MBE3119 Manufacturing Technology: (2) Some Rolling Processes

MBE3119 Manufacturing
Technology
(2) Some Rolling Processes
Flat-Rolling and
Shape-Rolling
Processes
Figure 13.1 Schematic

outline of various flat-
rolling and shape-rolling
processes. Source: After
the American Iron and
Steel Institute.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Rolling is a process which uses a pair of either flat Fig. 13.1 shows that slab, billet, and bloom can be
rollers or formed rollers to shape a piece of firstly produced by continuous casting or cutting‐
sufficiently long workpiece to a rolled product with off from their corresponding counterpart. The
uniform geometry of certain length. Normally, slabs are then flat‐rolled to: (i) cold strip via a
rolling with flat rolls is usually changing the sequence of hot strip, picking and oiling; (ii) form
dimensions (typically thickness, width, and length) as welded pipe via skelping and folding up
of original workpiece only. Rolling with formed rolls sheet/plate via form‐rolling to tubular, followed
usually forms the workpiece to the geometry by welding of the edge as single seem welded
enveloped by the formed groves between the pair of tube; and (iii) thin and widen the slabs to plates.
formed rolls. The billets can be firstly rolled through suitably
For flat rolling, the minimum gap between the two shaped groves on the pair of formed rolls : (i) by
rolls is ideally controlling the thickness of a rolled firstly heat to crystalline temperature for
product (Fig. 13.2(b)). It is also called daylight since softening, then hot‐rolled to bars which are then
an operator can see the light opposite through it. cold‐drawn to more accurate bars; (ii) to form
Generally, it is also the plane where material exiting firstly to appropriate size of solid rods, then draw
from the effective deformation zone. The plane through drawing die to wire and/or wire
where incoming/entering material coming to roll products; and (iii) to form firstly to round solid
gap, it is called entry plane. The zone in which rods of adequate size, which is then pressed roll
material is enclosed by the entering plane, the to produce a crack at the middle where a sharp
exiting plane, and the contact boundary of top and mandrel is piercing into through for the
bottom rolls is termed byte zone. The length of production of a tube without any welded folding
material in contact with rolls is called byte length. edge. The blooms are rolled through a series of
The angle formed by the straight line drawn from (i) formed rolling processes so as to produce
exit point to center of roll, and (ii) center of roll to structural angle bars and rails
the entering point is often called byte angle. •
Flat-Rolling Process
Figure 13.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process. (b) Friction forces acting on
strip surfaces. (c) Roll force, F, and the torque, T, acting on the rolls. The width of the strip,
w, usually increases during rolling, as shown later in Fig. 13.5.
• at a point subtending an byte angle af with
Flat-Rolling Process the vertical line drawn from roll center to the
exit point. Due to the convergence of
• Fig. 13.2(a) illustrates the schematic of deformation zone and by volume principles,
flat rolling process by assuming that velocity of roll piece Vm increasing from Vo
the top roll is transparent, Hence, the to Vf with Vf > Vo. As result, somewhere on
deformation within the effective the roll-material sliding surface both roll and
deformation zone L can be visualized. roll piece are having same velocity, which
It can be seen that a roll-piece with implies both are moving together without any
thickness ho and width wo moving with slip – no slip or neutral point. Hence, in LHS
a velocity vo into the deformation Vr>Vm and roll applies friction to drag
zone. Its thickness is reducing and material through. In RHS, Vm>Vr and roll
finally thinning to thickness hf, piece applies friction retards the moving of
widening to wf with gradually roll. Such mechanisms carry roll piece
increasing velocity to vf at exit plane. through deformation zone.
When the deformation is under plane • Fig. 13.2(c) shows rolls applying
strain condition, wo = wf throughout compressive force through their center onto
the deformation zone. roll piece. By Newton’s 3rd Law, roll piece
• Fig. 13.2(b) illustrates the mechanisms applies reaction force through their centroid
involved in dragging roll piece through onto the rollers. Such force F creates a
the deformation zone. As seen, the moment = Fa acting on the rolls. The torque
flesh original workpiece with velocity drags roll piece through is the net dragging
vo hits at rolls which is moving at Vr friction force x radius of roll.
Roll Arrangements
Figure 13.3 Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) four-high

rolling mill showing various features. The stiffness of the housing, the rolls, and the
roll bearings are all important in controlling and maintaining the thickness of the
rolled strip; (b) two-hill mill; (c) three-high mill; and (d) cluster (or Sendzimir) mill.
Fig. 13.3(c) is a three high rolling system because
Roll Arrangements the roller centers are set at three different level in a
same vertical plane. If three rolls are same size,
Fig. 13.3(a) is the end view of a four-high mounting, and material. The gaps are also set the
rolling mill. It basically consists of a same. During rolling, roll pieces can be rolled
housing and there is a screw to be through daylight from one direction to the other,
activated by an hydraulic system at its while the other from correspondingly reverse
top. A chock is fastened to its end in direction as illustrated. The middle roll will be
which backing roll and work roll are remained straight without any bending although the
mounted. Likewise a backing roll and two outermost rolls may bend into opposite direction
work roll are also mounted at the bottom if they are not rigid enough to absorb the applied
chock. Roll gap can be suitably set by forces. It increases throughput if rolls are very rigid.
adjusting the top screw.
Fig. 13.3(d) is the configuration of cluster (or
Fig, 13.3(b) shows a two high mill. Sendzimir) mill. It consists of a pair of smaller size of
According to Newton’s Law, action force work rolls so as to reducing driving torques, which
is always counterbalanced by same are backed two pairs of first intermediate rolls,
magnitude reaction force. It may thus followed by three pairs of larger driven rolls which
create reaction force to separate the two are backed by four pairs of largest rollers capsulated
rolls apart. Built-in mounting nature thus within housing. All rolls are mounted with bearing at
tends to creates deflection of the rolls, their end shafted. System like this is very rigid and
which gives higher bulge in the middle versatile to roll workpieces with different thicknesses
and narrower towards either ends. to various percentages of reduction
Bending of Rolls
Figure 13.4 (a) Bending of

