Resumen 2º Cuatrimestre. American Civilization

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Resumen Mundos Anglofonos América
Mundos Anglófonos en Perspectiva Histórica y Cultural (UNED)
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ANGLOPHONE WORLDS FROM A HISTORICAL AND

CULTURAL PERSPECTIVEW THE UNITED STATES
- UNIT 1. THE AMERICAN CONTEXT
o Write or give an oral description of the main aspects of the American

culture.
o Exchange ideas or give opinions on the American National Identity.
o Narrate some American social and institutional changes.
- Ethnic CultureW
First settlers after 1607 were mainly British, sharing America with the Natives
communities and other Europeans (French & Spaniards). Until 1776, half of the
population were protestant white Anglo-Americans.
They promoted many of the new nation’s political, social, constitutional and
religious institutions. Political principles were based on democracy, grassroots
sovereignty, skepticism about government… Social values were conditioned by
a belief in individualism, Protestant work ethic, rule of law… Other Europeans
integrated on the American mainstream identity.
NW Europe supplied 2/3 of the immigration in America after the Colonial and
Independence age (1776), also many Asians. At the end of the 19 th c. a shift
occurred between Northern and Southern Europe immigrants; this varied the
social and religious composition of the society.
Despite of many restrictive politics in immigration; the US received 60 M.
immigrants during the 20th c., Asians, South and Central Americans (Mexicans),
Caribbean…
The effects of colonial settlements, such as slavery, have been important in
numerical and origin terms, making the US a special country in this way,
providing a distinct ethnically based identity as a nation of immigrants and their
descendants.
White people is the group with more population, but in further years this could
vary.
Afro Americans and Native Americans slaves suffered (and suffers) problems of
integration in the US society.
- Religious cultureW
Religion is a very important issue in American history, based on colonists,
slaves and Native Americans.
Some early settlers escaped from religious prosecution in their homelands,
establishing communities based on their beliefs. This fact makes the moral
basis of the new nation.
Not all settlers were inspired by religion, some travelled for adventure, freedom,
mew experiences, new markets and escape from European oppression.
Religiosity rates fluctuated during the ages, however, it’s a defining fact of the
actual US, in comparison with other countries.

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Although religion is a private, personal matter separated from the state, it

informs and may condition social, economic and political life.
Religion influence in many areas of the American life is a part of education,
politics and ethics.
Despite a desire to keep religion out of politics by a legislative and constitutional
means, some critics question whether it is realistic or necessary to deny religion
a full and active part of public life.
- Political-legal cultureW
This is the third major American culture fact, shaped by:
o Central place of law and Constitution in American life.
o Restrictions made by constitution upon politics.
o Belief if the Americans in minimal government, especially in the federal
one.
o The perceived need to produce consensual national policies.
The Constitution is the centre of this fact, interpreted by the judiciary (the
Supreme Court in Wa DC.) determining what’s constitutional or not. These
features help to solidify society, widely accepting centralized politics.
Racial or ethnic differences, immigration and social diversity affected to national

unity, and are still problematic.
Americans are aware of corruption, fraud and incompetence in the political and
legal systems and that claims to “liberty” and “freedom” are not always
respected in reality.
Responses to pluralism have often resulted in consensus politics based on

political and judicial compromise. US politics are not usually considered to be as
oppositional as in other nations, but in the recent years the differences between
parties went bigger in a lot of issues, economy, religion, employment…
Voters can also register opposition or support to many politics, gay marriage,
abortion, death penalty… even when academics register a low rate of votation.
This reflects alienation from the political process.
- Economic cultureW
The fourth major US culture is the economic framework, which is also
idealistic/abstract and materialistic/practical.
Americans generally have a belief in individualism and a free enterprise system,
which is supposed to deliver goods and services demanded.
The system can also produce inferior products, bad service, incompetence,
corruption and little variety of the real choice of consumers.
Americans tend to support small business in front of big ones.
Depending on global economy, fluctuation between public and private economic
sectors varies.
- Americaness and National identityW
Many cultures (Irish, Jewish, Chinese, Italians…) interacted to form the
American lifestyle, leaving their influence in education, people, environment and
social services.

