound to metallothionein. Plasma metalloth-
sorbed from food [50], [52], [55]. ionein easily passes the glomeruli, and as a pro-
tein it will be reabsorbed in the proximal tubules.
Metabolism. In order to understand the tox- In the kidneys the protein then breaks down, and
icity of cadmium some basic facts about the cadmium is released. The kidney can also syn-
metabolism of this metal must be known. thesize metallothionein, which ensures that cad-
The fate of inhaled cadmium compounds de- mium is trapped in an inert form. However, when
pends on particle size and solubility. Finely di- the synthesizing capacity is exceeded, cadmium
vided cadmium oxides, especially fumes, de- ions will be released and toxic effects may occur.
posit in the lower respiratory tract; because of The cadmium excretion from the kidney is
their relatively high solubility about 30 % of the very small. Long retention times in liver and kid-
inhaled amount is absorbed. Cadmium sulfide ney, as well as in other tissue, lead to an accumu-
and sulfoselenide are relatively slightly soluble, lation of cadmium in the kidneys from birth to
and they are not absorbed to the same extent. middle age. The newborn is virtually free from
(Mucociliary transport to the gut occurs, but the cadmium because the placenta is an efficient bar-
absorption from the gut probably is only a few rier. The gross biological half-life of cadmium in
percent.) the body has been estimated to be about twenty
Ingested cadmium generally is absorbed to years [50].
a few percent [50], [57]. Nutritional deficien- The average cadmium concentration in the
cies, e.g., in iron and calcium, will cause higher liver of adults is about 1 mg/kg wet weight;
absorption. Women with severe iron depletion the concentration in the renal cortex is about
absorbed up to 20 % of the cadmium ingested 20 mg/kg in most European countries and in
orally [57]. North America [55], [56], [59]. In Belgium
Cadmium absorbed from the lungs or the gut higher concentrations, on the average 40 mg/kg
initially is stored mainly in the liver. Exposure in renal cortex, have been reported [60]. The
to cadmium induces the synthesis of metalloth- highest concentrations in members of the gen-
ionein, a low molecular mass, cysteine-rich pro- eral population have been found in Japan [55],
tein, which strongly binds cadmium but also zinc [56], [59], [60].
and copper [58]. The liver has a high capacity Smokers generally have about twice as high
to synthesize this protein, and even at very high cadmium concentrations in the renal cortex
exposures most of the cadmium in the liver will (about 25 mg/kg wet weight) as compared with
be bound to metallothionein. The protein breaks nonsmokers [59], [60].
down relatively fast, but continuous synthesis In the blood the cadmium concentrations
ensures that cadmium does not escape to bind to in nonsmokers are generally less than 1 µg/L,
other structures. whereas smokers have up to 5 µg/L [60]. The
In the blood, cadmium is found in the cells difference between smokers and nonsmokers is
and plasma, the concentrations being approx- also obvious in the urine. Nonsmokers in Eu-
Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds 13
rope and North America excrete about 0.4 µg/g in the 1940s [51], [64]. It has been concluded
creatinine, whereas smokers excrete about twice that to prevent any pulmonary effect of cadmium
as much [59], [61]. This urinary excretion is re- the time-weighted average concentration of res-
lated to the level of cadmium in the body and pirable dust in air should not exceed 20 µg/m3
is useful for monitoring general populations as [53].
well as most persons that are occupationally ex-
posed to cadmium. The total body burden in
adult nonsmokers generally is less than 10 mg
[59], whereas that of the newborn is only a few
micrograms.
mium concentration in renal cortex of about blood levels vary greatly. This is most obvious
200 mg/kg. with smokers. The natural cadmium content of
The increased excretion of low molecular cigarettes does not explain this finding, which
mass proteins is regarded as the first sign of renal is caused instead by contamination of cigarettes
tubular effects caused by cadmium. This is also or pipe tobacco during work and poor personal
consistent with the fact that cadmium primar- hygiene, as illustrated in Figure 4 [64].
ily is deposited in the proximal tubules, because
the cadmium-containing metallothionein is re-
absorbed.