straight cylindrical rolls caused by
roll forces. (b) Bending of rolls
ground with camber, producing a
strip with uniform thickness
through the strip width.
Deflections have been
exaggerated for clarity.
• The resulted bending in Fig. 13.4(a)
Roll piece quality with degrades the quality and production
bending of rolls cost of rolled flat piece. It thus
jeopardizes the competitiveness of the
• Fig. 13.4(a) shows a pair of straight rolling producer. If this manufacturer is
cylindrical rolls to be used to roll only commissioned to roll only one
originally flat roll piece. Due to the roll material with single geometries to a
end is mounted into bearing and specific percentage of reduction to
fastened to chock in housing, it forms certain dimensions, the straight rollers
a built-in beam system. The rolling can be replaced with a pair of camber
force on the roll piece spanning the rollers with specific curvature on the
rolls is uniformly distributed in nature, roller surfaces. The surface of
hence also its reaction onto the rolls. curvature can thus be totally absorbed
This results in largest deflection in the by the reaction induced deflection
center and narrowing up towards profile of the straight rollers system. It
either end. Hence, the rolled piece is thus furnishes with completely flat
not in flat condition and requires contact surface between rollers and
secondary operations to flatten it. workpiece as illustrated by the green
Such shape of rolling gaps in between strip with uniform thickness, as shown
the two rolls is likely leading to the in Fig. 13.4(b).
material flowing through the middle
section slower than those in either
end, and thus causing some defects
as described in next slides
Defects in Flat Rolling
Figure 13.8 Schematic

illustration of typical
defects in flat rolling: (a)
wavy edges; (b) zipper
cracks in the center of the
strip; (c) edge cracks; and
(d) alligatoring.
Defects in Rolled Plates and Sheets
Fig. 13.8 shows some typical defects in flat rolling. They include: (a) wavy edges, (b)
zipper cracks in centre of strip, (c) edge cracks, and (d) alligatoring .
1) Wavy edges and zipper cracks in
Under other conditions the strain
centre of strip Roll bending or defection
distribution produced by long edge
(Figure 13.4a) causes the edges of a
could produce short “zipper breaks” or
sheet or plate to elongate to a greater
cracks in the centre of the
extent in the longitudinal direction than
strip/sheet/plate shown in Fig. 13.8b.
the centre. When the edges are free to
move relative to the centre, material in
the zones will have higher straining with
situation as shown in Figure A(a) below.
However, the sheet/plate remains a
continuous body and the strains readjust
to maintain continuity. The result is that
the centre portion of the sheet/plate is
stretched in tension and the edges are
compressed in the rolling direction as
shown in Figure A(b) below. The usual
result is a wavy edge or edge buckle as
shown in Fig. 13.8a.
Manufacturing, Engineerin g & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
2) Defects resulting from lateral spread

When a workpiece passes through the
rolls, all elements across the width
experience some tendency to expand
laterally (Fig. 13.5). Because the thickness
decreases in the centre of the sheet/plate
all goes into a length increase, while part
of the thickness decrease at the edges
goes into lateral spread, the sheet/plate
may develop a slight rounding at its ends
as shown in Figure B(a) below. Because
there is continuity between the edges and
centre, the edges of the sheet/plate are
strained in tension, a condition which
leads to edge cracking (Fig. 13.8c).
3) Defects due to inhomogeneous
deformation
When the rolling conditions are such that The secondary tensile stresses created by
only the surface of the workpiece is the barrelling are a ready cause of edge
deformed (as in light reductions on a thick cracking. With this type of lateral
slab), the cross section of sheet is deformation, greater spread occurs toward
deformed into the shape shown in Figure the centre than at the surfaces so that the
B(b) above. In subsequent passes through surfaces are placed in tension and centre
the rolls the overhanging material is not is in compression. This stress distribution
compressed directly but is forced to also extends in the rolling direction, and if
elongate by the neighbouring material there is any metallurgical weakness along
closer to the centre. This sets up high the centre line of the slab, fracture will
secondary tensile stresses which lead to occur there to generate alligatoring
edge cracking (Fig. 13.8c). With heavy fracture (Fig. 13.8d). This alligatoring type
reduction, so that the deformation extends of fracture is accentuated if there is any
through the thickness of the sheet/plate, curling of the sheet/plate because one roll
the centre tends to expand laterally more is higher or lower than the centreline of the
than the surfaces to produce barrelled roll gap.
edges similar to those found in upsetting a
cylinder as shown in Figure B(c) above.
c., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Production of Steel Balls
Figure 13.14 (a) Production of steel balls by the skew-rolling process. (b) Production of
steel balls by upsetting a cylindrical blank. Note the formation of flash. The balls made by
these processes subsequently are ground and polished for use in ball bearings.
Fig.13.14(b) illustrates the setup features
Production of Steel Balls of producing steel balls by upsetting
cylindrical blank.
Fig. 13.14(a) shows the production technique
with a skew-rolling process. The pair of short The setup consists of: (i) a pair of die
tapped rollers with grooves and rifts gradually cups, which have (ii) a pair of die inserts
deepening and heightening is slanted with with cavity taking the shape of finishing
certain level of skewing to each other. A ball; both die cups and die inserts have (iii)
cylindrical bar stock is cut to certain length and hole at sides to facilitate the sliding in of
pushed through the daylight of the pair of rollers. ejector pins.
The gradually narrowing rolling gap allows the
stock to fill up grove and rift edges penetrating After mounting the die pair onto a press,
into the stock, which slits the stock to blank and the cut off blank is place into the cavity of
forges in to ball shape when stock is dies. The closing up of the two halves of
progressively pushed into the daylight and the die pair squeezes the blank to fill up the
skew-rolls are continuously rolled. cavity. Subsequent opening of die pair and
Such processing system can continue producing pushing ejector pins to relief the forged
balls until the exhaustion of the stock bar, giving ball out from the die completes the
high productivity. The rolling and forging actions operations.
would polish ball surface, hence minimizing the
need of secondary operation in achieving The setup cost of this process is relatively
anticipated surface finishing. The tool and setup cheap and easily operated. However, the
cost are relatively high. It is hard to synchronize surface finishing of the ball may needs
the two rollers’ rotary speeds. additional processing. Furthermore, the
productivity of this process is relatively
low.
Ring-Rolling
Figure 13.15 (a) Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Thickness reduction

