KINEMATICS Joseph Stiles Beggs Professor Emeritus School of Engineering and Applied Science University of California Los Angeles HEMISPHERE PUBLISHING CORPORATION Washington New York London DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE NORTH AMERICA SPRINGER-VERLAG Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo? 10 4/C Parts of this book are based on material in Advanced Mechanism by J. 8. Beggs. Copyright © 1966 by the author. By permission of the publisher, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. KINEMATICS Copyright © 1983 by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher, 1234567890 BCBC 89876543 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Beggs, Joseph Stiles, Kinematics. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Kinematics. _I. Title, QA841.B43 1983 531'112 82-15835 ISBN 0-89116-355-7 Hemisphere Publishing Corporation DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE NORTH AMERICA: ISBN 3-540-12585-X Springer-Verlag BerlinTo Raymond Stiles Beatrice Della and The memory of my father, William SamuelContents Preface xi Conventions and Notations xiii Conversion of Units xvi Chapter 1. |. TRANSFORMATIONS pee wi i ~ Introduction 1 Transformation of Cartesian Coordinates 2 Transformation of Vector Components and Direction Cosines 6 Transformation of Components from an Orthogonal to a Nonorthogonal Coordinate System 6 Transformation of the Inertia Matrix 10 Principal Axes 12 Parallel Axes Theorem (Steiner’s Theorem) 16 Ellipsoid of Inertia 16 Chapter 2, ATTITUDE 21 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Properties of the Direction Cosine Matrix (DCM) 19 Minimum Number of Elements to Uniquely Specify a DCM 20 Euler’s Angles 22 Euler’s Theorem on Angular Placement 27 Euler’s Attitude Parameters 30 Attitude in Inertial Navigation 31 viiviii Contents Chapter 3. | DISPLACEMENT 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Displacement in Terms of Simplest Path 33 The Revolute Matrix,[R] 33 The Translation Matrix, [7] 36 The Screw Matrix, [S] 36 Effect of a Screw Displacement on a Transformation Matrix 41 Determination of the Screw Matrix from Initial and Final Positions 41 Successive Displacements 47 Chapter 4. MOTION 41 4.2 4.3 44 4.5 Velocity, Linear and Angular 55 Angular Velocity in Terms of Euler’s Parameters 58 Angular Velocities Add Vectorially 59 The Time Derivative of a Vector 59 Instantaneous Screw 60 Determination of Angular Velocity from Velocity of Points Fixed in Body 61 Location of the Instant Screw 62 Kennedy-Aronhold Theorem in Space 63 Acceleration, Linear and Angular 67 Angular Accelerations Do Not Add Vectorially 68 Instant Center of Acceleration 69 Jerk, Linear and Angular 70 Angular Jerk, G3), 72 Properties of Momentarily Coincident Points 72 Relative Velocities 73 Tangential Components of Acceleration 74 Motion inaPlane 15 Centrodes inSpace 81 Chapter 5. QUATERNIONS IN KINEMATICS 5.1 Euler’s Parameters as Quaternions 83 Chapter 6. . NON-CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM 6.1 6.2 Cylindrical Coordinates 87 Spherical Coordinates 89Contents ix Equation of a Great Circle 93 Great Circle Through Two Given Positions on the Earth, and Compass Heading Enroute 94 Heading 95 The Flight Path 97 Chapter 7. APPLICATIONS 71 1.2 7.3 TA 75 1.6 ta 7.8 The Output of a Gyro in Going frum One Attitude to Another Depends on the Path 99 Mechanisms 102 A Four-Bar Linkage in Space 105 The Bennett Mechanism 111 Contacting Surfaces 116 Contact Stresses 121 Machining of Surfaces 123 Machining of Hypoid Gear Teeth 127 Geometrical Optics 140 Time of Sunrise 142 System of Time 144 Motion of the Earth around the Sun 147 Sunrise 149 Path of SuninSky 154 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 158 Rotational Motion of the System 160 Computing the Moment of Momentum of a Rigid Body 162 Kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body 163 Potential Energy of a Rigid Body 164 Kinematic Restraints 164 Rotational Motion 169 Total Energy of a Cylinder 173 Dynamics of a System of Rigid Bodies 178 Coning 179 Coning in Terms of Euler’s Theorem 186 Coning in Terms of Quaternions 187 Coning about Two Axes Simultaneously 187 Kinematics of Steering a Tractor and Trailer 190 Instant Centers 192 The Tractor 192 The Trailer 193 Set of Doubles 194x Contents 7.9 Orthographic Projection 196 Projection