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A historical dilemma for the US has been how to balance a need for civic unity
against the problems generated by ethnic diversity. An important thing has been
the “Americanization”, the assimilation of different groups into an Anglo-
American base, the thing known as the “melting pot”. Assimilation implies
absolute national unity, whereas “integration” occurs at levels of partial and
more “natural” blending or mixing.
The fact of nationalism inside the US varied during the years, growing and
decreasing.
It is difficult to represent an American lifestyle integrating all those ethnicities;
there are huge differences between the dominant groups and the others, that’s
why the US is also known as a “mosaic” or a “salad bowl” in substitution of
“melting pot”.
The solution to problems is to define national structures, which acknowledge
ethnic identity or roots, seeing the differences as valid despite of the reluctance
to some groups of integrating in the US society.
The US tried to achieve this “Americaness” using several symbols such as the
national anthem, the flag, and some documents such as the Declaration of
Independence that came from Puritan concepts and the European Enlightment.
Americans may stress with individualism, distrust of big government and their
desire to be free. But communalism, voluntary activities, charitable
organizations and group endeavors are also a feature of the US life, making a
highly recognized international culture.
- Social and institutional changeW
US influence many other countries and vice versa, remaining specific politics for
the US attending political, minority and consumer demands.
US social organizations or institutions have been constructed since 1607, some
particular of the nation, some shared with another countries. All very designed
to attend the complex society system, taking different forms and sizes,
operating on federal, state, and local levels, and may be public or private in
character.
The “American way of life” is defined by how citizens function within and
respond to local and national institutions and cultures, whether positively or not.
- American attitudes to US societyW
Social structures and policies affect individuals directly in their daily lives.
Despite the difference in origins, Americans have the same concerns and
values regarding economy, politics, crime, religion, healthcare…
Some polls showed that a 23% of Americans think that the country goes in the
right direction whether a 72% thinks the opposite.
- UNIT 2 THE PEOPLEW SETTLEMENT, IMMIGRATION, WOMEN AND

MINORITIES.
o Describe the political context of the Independence of the British

Colonies
o Write or give an oral description of the four immigration waves
o Read cultural and historical documents with a satisfactory level of
comprehension

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o Answer questions about personal ideas and opinions related to attitudes

to immigrants
- Mother of ExilesW
Immigration is a central aspect of US history. Believing the American dream,
millions of people immigrated to the US, accepting their values and integrating
in the society, being the US a nation of nations.
It exists the belief that newcomers should abandon their old lifestyle and
accepting the one existing in the US.
The US provides and provided a more successful life to newcomers who had a
deficient situation in their old countries; especially to the second generation of
these immigrants.
The meeting between newcomers and native-born people also brought tensions
(widespread discrimination, economic exploitation, anti-foreign movements…)
since Anglo-Americans achieved their dominance over other people such as
Natives, African Americans and several waves of immigrants.
Some Americans believe in pluralism while others try to keep their traditions
over the immigration.
- Early encounters between Europeans and Native AmericansW
Since the very arrival of Europeans to the new continent, the conflicts between
these two groups started. These encounters amounted to a clash of two worlds.
The differences between Europe and America evolved into a “new” and “old”
world.
Europeans and Natives caught diseases from each other.
Europeans survived better the first encounter, even when they suffered a lot
while adjusting to the new environmental conditions. The Natives fared far
worse; the lost a lot of population.
Exchange between plans and animals occurred; Europeans received corn,
potato and tobacco and Natives horses, donkeys, sheep, pigs and cows. The
potato played a key role in this plot; it fed millions of newcomers.
The main problem of these encounters was the collision of cultures; Spaniards
and English people came from a different world and seemed the Natives as
lazy, wasteful people.
- The foundersW
The people who established the colonies are considered founders rather than
immigrants because they created the customs, laws and institutions to which
later arrivals had to adjust. Spaniards occupied coastal Florida, California and
the SW in the 16th and 17th c. They tried to Christianize the Natives and teach
them how to farm and sheepherding. Some Natives resisted and Spaniards had
to suffer from several attacks.
The English established in their first permanent settlement at Jamestown,
Virginia in 1607. The king didn’t want to rule such distant colonies, so the
Crown legalized enterprises that undertook the colonization of America as
private commercial enterprises.
Virginia at first tried to succeed in gold and searching for a sea passage to
Asian markets, but only thrived when they farmed tobacco and exported it.
Because of the lack of workers, in 1619 the First African laborers came as

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indentured servants (free people who contracted from five to seven years of
contract).
In the 1630, Lord Baltimore founded Maryland as a haven for Catholics
prosecuted in their homeland, and soon started to thrive as Virginia did.
Other English aristocrats financed the founding of Georgia and Carolina as
investments. Those two colonies succeeded in the harvesting of rice and indigo.
Escaping from English religious prosecution, separatist radical Pilgrims founded
the first Northern colony in 1620 at Plymouth, Massachusetts.
Puritans believed in forming a society based on their own values, and searched
for that in America.
The population grew very fast in the Mass. Bay spawning Maine and
Connecticut.
Flourishing from agriculture, forestry and shipping, New England was born.
N. York, N. Jersey and Pennsylvania (middle colonies) were founded by
Swedish and Dutch that traded with furs. New Netherlands and N. Sweden
recruited a lot of people to trade with pelts sold by the Natives. N. Sweden
lasted until 1638-55 when the Dutch annexed it and N. Netherlands were
conquered by the English in 1664.
Pennsylvania was founded by Quakers who flocked to the colony when Charles
II granted the region to the aristocrat W. Penn in 1681 as a religious “shelter”.
- The first waveW colonial immigration, 1680-1776W
The founders came for economic and religious freedom; the only received good
to the people who came in the first wave of immigration to integrate in Anglo-
American culture and supply needed labor. Founders were largely hostile in N.
England but very welcoming of N.York because of the mix of cultures.
This first wave happened after the Crown in 1660 opposed emigration from
England and Wales but encouraged from other nations. In 1662 Charles II
licensed the Royal African Company to supply slaves to the English colonies.
The largest group of immigrants was the Scots-Irish. With encouragement of
the English, their ancestors left Scotland for N. Ireland in 1500s.
Most of them paid their passage as indentured servants; when they finished
their contract, they usually took a small sum of money (freedom dues) and
settled on the frontier, were the land was cheapest.
They always tried to establish at least were they could see the smoke in the
chimney of the neighbor. This movement scattered their settlement form N.
England to Georgia.
Another immigrant important non-English speaking group was the German; they
believe their descendants should learn their language and their culture. They
stayed also in the frontier but in thick groups, and stayed when the people
started to move westwards.
They were renowned for their hard work, caution, farming methods, despite of
the opinion of the Non-conformists regarding their religion, Lutherans, Catholics
…
England also sent convicts and poor people as indentured servants to ease
problems at home.
From Ireland came thousands of male, Catholic single males also as indentured
servants