results in an increase in the part diameter. (b-d) Examples of cross-sections that can be
formed by ring-rolling.
Ring Rolling
Ring rolling process is normally to change the rounding roll. Since the volume of the
dimensions of a ring produced by other ring remains constant during
process. Its setup mainly consists of (i) a main deformation, the reduction in thickness
roll which is powered to rotate; (ii) a rounding is compensated by the increase in the
roll which is free and likely set at position ring’s diameter and the depth of
where controls the outer diameter of the annular. To control such depth, the
finishing ring; (iii) an idler roll which can be pair of edging rolls is achieving such
freely rotated and also can be shifted to press task when the expanded ring is
a ring in the system against the rounding roll passing through their set distance.
and the main roll as shown in Fig. 13.15(a);
and (iv) a pair of conical edging rolls mounted With this process, various shapes(Fig.
oppositely to the main roll. 13.15(b-d)) can be ring-rolled by
suitable combination of shaped idler
In the ring-rolling process, a pre-fabricated and rounding rolls, and can be carried
thick ring is placed between main roll and idler out at room temperature or at elevated
roll. The driven main roll drives the ring to temperature. Typical applications of
rotate when the idler roll squeezes it against ring rolling are large rings for rockets
both main roll and rounding roll. Such and turbines, gearwheel rims, ball-
squeezing expands the ring with a large bearing and roller bearing races,
diameter and reducing cross-section by flanges and reinforcing rings for pipes.
thinning the annular with closer distance
between idler roll and main roll, and that with
Cavity Formation in Bar
Figure 13.18 Cavity formation in a solid, round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube-
piercing process for making seamless pipe and tubing. (see also Fig. 2.9.)
Tube-Rolling
Seamless Tube Production Fig. 13.18 shows the schematic illustration
of setup system for a process in rolling
Fig. 13.18 illustrate the operational various tubes. It consists of (a) a mandrel
principles of producing small size seamless with front end shaped in torpedo shape for
tube rolling, which is also termed piercing though the crack; and (b) a pair of
Mannesmann (attributing to its designer) shaped rolls for performing the rolling with
Process the mandrel. The setup can be seen in Fig.
Referring to Fig. 13.18a, the centre of a rod 13.18(c).
tends to form cavity (due to the induced
secondary tensile stresses in a solid round
During operation, a solid rod is pushed into
bar) when under a compression loading. By
the daylight between two shaped rolls and
pressing and rotating a round bar in a pair of
is rolled within the shaped rollers, which
flat dies as shown in Fig. 13.18b, the central
results in the generation of crack hole in
cavity can subsequently be enlarged
the middle of the solid rod. The mandrel
substantially. When a pair of suitably
with torpedo shaped end is thus pushed
shaped rolls that can create the rotary
through the crack from the opposite
motion and compression effect
direction with the torpedo situating at set
simultaneously replaces the pair of flat dies
position against the rolled and pushed
(Fig. 13.18c), the formation of the central
forward solid roll, as shown in Fig. 13.18(c).
cavity is thus possible. If a mandrel is used
to pierce the so formed central cavity during
the rolling, continuous hole can therefore be Tube diameters and thicknesses can also
formed. be changed by other processes, such as
drawing, extrusion and spinning.
Thread-Rolling Processes
Figure 13.16 Thread-rolling processes: (a) and (c) reciprocating flat dies; (b) two-roller dies.
(d) Threaded fasteners, such as bolts, are made economically by these processes at high
rates of production. Source: Courtesy of Central Rolled Thread Die Co.
Thread-Rolling The workpiece is being roll-pressed to
Processes a stationary cylindrical die by a
moving cylindrical die. Subsequently,
Thread Rolling threads are transferred from rolling
The thread-rolling process is a cold- dies to the workpiece by the action of
forming process by which straight or roll-pressing. These processes are
tapered threads are formed on round rods, used extensively in making threaded
by passing them between dies. Usually,
threaded fasteners, such as bolts, are
fasteners at high rat es of production
made economically by the following
processes, at high rates of production. Internal threads
Fig. 11.16c shows a cold-form tap
External threads which is specifically for forming
Fig. 13.16a shows the production of strong threads in a hole. The winding down
threads at high rate by rolling of a pair of of the cold-form tap into the hole
reciprocating flat dies. The rolling of dies
displaces replicates the threads on
transfers the threads onto the workpiece.
the tap onto the hole surface.
Fig. 13.16b shows the processes of thread
rolling using two-roller dies with a
Generally, the production of threads is
workpiece resting on a work-rest. by replacing rather than removing
material.
Machined and Rolled Threads
Figure 13.17 (a) Features of a machined or rolled thread. Grain flow in (b) machined and
(c) rolled threads. Unlike machining, which cuts through the grains of the metal, the rolling
of threads imparts improved strength because of cold working and favorable grain flow.
rolled threads is the increase in the thread
Machined and Rolled Threads major diameter because material in those
How to determine a machined or rolled valleys of the threads is squeezed out to fill
thread those peaks of the threads. For the
machined threads, the valleys of the
Fig. 13.17(a) shows the threads on a rod.
threads are obtained by the removal of the
The identification of whether it is machined
material, thus the diameter of the peaks is
or rolled can be on the basis of how the
the same of the initial rod.
threads can be produced and the relevant
physics. Since machining requires to cut off By referring to Fig. 13.17b, it can be seen
materials from the rod and its outside or that the feature of the grain flow in the
major diameter remains as the originally machined threads shows discontinuity of
outer diameter of the rod, i.e. the shank or fibering due to the cut-through of the metal
bar diameter is equal to the major diameter grains. Due to the squeezing effect, the
of threads. For a rolled thread, the grain flow-line in the rolled threads appears
materials in thread valley are squeezed to to be bent (Fig. 13.17(c)), which
fill the region of peak. Hence, the shrnk subsequently increases the strength of the
diameter is smaller than major diameter of threads because the shearing of the
the rolled threads material requires firstly the breaking of the
bent fibres (It can thus conclude that the
rolling of threads causes improved
Feature and strength of machined and strength, because of cold working and
rolled threads favourable grain flow while cutting through
Grain flow lines can also be used to identify the grains of the metal by machining
if threads are machined and rolled. As causes discontinuity of grain line that
mentioned, the typical features of the weakens the strength of threads).
Shape Rolling of an H-section part
Figure 13.12 Steps in the

