ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Distance Between Two Points

xL xR yH
Horizontal distance = xR – xL

Vertical distance = yH – yL
yL

y P2(x2,y2)

d x2  x1 2   y 2  y1 2
P1(x1,y1)

The Straight Line

Slope of a Line:
y P2(x2,y2)
y 2  y1
m  tan   m
x 2  x1
y2 – y1
The slope, m is positive if the line is inclined
 upwards to the right but is negative if the line is
inclined downwards to the right. For horizontal
P1(x1,y1) x2 – x1
lines, m = 0 and for vertical lines, it is undefined,
x i.e m =  .

1
For parallel lines, m1 = m2 ; for perpendicular lines, m1   .
m2
Midpoint of a Line Segment:

y P2(x2,y2) Let x, y be the coordinates of the midpoint of

the line segment P1P2.

M (x, y) x1  x 2 y1  y 2
x y
2 2
P1(x1,y1)
x
Angle Between Two Lines:
y
Let  be the angle measured counterclockwise
L2 from line L1 to line L2.
m2  m1
 tan  
1  m1 m2

L1 where m1 – slope of initial side, i.e. line L1

m2 – slope of terminal side, i.e. line L2
x

Division of a Line Segment:

Let P(x,y) be a point located on the line joining

y P2(x2,y2) P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2) such that P1P is a given
fraction k of P1P2, i.e.

P1P = k P1P2
P(x,y)
Then x = x1 + k (x2 – x1)
y = y1 + k (y2 – y1)
P1(x1,y1)
Note that k is positive if the directed line
x segments P1P and P1P2 are similarly directed
and negative if P1P and P1P2 are oppositely
directed.

Equations of Straight Lines:

General equation: Ax + By + C = 0 where A, B & C are real numbers

Point-Slope Form: y – y1 = m (x – x1) where (x1, y1) are the coordinates of a given
point

y 2  y1
Two-Point Form: y – y1 = (x – x1) where (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) are given points
x2  x1

Slope-Intercept Form: y = mx + b y

where b – y-intercept of the line

x y b
Intercept Form:  1
a b
p
where a – x-intercept of the line

Normal Form: x cos   y sin   p a x
where p – distance of the line from the origin
 To reduce the equation Ax + By + C = 0 into the normal form, divide through
by  A2  B 2 (using the sign in front of B), then transpose the constant
term to the right, i.e.
Ax By C
  p
 A2  B 2  A2  B 2  A2  B 2
Note that p can be positive or negative. If p is positive, it means that the line
Ax + By + C = 0 is above (or to the right of) the origin while if p is negative, it
means that the line is below (or to the left of) the origin.

Distance Between Two Parallel Lines:

Ax+By+C2=0

C 2  C1
d
d
A2  B 2

x
Ax+By+C1=0

Distance from a Point to a Line:

y
The perpendicular distance from a point P1(x1, y1) to the
line Ax + By + C = 0 is given by
Ax + By + C = 0

Ax1  By1  C
d
 A2  B 2 d

P1(x1,y1)
As in the normal form of a line, use the sign in front of B
in the denominator. Hence, d could come out either positive x
or negative. If d is positive, it means that the point is above
the line while if it is negative, it means that the point is below the line.

Area of a Triangle:

y P3(x3,y3) For a triangle with given vertices,

x1 y1 1
1
A  x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1
P1(x1,y1) P2(x2,y2)
Note that for the computed area to be positive,
x the vertices should be numbered in the
counterclockwise order
 The area formula is sometimes written in the more convenient form shown below.

1 x1 x2 x3 x1
A 
1
x1 y 2  x2 y3  x3 y1  x1 y3  x3 y 2  x2 y1 
2 y1 y2 y3 y1 2

For a polygon of n sides whose vertices are known,

1 x1 x2 x3 . . . . xn x1
A
2 y1 y2 y3 . . . . yn y1

Examples:
1. Find the area of the pentagon having vertices at (3. 0), (2, 3), (–1, 2), (–2, –1) and
(0, –2).
Solution:
y
Numbering the vertices in the counterclockwise
P3(-1,2) order, the area is
P2(2,3)

1 3 2 1  2 0 3
A
2 0 3 2 1  2 0
P1(3,0) x =
P4(-2,-1)
1
9  4  1  4  0  (6  0  4  3  0)
P5(0,-2) 2