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A Catholic French enclave survived in S. Carolina, but French Huguenots and

Jews settled in port towns.
Natives were forced to move inland to the Appalachians or beyond
- The second waveW the “old” immigrants 1820-90W
Between 1776 and 1820s the immigration slowed down. The Independence and
the born of the nation Americanized diverse peoples, imposing the Anglo-
American culture. Dutch and German areas remained strong.
Some factors pushed Europeans out of their homelands, religious prosecution
(German Jews), political unrest and activism, and especially economic issues
were decisive to “old” NW immigrants.
Europe’s population doubled between 1750 and 1850. In Ireland and Germany
people depended on the crop of potato, a crop very profitable.
New technologies encouraged farmers to start large-scale crops using
machinery and big land surfaces, avoiding enclosures and smallholdings. With
these changes, such a large population could not make a living in the
countryside, so they moved into the US.
Industrial revolution exploded, and trading between England and the US and
the continent started, offering shipping and industry works, and emigration rates
lowered.
Then, people started to make inner migration movements from countryside to
cities and Stage migration (countryside, city and foreign countryside).
Steamships and trains made easier, cheaper and faster the emigration.
The largest groups were Germans, Irish, Britons and Scandinavians, but many
others including French Canadians, Chinese, Swiss and Dutch, being the most
important factor pulling people to the US the apparent unlimited supply of land.
Another factor was the work; the US needed skilled and unskilled workers.
Railroad companies and state and territorial governments sent immigrants
agents to recruit people in Europe. News of boom times in the US, land
giveaways such as the Homestead Act of 1862, and the discovery of gold in
California brought huge peaks of immigration.
- Settlement patterns and nativismW
While the newcomers settled everywhere, they were most numerous in the
manufacturing centers of the NE and in recent farmlands in Midwest and Pacific
coast.
Immigrants worked as domestic servants, mill and factories, miners, loggers,
sailors, fishermen and building workers.
Some of them came with funds, but after potato rot, huge number of Irish
immigrants arrived in 1840s and 1850s came without money.
British immigrants were not considered as such, because they belong to the
same group as the Anglo-Americans.
Scandinavians, because of the difference of languages, had problems to
integrate in Anglo-American society.
Nativism (dislike of people and things foreign) appeared, and plagued many
“old” immigrants, only accepting people looking alike them. Germans were
welcomed because their skills, excepting Germans Jews.
The Irish suffered many forms of discrimination often stereotyped as dirty,
violent drunks. They faced heavy Catholic criticism and violence from bigots,
even burning convents in the 1830s.

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Anti-foreign agitation reached its first peak in 1850s. Along with anti-Catholicism
appeared movement claiming that N.England hostile policies with immigrants
should be taken to the whole territory. Some groups even tried to make three
times longer the time needed to achieve citizenship and restricting immigrants’
voting rights.
Internal divisions and the Civil War ended with nativism movements.
Another peak arose in the W in the 1860s, achieving their goal, the Chinese
Exclusion Act, ending Chinese migration in 1882.
- The third waveW the “new” immigrants 1890-1930W
Around 1890 NW Europe immigration declined, while S and E arose. By 1908 4
of 5 newcomers were “new” immigrants.
In numerical order “new groups” were Italians, Jews, Poles and Hungarian, but
many Mexicans, Russians, Czechs, Greeks, Portuguese, Syrians, Japanese,
Filipinos…
To most Americans, the change involved the feeling that the typical immigrant
had become much less like them, even when they shared a lot of similarities.
The basic economic push and pull factors had not changed, like the Puritans; E
European Jews emigrated because of religious prosecution.
Falling prices of steamships and train made possible such immigration, making
possible the appearance of people getting rich in a short time and coming back
to their home countries (sojourners).
In general, new immigrants were younger and single.
Also the opportunities changed, land giveaways ended when the US closed
their frontiers in 1890, only Japanese people succeeded in agriculture buying
the unwanted land in California, and 4/5 of immigrants went to work in the
industry of the NE and Mid W in unskilled and poorly paid works.
- A renewed immigration debate and immigration restrictionW
Due to this immigration, an arise of crime, overcrowding, unsanitary conditions
and epidemics caused alarm and reform before the Civil War. Many Americans
though that “exotic” immigrants could not integrate or be assimilated into their
society. Americans adopted several policies to try to Americanize newcomers;
trying to include them into Anglo-American culture for their own good. Nativists
were scared of “mongrelization” of the white race and slowly appeared the idea
of “cultural pluralism”; the belief of a loyal society composed by a collection of
cultures. In Naturalization Acts in 1790 US government allowed foreigners to
become Americans if they were white.
In 1875, foreigners could become citizens and get the right to vote in five years.
In 1891, the federal government took responsibility for regulating immigration
and the next year opened Ellis Island. During the 20s Asian immigrant were
strongly interrogated before arriving the SF bay.
The National Quota Acts (1875) represented the climax of this kind of
campaign, when the federal government made a list of banned groups: contract
laborers, Chinese, prostitutes, Japanese, mentally ill people… suffered
restrictions to enter the country.
A combination of the Great War, eugenics (a pseudo-scientific racism trying to
prove the superiority of Anglo-Saxons), the Russian Revolution and super-
patriotism led to 1921 Emergency Quota Act, drastically reducing the number of