of a Circle 200 Isometric Drawings 200 Projection of a Protractor 204 Appendix A Trigonometric Identities 207 Appendix B Curvature and Torsion 209 Plane Curves 216 Curvature of a Surface 216 Principal Curvatures 218 References 219 Index 221Preface Most students learn their kinematics in bits and pieces while studying other subjects such as dynamics or machines. This slim volume has been written as a reference book for all those who have need of kinematics. It is terse, almost to a fault. Hundreds of pages of algebra are missing. The algebra is not difficult, only very tedious, and would bore the reader to death. (The coefficient of ,x in Eq. (3.6-14) initially contained 168 terms!) Students should fill in some of these gaps in order to gain facility in applying kinematics to their own problems. They should also start writing computer pro- grams to manipulate matrices and to display the results on a screen or plotter. I am grateful to Professors Pestel, Thomson and Denavit for getting me interested in matrices. The power of matrices is shown in their application to moving mirrors and space mechanisms. However, in multiplying matrices one should keep in mind the theory of errors. Professor E. H. Taylor introduced me to the concept of the quasi-inertial space defined in Sect. 7.6. It has proven very useful over the years in the Dynamics of a System of Rigid Bodies. The notation is highly mnemonic. This makes for ease in read- ing, but places a great burden on the typist. We all thank her, Mrs. Jackie Lesser. I also wish to thank Kathy Martelli and Joseph Paccia of Sunrise Graphics, who did the expediting and graphics, and Mary Phillips Born, Editor-in-Chief of Hemisphere Publishing Corporation who made this book possible.xii Preface The late Dean of Engineering, L. M. K. Boelter invited me to join his staff in 1948 after I had spent twenty years in industry. I have always been very appreciative of this and of my apprentice- ship in Machine Design at the Western Electric Company. Joseph Stiles BeggsConventions and Notation The equations in each section are numbered con- secutively starting with 1. The section number is included, e.g. (2.3-1). The word "equation" is seldom used as it is redundant. In referring to an equation in the same section, the section number is omitted. Like- wise the section number is omitted when referring to a figure in the same section. When looking in the positive sense of an axis of rotation, a positive rotation is clockwise. A right hand screw (helix) would advance in the positive direc- tion of the axis if given a positive rotation. When an axis is seen "end-on" in a drawing, and its positive sense is into the paper, it is denoted by @, and when out of the paper by © 4 means "equal by definition”. The sine, cosine, versine (4 1-cosine), and tan- gent are written S, C, V, and T respectively in upper case letters. Because the versine occurs so frequently in kinematics a table of trigonometric identities involving this function is given in Appendix A. The principal values of the inverse cosine are used. The plus or minus value of are cosine is taken according as the sine is positive or negative (or as may be obvious from the problem). xiiixiv Conventions and Notation Vectors are designated by an underscore. The same method is suitable for use on the blackboard and for taking notes and typing. A letter without the underscore denotes the magnitude of the vector. |V| =V. If a positive sense has been preassigned a vector, its magni- tude may turn out to be negative. The vector from the point 0, to the point P may be written ro,p or 0)P, It should be noted that the vector Lo,p no longer gives the position of P if it is trans- formed to another coordinate system with a different origin. The angle between the vector w and r is written , and is measured from w to r. Unit vectors are designated by a circumflex over the letter. For example, the unit vector along the coordinate axis X, is written x. When checking the terms of a vector equation for the consistency of physi- cal dimensions keep in mind that unit vectors are dimensionless. Vectors may also be designated by a column matrix or by a skew-symmetric square matrix; thus (w), is the column matrix whose elements are the components of w in cartesian coordinate system 3. A dummy 1 is placed at the top of the column when required. As