shape rolling of an H-
section part. Various other
structural sections, such as
channels and I-beams, also
are rolled by this kind of
process.
Shape Rolling of an H-section part
SHAPE-ROLLING OPERATIONS
In addition to flat rolling, various shapes can be produced by shape rolling.
Straight and long structural shapes, such as solid bars with various cross-
sections, can be rolled by passing the stock through a set of specially designed
rolls (i.e. “H” channel bar rolling in Fig. 13.12).
Rolling “H” Channel Bar

Fig. 13.12 illustrates the stages involved in rolling H channel bar using different
formed roller-pairs. It includes pre-rolling processes by blooming rolls (Stage 1
in Fig. 13.12), edging rolls (Stage 2 in Fig. 13.12), roughing horizontal (for
rough-reducing thickness of web) and vertical (for rough-shaping of ribs) rolls
(Stage 3 in Fig. 13.12), intermediate horizontal and vertical rolls (for further
reducing web-thickness and shaping the ribs) (Stage 4 in Fig. 13.12), edging
rolls (Stage 5 in Fig. 13.13), and finishing horizontal and vertical rolls (for
achieving the accuracy of the final product) (Stage 6 in Fig. 13.12).
Various Tube-Rolling Processes
Figure 13.19 Schematic illustration of various tube-rolling processes: (a) with a

fixed mandrel; (b) with a floating mandrel; (c) without a mandrel; and (d) pilger
rolling over a mandrel and a pair of shaped rolls. Tube diameters and thicknesses
also can be changed by other processes, such as drawing, extrusion, and spinning.
Various Tube-Rolling Processes
Tube-Rolling
Fig. 13.19 shows the schematic illustration of different setups for various tube-rolling
processes: (a) shows the bisected section of a setup for reducing both inner and outer
diameter of a tube, which has been pre-produced by other process, with
fixed mandrel so that it thickens and produces uniform annular wall (its problem is the
length of mandrel because it creates instability if it is fixed too far away. If it is too close, it
limits the length of the tube to be rolled); (b) with moving mandrel. In which the tube is
inserted with mandrel and simultaneously rolled through the daylight of the formed rollers
(Major problems: taking off mandrel from rolled tube, and tube length limitation); (c)
without mandrel – It consists of two rolling stands, individually rolling the tube to certain
percentage of reduction so as to achieve maximal percentage of reduction. It is also
possible to roll tubes with different step sections); and (d) Pilger rolling over a mandrel
and a pair of shaped rolls. Tube diameters and thicknesses can also be changed by other
processes, such as drawing, extrusion and spinning.
Forming of Solid Rocket Casings
Figure 13.20 The Space Shuttle U.S.S.