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newcomers, 1924 Asian exclusion Act, ending Asian immigration and a National
Origins Quota Act reducing European nationality quotas.
- Wartime Policies and the Search for Principle in Immigration PolicyW
With the Quota Acts and the lack of newcomers from N and W Europe and UK,
migration suffered a great stop; even not filling the quotas established, including
non-banned countries in this Acts such as Mexico, Philippines and Puerto Rico.
The depression during the 30’s didn’t help much and both governments from
US and Mexico deported half a million Mexican Americans.
Nazi and fascist refugees made a huge immigrant flow, considering them as a
special kind of immigrants out of this Quota.
The II WW ad the Cold War caused a shift in policy. The government imported
temporary agricultural workers from Mexico and lifted the Chinese ban.
This produced a racist fear, interning thousands of Japanese Americans in
“internment camps” and confiscating their properties. They feared the Japanese
population thinking they could be spies.
After the war, many families were allowed to enter in the country by several
Acts of Congress.
Between 1948-59, Cold War refugees from Cuba or Hungary also escaped from
their respective countries.
These racist Acts lasted until 1952, when people started to concern about the
racism existent in these documents. Instead of it started the so-called “brain-
drain”, accepting many people very skilled.
The Immigration Act of 1965 changed everything, adjusting the same quotas to
every country, using a system of preferences, reuniting families, accepting
children… but this plan benefited people over another and in 1980 and the law
would be revised.
- The fourth waveW 1965 to presentW
The 1965 law allowed the 4th wave to begin, and had its peak in late 90’s
producing the highest levels of migration of America’s history. The wave
included hundreds of refugees, immediate relatives and millions of illegal aliens.
Between 1961-2000 almost 35 million people secured legal permanent resident
status in the US plus 10 M illegals in 2010, being most part Latinos (Mexicans)
and Asians. Important shifts occurred in the US between 2007- 13/14. Mexicans
and Central Americans were overpassed by Asians, being the group with the
biggest growth in the country.
This migration included a broad range of socio-economic groups. A little group
were skilled workers and most of them were unskilled; attracted by
commercialization and industrialization.
At the bottom of this socio-economic scale were the refugees arriving from wars
or disasters. Because of Vietnam’s War, huge groups fled to the US.
The immigrants improved their situation by getting works that Americans didn’t
want and in case of Latino women, doing the domestic service and nannies,
improving their English, and having the opportunity of bringing their families
(chain migration).
The people in this migration wave were much more different between them than
in the other previous three: Hmong in Minneapolis, Vietnamese on the
Mississippi Delta, Indians across the sunbelt, Muslims in Dearborn, Michigan
and N. Jersey and Latinos everywhere.

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- Attitudes to immigrantsW the contemporary debateW