31
= square units
2

2. What is the equation of a line that passes through (4, 0) and is parallel to the line
x – y – 2 = 0?
Solution:
The equation of the required line is x – y + k = 0. To find k, substitute the coordinates
of the given point. Hence, 4 – 0 + k = 0. Hence, k = –4.
x–y–4=0

3. Find the equation of the line through (3, 1) that is perpendicular to the line x + 5y + 5
= 0.
Solution:
The equation of the required line can be obtained by interchanging the coefficients of
x and y from the given equation and changing the sign of one of them, i.e.
5x – y + k = 0  5(3) – 1 + k = 0  k = –14
 5x – y –14 = 0

THE CONIC SECTIONS

A conic section is the locus of a point that moves such that its distance from a fixed point
(called focus) is in constant ratio to its distance from a fixed straight line (called directrix).
This constant ratio is called eccentricity. The circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola
compose the conic sections (or simply conics) since each of them can be formed by a plane
which is made to intersect a cone.
The Circle:

A circle is the locus of a point in a plane that moves so that it is always equidistant from a
fixed point (called the center). The fixed distance is called the radius.

A circle is produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the base of the cone.

Equations of a Circle:

General equation: Ax2 + Ay2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

or x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Standard form: (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = a2

where (h, k) – coordinates of the center

and a – radius of the circle

The Parabola:

A parabola is the locus of a point in a plane that moves such that its distance from a fixed
point (called the focus) equals its distance from a fixed line (called the directrix). It is
formed when the cutting plane is parallel to one of the elements of the cone. Since the
parabola is a symmetrical curve, the line of symmetry is called the axis of the parabola.

Equations of a Parabola:

General equations:

Vertical axis: Ax2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 or x2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Horizontal axis: Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 or y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Standard Forms:

Vertical axis: (x – h)2 = ± 4a (y – k) where (h, k) – coordinates of the vertex

a – undirected distance from vertex to
focus, i.e. a > 0.

If the right side of the equation is positive, the parabola opens upward;
if the right side of the equation is negative, the parabola opens downward.

Horizontal axis: (y – k)2 = ± 4a (x – h)

If the right side of the equation is positive, the parabola opens rightward;
if the right side of the equation is negative, the parabola opens leftward.
 y

PF
Latus rectum, LR = 4a e
PD
Directrix
2a For a parabola, e = 1.

V F Axis
a a x

2a
D
P

The Ellipse:

An ellipse is the locus of a point in a plane that moves such that the sum of its distances
from two fixed points (called the foci) is a constant and is equal to the length of the major
axis (2a). It can also be defined as the locus of a point that moves such that the ratio of its
distance from a fixed point (or focus) to its distance from a fixed line (or directrix) is a
constant and is less than one.

The ellipse is the conic section formed if the cutting plane is making an angle (other than
90o) with the axis of the cone.

Equations of an Ellipse:

General equation: Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Standard Forms:
Major axis
Center at (h, k), Major axis horizontal y

( x  h) 2  y  k 
2 a
 1
a2 b2 x

Center at (h, k), Major axis vertical y

Major axis

( x  h) 2  y  k 
2
 1
b2 a2
x

where a – semimajor axis  Major axis = 2a

b – semiminor axis  Minor axis = 2b Note that a > b.
 y Directrix
Latus rectum, LR = 2b2/a

V2 F2 C F1 V1
a a x

D2
P c

Referring to the figure above,

c – distance from center to focus such that c2 = a2 – b2

a
d – distance from center to directrix such that d
e
e – eccentricity of the ellipse

PF2 c
e  <1
PD2 a

The Hyperbola:

The hyperbola is the locus of a point in a plane that moves such that the difference of its
distances from two fixed points (called foci) is a positive constant and is equal to the length
of the transverse axis (2a). It can also be defined to be the locus of a point that moves such
that the ratio of its distance from a fixed point (or focus) to its distance from a fixed line (or
directrix) is a constant and is greater than one.

The hyperbola is the conic section formed if the cutting plane is parallel (but not coincident)
to the axis of the cone.