Atlantis is launched by two strapped-on solid-
rocket boosters. Source: Courtesy of NASA.
Figure 13.21 The forming

processes involved in the
manufacture of solid rocket
casings for the Space
Shuttles.
Examples of Rolled Products – Forming of Solid
Rocket Casings
• Fig. 13.20 shows Space Shuttle is on a launching platform and
being launched by two strapped-on solid rocket boosters. Their
casings can actually be rolled by the processes as indicated in Fig.
13.21.
• Fig. 13.21 illustrates the forming processes likely involved in the

manufacture of solid rocket casings for the Space shuttle, as shown
in Fig. 13.20. Basically, as-cast blank (Fig. 13.21(1)) is extruded
reversely to tubular shape with the sheared section (slug) (Fig.
13.21(2)) to be cut off. The reversely extruded tube is then mounted
into a ring rolling system, as illustrated in Fig. 13.16 (Slide 16), to
thin the annular wall and enlarge the diameter of both inner hole and
external surface (Fig. 13.21(3)), which is followed by roll formed to
shape the external profile as shown in Fig. 13.21(4).
MBE 3119 Manufacturing Technology
(3) Some Extrusion and/or Drawing
Processes
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology,
Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and
Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0‐13‐148965‐8. © 2006 Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All
Extrusions and Products Made from Extrusions
Figure 15.2 Extrusions and

examples of products made by
sectioning off extrusions.
Source: Courtesy of Kaiser
Aluminum.
Extrusions and Products from Extrusions
• LHS of Fig. 15.2 shows some extrusions with typical features of

having same cross-sectional profile for certain length. The extrusion
in Fig. 15.2(a) can be cut to form brackets for some portal frame
structures or for the use as brackets for holding plank so as to build
up book shelves. The extrusion in Fig. 15.2(b) can be cut to serve
as light duty gears for electronic products. Extrusion shown in Fig.
15.2(c) can also be sliced to slide into cylindrical bar skeleton and
fastening with other bars so that the skeleton can be rigidly built.
• RHS of Fig. 15.2 illustrates various extrusion sections. It indicates

the complexity of the extrusion shapes with uniform cross-sectional
profile over sufficiently length. Their size can be very large as can be
seen in the RHS of Fig. 15.2.
Direct-Extrusion
Figure 15.1 Schematic illustration of the direct-extrusion process.
3) Container liner which is sandwiched between
Direct Extrusion the inner surface of container and the outer
Depending on the extruding principles and surface of the workpiece. Its main function is to
the design of the extruders, available prevent the possible wear of the inner wall of
extrusion processes can be categorized as: container and to reduce its
(i) Direct (Forward) extrusion (Fig. 15.1), (ii) maintenance/replacement cost – Generally, the
Indirect (Backward or reverse) extrusion interfacial rubbing between the container inner
(Fig. 15.3(a)), (iii) hydrostatic extrusion wall and the workpiece outer surface only
(Fig. 15.3(b)), and (iv) lateral extrusion occurs on the inner wall of liner which can be
(Fig. 15.3(c)). changed cheaply and easily in comparison of
changing the container completely.
4) Die backer which is mounted and captures
Direct (Forward) Extrusion (Fig. 15.1):
rigidly the die to the front face of the container
As seen from Fig. 15.1, the design feature so as it can absorb the squeezing force from the
of a direct/forward extrusion includes: pressing stem in performing necessary
1) Billet is the corkpiece/rod/blank/tube/part deformation of the billet through the die
to be extruded so that its original shape 5) Pressing stem which is pushed against the
can be formed to the anticipated geometry billet so that it can move forwardly through the
of the accomplished component. die at where billet is deformed to form the shape
2) Container which mainly contains the required. The squeezing force is usually the
workpiece/rod/part to be extruded out sum of deformation force and the force required
through the die fastened in front of the to overcome interfacial friction between the liner
container outlet. inner wall and the outer surface of the billet
Direct Extrusion (Con’t)
6) Dummy block which is usually sandwiched between billet and

pressing stem so as to avoid the indentation and/or damage onto the
pressing stem. As the replacement cost of the dummy block is easier
and cheaper, it reduces maintenance cost
When a billet is placed into the container after adequate mounting of

die and die backer in front of the container, the pressing stem is moved
forwardly and closely against the billet. Under the action of the pressing
stem, the billet is squeezed outwards from the container through the die
and shaped accordingly. Due to the out-coming material is under the
direct press of pressing stem and deformed to move out from the same
direction as the moving direction of the pressing stem, the process is
thus termed Direct or Forward Extrusion.
Types of Extrusion
Figure 15.3 Types of extrusion: (a) indirect; (b) hydrostatic; (c) lateral;
Other Types of It is observed that: (i) clearance exists
between the tool stem and extruded billet,
Extrusion and (ii) deformation only takes place for the
material directly under the die. Hence, the
Indirect (or Reverse or Backward) Extrusion energy wasted in interfacial friction and in
(Fig. 15.3(a)) changing the flow direction in the billet is
Comparing the design features of Fig. 15.1 with reduced when compared with direct
those of Fig. 15.3 (for indirect extrusion process), extrusion.
it can clearly see that the die and the die backer
mounted in front of the container in the former are Hydrostatic Extrusion (Fig. 15.3(b))
missing in the latter. Instead a tool stem seated
Referring to Fig. 15.3(c) and Fig. 15.1, the
with a die in front is pushed inwards to the billet
design features of hydrostatic extrusion
sandwiched between the backing disc (which
have basic components almost similar to
replaces the pressing stem for the direct extrusion
direct extrusion except that (i) the container
process). The billet under the compression of the
liner for the setup of direct extrusion is
tool stem is deformed in the effective deformation
replaced by fluid (lubricant/grease)
zone, just in front of the die, and extruded
surrounding the billet and there is not any
backwardly through the inner tube of the tool stem.
direct contact between container inner wall
Due to the relative movement of the deformed
and billet outer surface; and (ii) there are
billet and the tool stem is in reverse direction, it is
seals replacing the dummy block on
termed reverse or backward extrusion. As the
pressing stem of the direct extrusion system
deformation occurs as a result of inward
and between components where leaking of
movement of tool stem instead of the inwardly
fluid would likely be resulted from the
moving of the backing disc, the process is also
system.
name indirect extrusion.
Other Types of Extrusion
By doing so, the floor of working place may not be easily wetted to create
safety hazards. However, fluid is allowed to be dragged out through the
interface of die opening and the billet so as to reduce significantly
interfacial friction. Furthermore, the fluid surrounding the billet may apply
fluid pressure to deform the billet hydraulically before it is extruded out
from fluid chamber. In hydrostatic extrusion, the force from pressing stem
is transmitted through fluid to deform firstly the billet hydraulically and to
push the billet out from the die opening.
Lateral Extrusion (Fig. 15.3(c))