a square matrix, (w)3 is written 0 -wz ay [wl], = wz oO ~Wy “wy ux 0 The angular velocity as a free vector is written w, and as a sliding vector, (i.e., associated with an instantaneous axis of rotation-and-sliding) it is written The dot is used for the scalar product of two vectors, e.g., w+ 7. The cross is used to designate the vector product of vectors or the scalar product of numerals, e.g.,Conventions and Notation xv w * r, 3.14 x 6.15. By choice, 0 < > O and C/ur = +r, When using matrices the vector product w x r becomes [w](r) or [w][r] - [r][w]. Note that w x (w x r) is not associative, but [w][w](r) is. [I](w) isa column vector. [I] is defined in (7.6-9). ((1][w] - {wJ[1]) is not the corresponding (3x3) matrix form of this vector, as may be seen by expanding both expressions. When using matrices the scalar product » + becomes (w)T(w), where T stands for the transpose of the matrix (the i'th column becomes the i'th row). [T,2] is the (4x4) matrix which transforms the coordinates of a point from coordinate system 1 to coordinate system 2. The direction cosine matrix, (DCM), [C between 1o]> the axes of system 1 and system 2 transforms the com- ponents of a vector from system 1 to system 2. It makes up the lower right corner of [T,)]. The determinant of a matrix [C] is written |[c]]. 12C34 is the element in the first row and second column of the matrix [C3,]. It is the cosine of the angle between the axes Y; and X,, and may be written c The sine of this angle is written Sy.x,. VaXy* It may happen that the time rate of change of a vector V is measured in, say, system 3, but it must be expressed in system 2 components, If there is danger of confusion it may be written (¥|5),. The unit matrix is written [1]. [1] =[1 0 0 ye oo 1 (ax)2, not d(x?) References to the literature are designated by square brackets, e.g., [3], p. 102. They are listed at the end of this book, immediately before the Index. ENGINEERING IS THE ART OF JUDICIOUS COMPROMISExvi Conventions and Notation CONVERSION OF UNITS Thanks to the electronic "slide rule" placing the decimal point is no longer a problem, but as long as there are different units in use for measuring the same physical entity, converting units remains a problem. The following method is based on the fact that multiplying a physical entity by the number one does not change it. For example, a = 92.9 x 10® mile (Fig. 7.5-3), 0 92.9 x 108 mile x (5280 ft/1 mile) x (12 in./1 ft) x (2.540 cm/1 in.) 1.495 x 10!3cm Multiplying "a" by (1 mile/5280 ft) does not change it, but neither does it produce a useful result. Both the number and the unit should be placed in an equation, so that a dimensional check is obtained. Problem: Calculate your weight in watts/knot! Hint: x watts/knot = 180 lb. Solve for x and cancel out all units by judicious choices of "1". 745.7 watt = 1 horse power = 3.3 x 10* ft Ib/minute. 1 knot = 1 minute of arc on the earth's surface at the equator/hr. Radius of the earth = 3960 mile. 1 knot = 1.1520 mile/hr.1 Transformations 1.1 INTRODUCTION Kinematics is the study of the geometry of motion, Ampere coined the word from the Greek, "kinema," move- ment. The motion of a body may be caused by surrounding matter; solid, liquid, or gas; either by direct contact or by gravitational forces, The motion may also be caused by electric or magnetic fields or by radiation pressure. It takes place in accordance with the laws of dynamics, If a body such as a part of a machine is constrained to move in a certain manner by virtue of its contact with other machine elements, its motion may be determined by kinematics. Once the motion is known, the forces which produced that motion may be found by means of dynamics. The position of a body may be specified in terms of the position of three noncollinear points fixed in the body, or in terms of the position of one point fixed in the body, and the attitude of the body relative to a frame of reference. The position of a point may be given in terms of cartesian, spherical, cylindrical, or curvi-linear coordinates.2 Kinematics The attitude of a body may be described in terms of two nonparallel lines fixed in the body, or in terms of an angular displacement from a reference position (Section 2.4), The attitude may also be expressed in terms of Euler's Angles (Section 2.3), Some of these are redundant. The redundancy may be useful as a check on independent measurements. 