Racial attitudes appeared to be decisive in creating long term low opinions of
non-white ethnic groups.
For example large groups of Asian immigrants in the fourth wave with more
money and a good education, have a better consideration than Latinos, being
considered as the “model minority”, ignoring most part of Asians, who came
almost in the same conditions as Latinos.
The federal government invented the category “Hispanic” to name people who
came from Central-South America in the 4th wave, and were Spanish speakers.
People”undocumented” came from countries such as Mexico, China, Nigeria,
Iran…
Illegal immigration causes a heated debate over government policy to control
entry to the US, some people agree thinking they take jobs that Americans do
not want to do, and other faction thinks exactly the opposite.
The federal government responded to this by passing the Immigration Reform
and Control Act, trying to minimize illegal immigration while accepting rights of
people already in the US (affecting 3 million people, becoming legal). This law
was successful.
Immigration Act of 1990 raised the number of visas and removed some “old”
restrictions (Communists, homosexuals...) of 1965 Law, also made possible to
reunite families.
G. Bush administration was good for immigrants, accepting new bracero
programs.
After 9/11 a strengthen of borders happened and in 2002 US developed USA
Patriot Act developing biometric controls and intensifying controls, especially for
Arabs.
There’s several points of view in American society about immigrants, legal or
illegal, while elites accepts high levels of immigration, majorities are in favor of
restraining the entrance to the country.
- The reason for American women’s and minority historyW
Discrimination has given them a special status in American society. An
American male society in the US has forced women, Native Americans, African
Americans, Latinos, other sexual categories… into inferior categories. The
social consideration of these groups has changed over the country history,
molding it through their struggles for equality and their resistance against
discrimination. The inequality has led to group differences in several aspects
(attitudes, class, occupation, health, housing, and crime).
There has been a constant debate over the proper means of creating a more
just society. Most Americans have supported equality of opportunity but not
equality of results. Affirmative action programs and election districts that
arranged for preferential treatment for women and minorities, have faced
increasingly strong opposition and been discontinued.
- Women in AmericaW
Numerically a majority, women today experience unequal treatment in
significant ways. They are assigned prescribed roles and do not as often work
in the most prestigious occupations, earn as much money as men or enjoy their

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social status. Popular attitudes continue to keep women in traditional places.

Nevertheless, great changes in history have taken place in the 20th c.
Historically, women’s legal situation in America was determined by English
common law (women belonged to their father, until they marry and the owner
started to be the husband, until 1850s), having no rights on properties, wages
or signing contracts.
On the W frontier women’s skills were as essential as men’s because their
scarcity, and in the E were mostly widows and single women occupying men’s
role.
Women were the first workers in Industry, getting a much lower wage, and
being the first groups going on strike, associating on the first unions.
An important woman fighting for women’s rights was Susan B. Anthony,
working on the improvement of women’s status in marriage, divorce and
economic cases under N. York state law.
Feminists joined in a successful campaign for the abolition of slavery, but the
group split in two when they only achieved it for African American men.
The latter group won their first real victory getting their rights to vote in
Wyoming Territory in 1869. Only 3 states did the same between 1870-1910.
Other states limited to municipal or school issues.
The final 19th Amendment for women’s right to vote was achieved in 1920 by
strong women unions.
The turning point in women’s employment came after II WW, and many more
joined them in the following decades.
Nowadays the situation is very different; employment ads cannot ask applicants
of only one sex, there are federal laws against sexual harassment. The
women’s are much more protected now than in precedent years, although
there’s a lot of work to do in order to achieve complete equality.
- Native, Africans & Asian AmericansW
- Natives:
Natives became a small minority as a result of a long history of successful
invasion by the Europeans. Native Americans outnumbered the invaders al the
point of contact, but their opponents possessed much better technology.
Epidemics caused by a lack of immunity to European diseases, descending the
number of Natives while the Europeans became enormous. British (the biggest
settler group) established away from the Natives, no large group of “mestizos”
appeared.
The relationships between these groups were disastrous (distrust, resentment,
wars…). At first appeared a short period of relative peace; exchanging
technology, furs and land between them, but conflicts happened because of
trade disagreements. This plus colonists expansion, escalated to a full-scale
war. Natives tried to repel them but failed, being exterminated, drove inland or
deported as slaves. The English managed this with the help of other tribes.
Some colonial authorities tried to protect the tribes and their rights or tried to
Christianize or adopt Europeans ways of life, but also failed, Natives kept
fighting in the W while they were pushed westwards.
During the war between France and Britain in the 18th c., Natives had an
important role as allies of both bands.
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The Proclamation of 1763 made a line through the Appalachians, proclaiming