It is observed from the setup features of lateral extrusion (Fig. 15.3(c)) that
the die and its backer are mounted at the bottom side wall of the billet
container. The pressing down of punch transmits the extrusion force to the
billet and deforms the billet laterally out from the container. It is thus
termed lateral extrusion.
Process Variables in Direct Extrusion
Figure 15.4 Process variables in direct extrusion. The die angle, reduction in cross-section,
extrusion speed, billet temperature, and lubrication all affect the extrusion pressure.
Process Variables in Direct Extrusion
Process Variables in Direct Extrusion (Fig. 15.4)
Fig. 15.4 shows some process variable in direct extrusion. The

extrusion die angle α determines the size of dead zone and may affect
the extrusion ratio. Ao is the original cross-sectional area of the billet
while its counterpart Af is the cross sectional area of the extruded
shape.
Types of Metal Flow in Extrusion with Square Dies
Figure 15.6 Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies. (a) Flow pattern obtained at
low friction or in indirect extrusion. (b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet-
chamber interfaces. (c) Pattern obtained at high friction or with coiling of the outer regions of
the billet in the chamber. This type of pattern, observed in metals whose strength increases
rapidly with decreasing temperature, leads to a defect known as pipe (or extrusion) defect.
Metal Flow in Extruding with Square Die larger than those away from the opening,
(Fig. 15.7) implying the metal is under tensile
Experimentally, the flow of metal within deformation. The grids away from the
extrusion chamber can be studied by opening almost remain unchanged,
bisecting the billet longitudinally and gridding implying very little or no deformation taking
a surface with mesh. The gridded halves are place in the regions. The spacing of the
then welded and placed into the chamber, grids along the central line seems to be
which is then extruded through die. The relatively larger which implies tensile strain
extrusion can then be stopped and taken out taking place or material is squeezed to
the chamber after certain length has been move both forwardly and backwardly so as
through the die. The welded edge is then to create stretching in the middle zone
ground off and the distortion of mesh can be Under the relatively larger interfacial
observed. The phenomena that the mesh friction (Fig. 15.7(b)), the larger friction
distorted allow the identification of how the tends to slow down the forwarding flow
metal is deformed and flows. Friction and the accumulation of material at the
between the interface of die and billet affects interface results in higher level of
the flow pattern within the extrusion chamber squeezing which subsequently pushing
and closer to die opening. As seen in Fig the material in the centre more severely.
15.7(a), the grids of square meshes seem to Consequently, the material in the zone
be squeezed together slightly when entering closer to the die is squeezed to pull both
die opening (implying metal is under backwardly and forwardly to give tensile
compression), and the mesh in the zone at deformation mode. Furthermore, material
the vicinity of die opening has grids pacing around the zone, as indicated by die angle
• .
(Fig. 15.4), tends to create a dead zone where there is no flow of material taking place.
For an even higher friction (Fig. q5.7(c)), the dead zone is getting larger and extending
downwardly, which results severer accumulation of material and prompts for severer
squeezing of material closer to die and heavier compression of material in the center,
subsequently giving higher tensile strain for material in the core zone. The severer tensile
strain in this zone may lead to central burst if there is any hard impurity locating in the
zone or the tensile strain is so high that reaches the fracturing point of the material.
Extrusion Temperature Rangers for Various Metals
In metal forming, soft material is easier to deform/shape than its harder counterpart.
Depending on how complicated shapes of metals to be formed, some materials/shapes
are difficult to produce in room temperature (i.e. by cold working). Heating the metals so
as to soften them for easier shaping may be the suitable approach in forming harder
materials and/or more complex shapes. If the materials are formed at a temperature
approaching their crystallization temperature, it is termed hot working. Table on slide 22
gives the ranges of hot working temperature for various metals
Extrusion in Creation of Intricate Parts
Figure 15.8 (a) An extruded 6063-T6 aluminum-ladder lock for aluminum extension
ladders. This part is 8 mm (5/16 in.) thick and is sawed from the extrusion (see Fig. 15.2).
(b-d) Components of various dies for extruding intricate hollow shapes. Source: (b-d)
After K. Laue and H. Stenger
Extrusion in Creation of Intricate Parts
Components for Extruding Hollow Shapes (Fig. 15.9)
Fig. 15.9(a) illustrates a hollow part which can be extruded. Generally,