1.2 TRANSFORMATION OF CARTESIAN COORDINATES. In Fig. 1 are shown three right-hand, orthogonal, cartesian coordinate systems. System 1 is identified by the subscript 1, etc. The projection of the broken line 0, ABP on the X; axis is equal to the projection of 0;P on this axis, which by definition, is the coordinate x3 of the point P in system 3. The lengths of the segments OA, BP, and AB are x,, y, and z,, respectively. X3 =X) Cxyx3 + ¥2 Cyyy3 + 21 Czyz5 (1.2-1) Fig. 1.2-1, Transformation of the coordinates of a point P from cartesian coordinate system 1 to system 2 with the aid of system 3, whose axes are respectively par- allel to those of system 2.‘Transformations 3 where Cx,x, is the cosine of the angle between the X, and X; axes, etc, From Fig. 1 2 = 0,%2 + Xa (1.2-2) where 4 x, is a coordinate of the origin 0, in system 2. 1 These, and similar equations are combined in matrix form. 1 1 0 9° 0 a . 01%2 Cx x2 Cyyx2 Czxo| | * ¥] =]o,¥2 Cxiy5 Cy.y, Czy] fy] (4-2-3) 24, Loi%2 Cxyz2 Cyiz2 Carz2} L2 2 1 This may be abbreviated to (P), = [T,2](P), (1.2-4) Both sides of (4) are pre-multiplied by [T,2]~!, the inverse of [T,,]. | _ssese (1.2-5) But, hi (T2i1(P)2 (1.2-6) for all P's, therefore [T23] = (t)2)7° (1.2-7) and [T,2](T21) = (T2i][Ti12] = [1], (1.2-8) the unit matrix. Equation (8) simply states that if the coordinates are transformed back to the original system the original values are obtained, (unlike survey school, where the bench mark had always moved a little when we returned! ). Because the cosine is an even function, Cxyxp = Cxoxy (1.2-9) The direction cosine matrix (DCM), [C], is obtained from [T] by striking out the first row and first column.4 Kinematics By (7) a (1.2-10) = [C21]? (See (2.1-12)) (1.2-11) where [ ]" denotes the transpose of the matrix, Because |(cy2]| = 1, (2.1-11), W(tiel}=2 (1.2-12) However, finding its inverse is still quite a chore; it is simpler to use (11) and find (0,),. = [T2110 )2 (1.2+13) 1 (01 )5 coor from which (Oz): = ~ £C21](01)2 (1.2-14) This equation is differentiated with respect to peek | tesa bobbgoy tk gaa. Te (62), = -[6211001)2 - [C211(61)2 (1.2-15) (02) = -£6p11(01)2 -206211(61)2 - [C211(01)2 (12-16) (Oa)1 = 0621101 )2 -3LG211061)2 -3LE211(01)2 ~ [C1 1(0,)2 (1-2-17) It may be more convenient to make a transformation in stages. (P)3 = (Ta3](P)2 = (Toa]ffTi2l(P):} = (1-2-18) = ([Teg](T2)}(P)1 (1.2-19) But, (P)3 = [T13](P), for all P (1.2-20) Therefore, (Ti3] = [T23)(Ti2] (1.2-21)Transformations and [ce,3] = [e23]fcy2] (1.2-22) Example: Show that, 8(8, + 85) = S$@,C8, + CySe, (1.2-23) C(0, + 8) = Ce,Co, - $0,885 (1.2-24) From Fig. 2, Ce, Se, 0 C8, Sey 0 [Cy2] = |-Se; ca, 0 [Co3]= |-se, ce, 0] (1.2-25) O70.) 0 0 1] (1.2-26) C(8, + 6) S(8, + 62) [Cy5] = |-s¢e, + 02) C(o,; + 09) 0 (1.2-27) 0 0 1 From (22), (C8,C8> ~ S8)86,) (S8,Ce, + C8180) 0 [cy 5] (-C8,Se, - S8,C8,)(-Se,88, + C8\Co,) 0 0 0 1 (1.2-28) x 2, 20,23 1 Fig. 1.2-2. Coordinate systems used in deriving two well knowa trigonometric identities.6 Kinematics Eqs. (23) and (24) are obtained by equating correspond- ing elements of the matrices in (27) and (28). 1.3 TRANSFORMATION OF VECTOR COMPONENTS AND DIRECTION COSINES. Because the direction cosines of a line L can be expressed in terms of the differences of the coordinates of any two points on the line and the distances between the points, (which is invariant during a transforma- tion), the direction cosines of a line transform in the same manner as the coordinates. Cx Cxy Cy} = [Cp2] | Cyr (1.3-1) c c. ZV 2 ZV 1 And because the components of a vector are equal to the magnitude of the vector multiplied by the direction cosines of a line parallel to the vector, (VY). = [Cq2]1V)1 (1.3-2) If the vector is expressed as a square matrix it is transformed by a similarity transformation, (v], = [C,2]fv}i [C21] (1.3-3) This may be checked by expanding (3) and comparing the results with (2), making use of the fact that each element in a DCM equals its co-factor (2.1-10). 1.4 TRANSFORMATION OF COMPONENTS FROM AN ORTHOGONAL TO A NONORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM. The nonorthogonal system (Fig. 1) is designated by the letter N and the orthogonal system by the letter 0. The components of the vector R in system N form a parallelopiped, in system O they form the edges of a rectangular box.