At this early stage there are no measurable
changes in the excretion of other substances.
However, if exposure goes on and the renal lev-
els increase, other functions may be disturbed. In
advanced cases of chronic cadmium poisoning
the excretion of glucose, amino acids, and phos-
phate is increased (Fanconi syndrome). Distur-
bances in mineral metabolism may cause the for-
mation of renal stones. For detailed discussion,
see [70], [71].
The diagnosis of chronic cadmium poison-
ing must be based on occupational history, ex- Figure 3. Cadmium in blood vs. cadmium in air
posure levels in air, levels of cadmium in blood Arithmetic means of 4 – 5 samples of blood cadmium and
9 – 11 personal samples of airborne cadmium dust for 17
and urine, and protein analysis in urine. alkaline battery workers. Smokers are represented by the
The tubular damage is irreversible, and pre- solid circles; nonsmokers, by open circles.
vention is thus more important than diagnosis.
The determination of cadmium in whole blood
gives information about recent exposure, but is
not always a good indicator of the body burden
or risk for renal dysfunction, especially in smok-
ers. Cadmium in urine should be used to moni-
tor this risk. As long as the urinary excretion of
cadmium is below 5 µg per gram of creatinine
there should be no risk for the kidneys. At con-
centrations of 5 – 10 µg per gram of creatinine,
exposure should be minimized to prevent further
accumulation in the kidneys.
Monitoring is also necessary after exposure
has ceased. Intensive exposure during relatively
short periods may lead to a high cadmium con-
centration in the liver. Cadmium will then be Figure 4. Cadmium in blood in relation to the personal hy-
released from the liver and transported to the giene score
kidneys for a long time. The renal concentra- Arithmetic means of five samples of cadmium in blood from
tions may reach a critical level many years after nine smokers (solid circles) and of 4 – 5 samples from nine
the last exposure. nonsmokers (open circles).
The concentration of cadmium in air is sel- Therefore, it is imperative to prevent smok-
dom of help in evaluating risks. The long bi- ing in the workshops and the carrying of tobacco
ological half-life of cadmium will lead to a in work clothes; such measures will have much
continuous increase in renal levels over many more impact than small reductions of cadmium
years, and past exposure often is more important concentrations in air. Dust accumulation must
than present exposure. Changes in workplace be prevented in the workshop to minimize ex-
exposure during several decades are shown in posure caused by contamination of work clothes
Figure 2. Figure 3 demonstrates that cadmium
Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds 15
and hand-to-mouth transfer. The latter may lead disease. Mainly multiparous women above 40
to considerable gastrointestinal exposure [72]. years of age were affected. The males in the
The threshold limits for cadmium in air differ area had tubular dysfunction but generally did
among countries, varying from 10 µg Cd/m3 in not develop the bone disease. The women had
Finland to 100 µg/m3 (total dust) in East Euro- poor nutritional status with deficient intakes of
pean countries. The low values, 10 –20 µg/m3 , calcium, vitamin D, and protein, probably also
should prevent renal damage, but as indicated of iron. Cadmium alone can hardly cause such
above, smoking and poor personal hygiene may severe bone changes, but combined with severe
increase the internal exposure. calcium deficiency the result became disastrous.
It is not likely that Itai-Itai disease will occur
Carcinogenicity. Cadmium has been impli- again, but as mentioned tubular dysfunction is
cated as a carcinogenic agent, especially with common in several other areas of Japan.
regard to cancer of the prostate. The evidence There are some contaminated areas in Eu-
is weak and based on deaths from cancer of the rope, where signs of renal disease have been
prostate. However, this cancer is extremely com- sought [76], [77]. No definite conclusions can
mon among elderly men, and it often does not yet be drawn, but the investigated populations
give any symptoms [73], [74]. There is therefore had higher cadmium levels than generally found
no evidence that cadmium induces this cancer; in Europe [77], [78].
diet and hormonal factors are more important Most domestic animals are not at risk for
determinants. However, it cannot be excluded cadmium poisoning. An exception is the horse.
that in heavily exposed workers cadmium might Adult horses generally have about five times
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Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds 17