everything westwards as a Native nation, not allowing in there new settlers.
Through the treaty of 1783, Britain ceded to the US all the land between
Canada and Florida to the Mississippi River and thousands of settlers moved
there, while Natives blocked their way.
Several conflicts appeared through history, such as the war against Natives in
1812, the famous battle at Little Big Horn, in which Dakota warriors led by
Sitting Bull killed Lieutenant Colonel Custer and his men, or the massacre of
Wounded Knee.
During the Civil War several S tribes supported the South by supplying
Confederate armies with food.
From 1870 to 1930 the US tried to assimilate the Natives quickly, during these
years, Native Americans achieved the citizenship, and started to go to school.
Franklin D. Roosevelt tried to correct errors form the past in “Indian New Deal”,
building hospitals, jobs and schools for the Natives.
In the recent history, activism arose in the 60s and 70s; Native American law
firms won important victories in US courts.
In 1975 Congress confirmed the Indian Self-Determination Act, which gave
tribal councils most powers exercised by state government, becoming these
tribes more autonomous, developing gambling casinos, irrigation, mining firms.
Nowadays, even when Indians live in reservations, we could say that they’ve
improved their situation.
- African Americans:
This is the second biggest minority group, being mostly old-stock Americans
and some Caribbean and Africans.
When first Africans came to American South in 1619, they were no slaves, but
they were degraded by the end of the century to the status of property. For
black people slavery meant hard work, poor living conditions and humiliation.
Slave labor was very important on large tobacco and rice plantations of Virginia
and Maryland.
Dependence on slaves made tobacco and rice less profitable by 1800s. At the
same time moral indignation over slavery ended in the ban of importation of
slaves in 1808.
New technology made very profitable the crop of cotton, and slave population
grew a lot.
After the Civil war, slaves were freed, giving them the citizenship and right to
vote.
They kept working on crops because of their low education.
Southerners didn’t accepted black people as equals, and fought against
integration laws, violence broke out in many occasions like in 1957 when 9
black girls tried to attend to a white school.
In 1909 a group of black and white people founded the National Association for
the Advance of Colored People (NAACP) in order to fight for their rights.
The black population in the N grew rapidly and developed vibrant urban
communities around the I WW, living in ghettos such as Harlem in N. York.
In 1955, Rosa Parks a black woman from Alabama refused to give up her seat
in a bus to a white woman, and got fined and arrested, this led into a boycott
against public transport system. In this context appears the figure of Martin
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Luther King, one of the coordinators fighting for black people rights in a non-
violent way.
Some others tried to establish their rights in a much more violent way such as
Black Power, Black Panthers and Malcolm X, rejecting America’s lifestyle and
politics.
Both of them, Malcolm X and M. L. King got killed, but the message was heard.
Black people improved slowly their situation during the years.
- Asian Americans:
This term puts together a big collection of different groups, including Hmong
tribes who came as refugees from Vietnam War and descendants of the
Chinese that settled before the Civil War, and very different groups called
“Pacific Islanders” such as Hawaiians, Guamanians, Samoans among others.
Asian Americans is the largest and fastest group growing in the country
nowadays, after the sharp fall of Latino immigration.
The six largest Asian ancestry groups that conforms this immigration are
Chinese, Filipino, Asian Indian, Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese and some
other 20 nations.
The first large group of Chinese came in the second wave between 1840-82.
1/5 settled in Hawaii and the rest on West Coast, mostly in California. Japanese
did the same, even to the same places in 1880-1908 also with roughly equal
numbers. East Indians emigrated in 1900-1930. During the same period
Filipinos also migrated, and 3/5 first arrived to Hawaii.
In Hawaii were recruited as contract workers in sugar plantation because of
their hard-working mind. Landowners were dependent on these workers, so
they provided them food, housing and medical care. Discrimination on mainland
was much stronger, in II WW Japanese Americans were putted in concentration
camps, in Hawaii this didn’t happened. Anti-Asian campaigns in the Pacific
West were designed to segregate Asians from White people and prevent them
from competing economically and ending their migration, or making laws
banning interracial marriages with Asians. The only housing they could find was
often in Asian ghettos.
With the assistance of sympathetic people, Asian Americans fought these forms
of oppression.
In II WW the mind of the country changed, when the attitudes became positive
with the groups that were American Allies, even joining the Army or Intelligence
and getting skilled works banned for them.
After the II WW, Korea and Vietnam War, laws changed and permitted
immigration again.
Nowadays they are seen as the “model minority” because of their hard-working,
high median incomes and low rates of unemployment.
- LatinosW
Spanish language and cultural background is the inexact basis for describing
people from Caribbean, Central or South America. This comprises Natives
descendants, African slaves or descendants from European immigrants.
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The majority is Catholic and define themselves as White. Most are relatively
recent immigrants, but Mexicans have been coming in big numbers since 1900
and were assimilated when the US conquered Spanish territories.
Latinos is a big minority today, even bigger than African Americans. 2/3
identifies themselves as Mexicans and many live in SW states, Los Angeles or
Mid W cities.
Since 2007, Mexican immigration roughly fell, even some coming back to their
homelands.
The other Latino groups are small in comparison. Puerto Ricans, the second
biggest group live mostly in N. York and other urban areas. The two following
groups are Cubans and Dominicans, establishing in Florida or N. York City, and
there’s a lot more groups (Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, Colombian…).
Latinos have faced race prejudice and economic discrimination, housing,
education and politics.
They came in big numbers when the US banned the entrance of Asians, and
they needed unskilled workers for agriculture, mining, farms or foundries.
After the II WW the need of workers, made possible some bracero programs,
guarantying civil and working rights.
In the SW and N. York area, Latinos organized in “brown power” groups, in the
60s and 70s, enhancing Latino pride.
- UNIT 3. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONSW THE FEDERAL STATE AND