Equations of the Hyperbola:

General equation: Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where A & C have unlike signs

Standard Forms:

Transverse axis – the line segment joining the two vertices

of the hyperbola which has a total length of 2a.
Transverse
Center at (h, k), Transverse axis - horizontal: y
axis

 x  h 2   y  k 2 1
a2 b2
x

Center at (h, k), Transverse axis - vertical:

y

 y  k 2   x  h 2
Transverse
axis
1
a2 b2
O x

where a – semitransverse axis  Transverse axis = 2a

b – semiconjugate axis  Conjugate axis = 2b

c – distance from center to focus such that c2 = a2 + b2

a
d – distance from center to directrix such that d 
e
e – eccentricity of the hyperbola

PF2 c
e  >1
PD2 a

Directrix

d
Latus rectum,
LR = 2b2/a
b
F2 V2 V1 F1
a C a x
b

P D2
c

Asymptote
Degenerate conic (point circle, one line, two intersecting lines) – the conic formed if the
cutting plane passes through the vertex of the cone.

Examples:
1. Find the value of k for which the equation x2 + y2 + 4x – 2y – k = 0 represents a point
circle.
a. 5 b. 6 c. –6 d. –5
Solution: Reducing the given equation into the standard form
(x2 + 4x + 4) + (y2 – 2y + 1) = k + 4 + 1
(x + 2)2 + (y – 1)2 = k + 5
For a point circle, the radius, a = 0  a2 = 0
 k + 5 = 0  k = –5
2. The equation x2 – y2 – 4x – 6y – 5 = 0 represents
a. a circle b. an ellipse c. a hyperbola d. two straight
lines
Solution: Reducing the given equation into the standard form
(x2 – 4x + 4) – (y2 – 6y + 9) = 5 + 4 – 9
(x – 2)2 – (y – 3)2 = 0
[(x – 2) + (y – 3)][(x – 2) – (y – 3)] = 0
(x + y – 5)(x – y + 1) = 0
x+y–5=0 x–y+1=0
Therefore, the given equation represents two straight lines.

General Equation Of Second Degree:

This is also the general equation of a conic section: Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

When B ≠ 0, the principal axes of the conic are inclined by an angle θ expressed as
B
tan 2 
AC
In other words, the principal axes are not parallel to the coordinate axes. The curve
can be obtained from the equation given by determining the value of the discriminant
B2 – 4AC.

If B2 – 4AC < 0, the conic is an ellipse (e < 1).

If B2 – 4AC = 0, the conic is a parabola (e = 1).
If B2 – 4AC > 0, the conic is a hyperbola (e > 1).

Examples:
1. Using the discriminant, identify the curve represented by the equation
3x2 + 6xy + 3y2 – 4x + 7y = 12
Solution: For the given equation, A = 3, B = 6 and C = 3.

B2 – 4AC = 62 – 4(3)(3) = 0. Hence the equation represents a parabola.

2. Find the angle of rotation that will eliminate the xy term in the equation
3x2 + 6xy + 3y2 – 4x + 7y = 12
Solution:
B 6 6
tan 2       2  tan 1   90  θ = 45o
AC 33 0
When B = 0, the principal axes of the conic are parallel to the coordinate axes, i.e.
the x- and the y-axes.
Polar Coordinate System:

In this system, the location of a point in a plane is expressed by the ordered pair (r, θ) where
r (called the radius vector) is the distance of the point from the origin (or the pole) and θ
(called the polar angle) is the angle that the radius vector makes with the Ox axis (also
called the polar axis).
(r, θ)
Sign Convention:

• θ is positive (+) when measured counterclockwise r

• θ is negative (–) when measured clockwise θ

Polar axis x
• r is positive (+) when laid off at the terminal side of θ

• r is negative (–) when laid off at the extension of the terminal side of θ in the
opposite
quadrant

Relationship Between Rectangular and Polar Coordinates:

An equation in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates can be transformed into one in

polar coordinates and vice-versa. The following equations can be obtained from the diagram
shown.
Conversion from rectangular to polar:
y (r, θ)
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
(x, y)
Conversion from polar to rectangular:
r y
y
r  x2  y2 tan  
θ x
x y
x x cos  sin  
x2  y2 x2  y2

Examples:

1. What is the polar equation of a vertical line 5 units to the right of the origin?
Solution:

y By inspection, the equation of the vertical line in

rectangular coordinates is
x=5
x=5
Hence, in polar form, the equation is

x r cos θ = 5
2. Express the polar equation r = 4a sin θ in rectangular form.
Solution:

y
r = 4a sin θ  x 2  y 2  4a  x 2  y 2  4ay
x y
2 2

Hence, the required equation is

x 2  y 2  4ay  0