the extrusion of hollow components requires mandrel or hollow dies
which suitably channels or blocks the flow of material accordingly so as
to yield the anticipated geometry of a hollow component, as shown in
Fig. 15.9(b) to Fig. 15.9(d) which illustrate the different mounting of dies
in front of extrusion container and the different combination of dies for
producing them.
Design of Exruded Cross-Sections
Figure 15.9 Poor and good examples of cross-sections to be extruded. Note the
importance of eliminating sharp corners and of keeping section thicknesses uniform.
Source: J.G. Bralla (ed.); Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing. New York:
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1986. Used with permission.
Design of Exruded Cross-Sections
Design of Cross-Sections to be Extruded (Fig. 15.10)
Suitable design of cross-sectional geometry of an extrusion is important for
facilitating of: (i) achievement of balancing force on the dies; (ii) flow of material
in the chamber and through the dies; (iii) accomplishment of good quality
component in performing designated function; and (iv) safety in handling and
assembling, etc.
Fig. 15.10(a) shows an incorrect design of an extrusion. It does not balance the
flow, and thus generates unbalance force. Typically, the knife edge feature on
its right hand side surely results in difficulty of forcing material through and it
could be easily damaged, not safe to handle, even after extruded. Its tong and
sharp corners also problems in production because material is hard to fill. The
two holes at its bottom part have different size with the smaller one too small to
squeeze material through, and their wall in between is also too thin and easily
breaks. Its modification (Fig. 15.10(b)) overcomes the incorrect designs of
those shown in Fig. 15.10(a).
Cold Extrusion Examples
Figure 15.11 Two examples of cold extrusion. Thin arrows

indicate the direction of metal flow during extrusion.
Cold Extrusion Examples
Examples of Cold Extrusion (Fig. 15.11)
• Fig. 15.11 shows examples of two cold extrusion processes. Basically, the
one in Fig. 15.11(a) is a combination of extrusion and forging process –
material in the die cavity is forged by the punch and extruded through to fill
the bottom part of the cavity. It is observed that there is not any obvious
clearance between the die cavity and punch. However, the one in Fig.
15.11(b) has sufficient clearance between die wall and punch for material to
move backwardly while some material is filling the cavity on the bottom
punch. The process is a combination of backward extrusion and forward
extrusion. As mentioned previously, cold extrusion is usually operated to
extrude soft material or relatively hard for simpler geometry. Hot extrusion is
normally used when material is hard or complex geometry is anticipated.
Impact-Extrusion Process
Figure 15.14 Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The extruded

parts are stripped by use of a stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch.
Impact-Extrusion Process
Impact Extrusion (Fig. 15. 14 and Fig. 15.15)
Normally extrusion is working on the principles of continuously

squeezing of a workpience which deforms to take the geometry of die
opening for the products. Impact extrusion takes the advantage of
converting potential energy of a punch to kinetic energy, then to
deformation energy. Fig. 15.14 shows the features and operational
principles of an impact extrusion. A shallow die is placed with blank and
a punch is raised up to certain height to acquire its potential energy,
which is released and dropped down to hit on the blank. Under the
impact, the blank is deforming and material is moving backwardly up
along the outer wall of the punch taking the shape of the outer bottom
profile of the punch. The stripper plate is then moving down to strip off
the extrusion down from the punch.
Impact Extrusion
Figure 15.15 (a) Impact extrusion of a collapsible tube by the Hooker process. (b)
and (c) Two examples of products made by impact extrusion. These parts also may be
made by casting, forging, or machining. The choice of process depends on the
materials involved, part dimensions, and wall thickness, and the product properties
desired. Economic considerations also are important in final process selection.
Impact Extrusion
• Due to the depth of the die cavity is shallow, the interfacial contact
between cavity wall and outer surface of the workpiece moving
upwardly is limited. It thus effectively reduces the interfacial friction.
Furthermore, it the punch body is so shaped to release further the
interfacial contact. Friction force can substantially be reduced
further. Subsequently, impact extrusion can be used to extrude
complex part as shown in Fig. 15.15(a), It is also widely applied to
produce tubes, i.e. the dental paste tube as shown In Fig. 15.15(b)
and Fig. 15.15(c). In the forming of dental tube, the bottom section
of the punch is suitably shaped to assist the metal flow and to
reduce surface friction (free of contact between the inner wall of the
tube and the outer surface of the punch).
Chevron Cracking
Figure 15.16 (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars.
Unless the products are inspected, such internal defects may remain
undetected and later cause failure of the parts in service. This defect can also
develop in the drawing of rod, of wire, and of tubes. (b) Schematic illustration
of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. The tendency toward chevron cracking
increases if the two plastic zones do not meet. Note that the plastic zone can
be made larger either by decreasing the die angle or by increasing the reduction
in cross-section (or both). Source: After B. Avitzur.
Chevron Cracking
Chevron Cracking (Fig. 15.16)
Ref to the description for Fig. 15.7 above, the formation of severe and large squeezing zone
closer to the die opening usually leads to the severe tensile strain in the middle zone, which
results in the formation of central burst (Chevron Cracking – Note: Chevron is an engineering
scientist who firstly discovered the existence of such crack) if there is any buried hard impurity
or tensile strain is so large to reach its fracture limit. Fig. 15.16 shows such phenomenon.
In Fig. 15.16(a), the cross-section of an extruded circular solid bar is bisected and observed
under microscope. It has been found some crack occurring on the surface. Fig. 15.16(b)
illustrates the forming mechanism of such crack. Generally, incoming material flows horizontally
from the back of container and hits on the inclined die wall at where it changes direction to
move along the die surface. Such change of direction blocks and changes the material flowing
from the back which subsequently forms the rigid zone as shaded in Fig. 15.16(b). If this
shaded zone is small, material sandwiched in between in large and the squeezing effect
becomes insignificant (i.e. the tensile strain is small and can be pushed through the die opening
by the incoming material from the back uccessfully). Under such circumstance, the central burst
may not occur. When the rigid zone is so large that they touch each other at the center of the
die opening, the central burst is also successfully suppressed. However, when the rigid zone is
ranging between the former two conditions, the material at the central core not touching each
other and also not too much, the squeezing of the rigid zone creates sufficiently large tensile
train reaching the fracture limit or the existence of hard impurity to create material separation
taking place, central burst thus appears.
Tube-Drawing Operations
Figure 15.19 Examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without an internal