LOCAL GOVERNMENT
o Describe the American Constitutional Framework

o Write a brief description of the American legislative, executive and
judicial branches
o Explain the Structure of State and Local Government.
o Give your opinions on American political parties.
- Historical OriginsW
The English authorities allowed the American colonists to evolve political
institutions (governors, assemblies and courts) with little outside interference.
This inspired later independence movement, formed on these institutions, and
served as a model for federal government erected through the Constitution of
1787.
At first American opposed of a central government, identified with the British
oppression; the Articles of Confederation (1781-88) formed a loose league of
independent states under a weak central government with no executive,
judicial, financial, diplomatic and military powers. The merchant classes
supported the nation for avoiding chaos. These federalists accepted the
adoption of the new constitution in Philadelphia in 1787, but also there were
anti-federalists that saw the future of the country in agriculture.
The constitution only got ratified when the agreement was reached in 10
amendments satisfying these objections (Bill of Rights).
This constitution returned to the colonial tradition of a government with three
branches (legislative, executive and judicial).
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This loose confederacy became a federation whose national government had

powers that remedied the weaknesses of the Articles. Federal law became
supreme, but the states were sovereign in their territory.
Three compromises ensured the approval:
o Representation in Congress by the House of Representatives with a
proportional number of seats, in the Senate two seats, regardless the
population.
o The number of slaves were much higher in S states than N, so they
needed an special rule for counting the population (an important number
because it affected to the representation), 3/5 of the population would
count for representation in the House. This gave special power to
Southern states in the early years.
o The permission of Congress to tax imports but not exports, in order to
protect S agriculture and N importing goods.
- The constitutional frameworkW
4/5 of the Constitution remains unchanged, and only 17 amendments have
been added after the Bill of Rights, the changes have been significant but few.
They have come through amendments and judicial review. The enduring
principles in the Constitution are republicanism, federalism, separation of
powers and a system of checks and balances.
A republican form of government
Republicanism is the belief in a government without any classes of people
privileged by birth or occupational class. The constitution of 1787 specifically
prohibits inherited titles and an established religion in the US and a republican
form of govern for every state.
Federalism
The Constitution was made under the concepts of “reserved” and “delegated”
powers in the 10th amendment.
American government is shared between a national government and the states.
The powers of both are limited by the rights reserved for the people in the
Preamble of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.
The US has a hierarchy of law. The federal Constitution is the country’s
supreme law, Acts of law signed by the prez. or the states and local laws
conform federal statutes and the state constitution.
The Supreme Court “interprets” the Constitution through judicial reviews
The separation of powers
This is the third basic principle, separation between legislative (Congress and
support agencies), executive (president and executive bureaucracy) and judicial
(US supreme and state courts). No person serves to more than one branch at
the same time
Checks and balances
The branches must share power through a system of checks and balances.
Constitutional change
Amendments can be proposed by 2/3 majorities in Congress or by
constitutional convention called by 2/3 of the states. These Amendments lead to
important changes such the abolition of slavery after the Civil War.
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- The political partiesW

The founding fathers viewed political parties as factions, designing a system
was meant that no one of them could gain significant power. Parties emerged
quickly and the Constitution was one cause of their appearance.
The separated and staggered elections required created many fragmented
electoral interests and ensured many and frequent elections, and parties
appeared here, people making groups defending their interests.
The founders set up a system encouraging two parties, rather than no parties.
Only one person is elected from each electoral district and that person needs
a plurality (or coalitions).
Since 1856 there have been 2 major national parties: the Democrats and
Republicans, representing different political orientations, Republicans are more
conservative than Democrats. These parties could be distinguished by their
strength in different regions of the nation, but these have changed during the
years.
Democratic Party tends to represent a moderate –to-liberal political orientation.
The ideological center of the Republican Party supports a small federal
government, state rights, minimal regulation of business, low taxes and private
solutions to poverty and social problems.
Democrats are more in favor of government management of the economy, a
public social safety net and unions. Democrats had, on average, lower incomes,
less education and less prestigious occupations. They were also more often
female, Jewish, urban members of racial minority groups.
There also exists “third parties” like Tea party, some kind of Republican split
group.
- The legislative, executive and judicial branchesW
- Legislative branch:
Congress is a very powerful institution, but it’s no longer the dominant branch of
the federal government, as the founders intended. Its main functions are law-
making forming structures and programs to implement policy, overseeing the
resulting bureaucracy, raising and allocating government funds and advising the
president on foreign affairs and appointments. It is organized in two chambers,
the House of Representatives and the Senate.
They organize dividing the members of parties in two rows and try to achieve
between 2/3 or 2/5 of the votes to promote their laws.
Congress is divided in committees in order to make an easier way of law-
making. Bills should become and Act of the Congress, and can be introduced
in one chamber first or both simultaneously, if it’s ratified, it’s send to the
president to sign it, who has the power to veto it.
- Executive branch:
This is the largest branch of the federal government; it comprises independent
agencies, many departments, four military branches, and numerable
government corporations.
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The federal bureaucrats are hired through competitive examinations required by