mandrel. Note that a variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced
from the same initial tube stock (which has been made by other processes).
Tube-Drawing Operations
Process Variable in Wire Drawing (Fig. 15.18)
Differing to extrusion process which has squeezing force to push material in container out through the
die opening, drawing usually involves the application of force in front of the die opening to pull material
out from the die. As a result, the container wall at the back of opening normally found in extrusion
process is not there for drawing process. It thus effectively reduces contract friction. However, the
drawn part may susceptibly break if the design of die is incorrect and the pulling force is excessive to
the effort of the cross section of the drawn part. Fig. 15.18 shows the various variables commonly used
in wire drawing.
Examples of Tube-Drawing Operations (Fig. 15.19)

Fig. 15.19 shows various approaches to draw tubes with larger inner diameter to smaller diameter and
also to thin the wall thickness of the tubes. Basically, Fig. 15.19(a) illustrates how a larger and thicker
tube is drawn to smaller and thinner tube through the design of die only. The deficiency of the process
is its difficulty in control the uniformity of the inner diameter and thickness throughout the drawn tube.
Fig. 15.19(b) illustrates a stationary mandrel is placed between the die opening and the drawing tube
to control the inner diameter and the thickness of the wall exiting from the deformation zone. However,
process as such limits the length of the tube to be drawn by the length of stationary mandrel. To
overcome the problem associated with the stationary mandrel, floating mandrel is introduced (Fig.
15.19(c)). It releases the constraint of mandrel length with suitable design of the mandrel to be held at
the deformation zone. Fig. 15.19(d) shows the mandrel is put inside the inner diameter of the tube and
drawn together with the drawn part. Surely, the process releases the length constraints of the process
in Fig. 15.19(b). Its difficulty is the requirement of stripping off the mandrel after each draw and also
how to ensure that the moving mandrel can be machined straight.
Extruded Channel on a Draw Bench
Figure 15.22 Cold drawing of an extruded channel on a draw bench to

reduce its cross-section. Individual lengths of straight rods or of cross-
sections are drawn by this method. Source: Courtesy of The Babcock and
Wilcox Company, Tubular Products Division.
Extruded Channel on a Draw Bench
Cold Drawing (Fig. 15.22)
• Like most of other bulk metal working processes, drawing can be

performed at room temperature which is named cold drawing, or
with temperature just below the recrystallization temperature of the
drawpiece which is termed hot drawing, or any temperature in
between cold and hot working which is termed warm drawing. Fig.
15.22 shows the design and setup of a drawing bench for cold
drawing. Although the hot drawing may be similar to cold drawing
except that it may involve the attachment of furnace to heat up the
drawpiece before drawing.

MBE3119 Manufacturing Technology: (2) Some Rolling Processes

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MBE3119 Manufacturing Technology: (2) Some Rolling Processes

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MBE3119 Manufacturing

Figure 13.1 Schematic

Figure 13.3 Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) four-high

Figure 13.4 (a) Bending of

Figure 13.8 Schematic

2) Defects resulting from lateral spread

Figure 13.15 (a) Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Thickness reduction

Figure 13.12 Steps in the

Rolling “H” Channel Bar

Figure 13.19 Schematic illustration of various tube-rolling processes: (a) with a

Figure 13.20 The Space Shuttle U.S.S.

Figure 13.21 The forming

• Fig. 13.21 illustrates the forming processes likely involved in the

Figure 15.2 Extrusions and

• LHS of Fig. 15.2 shows some extrusions with typical features of

• RHS of Fig. 15.2 illustrates various extrusion sections. It indicates

Figure 15.1 Schematic illustration of the direct-extrusion process.

6) Dummy block which is usually sandwiched between billet and

When a billet is placed into the container after adequate mounting of

Lateral Extrusion (Fig. 15.3(c))

Process Variables in Direct Extrusion (Fig. 15.4)

Fig. 15.4 shows some process variable in direct extrusion. The

Extrusion Temperature Rangers for Various Metals

Components for Extruding Hollow Shapes (Fig. 15.9)

Fig. 15.9(a) illustrates a hollow part which can be extruded. Generally,

Figure 15.11 Two examples of cold extrusion. Thin arrows

Figure 15.14 Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The extruded

Normally extrusion is working on the principles of continuously

Figure 15.19 Examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without an internal

Examples of Tube-Drawing Operations (Fig. 15.19)

Figure 15.22 Cold drawing of an extruded channel on a draw bench to

Cold Drawing (Fig. 15.22)

• Like most of other bulk metal working processes, drawing can be

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