the Civil Service Act, rather than presidential appointment; the president
nominates the highest officials and should be approved by the Senate.
The main components of the Executive Office of the President operate outside
the White House and it’s formed by many Councils, such as National Security
Council and the CIA.
White House are the first lady’s staff and president’s own staff, including
personal advisers, press secretary and more.
The president must be a natural-born citizen, at least 35 y.o. and have been
resident of the US at least 14 years. Presidential duties are stated in the
Constitution, delegated by Congress or are the result of circumstances. The
most important extra-constitutional duties are acting as a chief of state and
party leader. As chief administrator, the president is required to see that the
laws written by Congress are carried out. As Chief law-maker he is in charge of
inform Congress about the “state of nation”, suggest measures… The president
has power to veto a law and to make appointment in the Congress in any
moment.
The president is also the commander-in-chief, being the highest officer in the
armed services, but gives the Congress the power to declare war.
- Judicial branch:
The only court specifically mentioned in the Constitution is the US Supreme
Court. However, Congress has established lesser federal courts in a three-tier
system, as well as courts for tax, customs, patent and military law.
Most of the US Supreme Court’s work consists of hearing cases from US courts
appeals or state supreme courts.
Supreme Court has an unspecified number of justices with terms of office
dependent only on their “good behavior”, as it’s written in the Constitution. The
number varied from 5 to 10, always having a chief justice, all of them chosen by
the President.
Today, this court has the power of judicial review, congressional, presidential
and states’ acts are in accordance with the Constitution and to declare them
void if not.
- Attitudes to branches of the federal governmentW
The Supreme Court’s decisions relieve the other branches of taking positions
on politically sensitive questions. Opinions in the past 30 years showed that
American public trusted only the military, organized religion, the police and
banks more than in the court. In those years people had more confidence in the
court than the president, and two or three times more confidence in it than in
Congress.
In the case of the Supreme Court, justices are not elected; they are responsible
to and receive support from popular opinion.
Public attitudes to the president are less stable than those regarding the
Supreme Court, because people usually blame or credit the nation through the
visible face of the country. However, the public always unites behind the
president in times of military crisis.
The public has little confidence in Congress, some people note the irony that
the branch the founders of the US government intended to be the most
democratic is the least popular.
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- The Place of State Government in American FederalismW

Article IV of the Constitution recognizes the limited sovereignty of the states by
denying the federal authorities the power of altering boundaries without
permission.
The federal capital only exists because Virginia and Maryland gave some of
their territories to create the District of Columbia.
Constitutional procedures for the admission of new states on equal footing with
the original 13, guarantees them a form of republic government and the
category of main blocks of the American system.
Amendments of the Constitution can only be approved with the agreement of ¾
of the states.
The Constitution provides limits to national powers; they can’t coin money,
conduct their own foreign policy, keep their own military services, make war or
set customs duties.
These powers are recognized as delegate powers, given to the national
government to prevent conflicts among states. In addition, central government
has to defend them from internal rebellions and foreign invasions.
A considerable list of powers remained “reserved” for local powers; providing
police, fire and sanitation departments, also education and levying some taxes.
States has its own codes of civil and criminal law, maintenance of public
transportation, licenses of activities and incorporation of business.
Law-making has an especial consideration because is not designated in any
concrete level in the Constitution.
- The evolution of state government and federalism in the USW
The foundation for the expansion of federal powers was laid between 1803-
1865, when the Supreme Court established its power of judicial review and
interpreting the government constitutional powers.
Both powers exercised in a small way in the 19th c. until the 30s, when federal
government had only one way for promoting economy was expanding frontiers.
Its armies fought the Natives and forced them to go W. This gave new states
federal land for schools and joined states and private entrepreneurs to build
channels and roads. From 1860s on, the Congress wrote legislation providing
free or cheap land on the frontier for settlers homesteading in the wilderness
and companies engaged in building transcontinental railroads.
Federal government tried to legislate in health, safety and order in 1800s, but
the Supreme Court ruled that these concerns were solely the concern of the
states. Only in the Great Depression, the central government gave some
services, such as the post service.
By the late 30s, national authorities interpreted this policy, and entered in
“cooperative federalism”. They abandoned expansion and Washington
expended three times on domestic needs while the states problems remained
the same.
Roosevelt’s New Deal programs grew rapidly during 40 years. In the 50s
existed a heavy federal involvement in secondary and higher education in order
to compete with the Soviet Union, the also gave funds to built a massive
interstate highway system.
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In the 70s a counterrreaction set in. States complaint about government over-
regulation. Conservatives in both parties called for a return to dual federalism,
and Nixon called it “new federalism”, cutting some central government powers.
During the past decade or so the federal government has left the solution of
growing number of problems to the states through and American form of
devolution. This decentralization of policymaking makes inequalities in states,
hurting poor states more.
George W. Bush changed this situation, and took care a little bit more of
national issues.
- The structure of state governmentW
The structure of state and federal governments are similar. Each of the states
has a written constitution, each so has powers among three branches that
share power through a system of checks and balances. Every state, except
Nebraska, has the same format as Congress, with two Houses, also working
through the same process as Congress.
Like the president, governors of the states enjoy powers of administration,
appointment and veto.
The judicial branch is also parallel to federal court system. In most states exist a
supreme court, county or municipal courts.
There are, however, many differences in the structure. State constitution are
several times longer than federal, they have to legislate much more things.
They also suffer much more Amendments, or a complete renewal of it. States
legislators are an important figure, but it’s not considered as that, it has a low
wage and a hard work always travelling to the Capital.
The biggest difference between the President and a governor of the state is that
governors have complete control over the state budget.
The governor’s power is weaker than the president one because four reasons;
many can’t make appointments as the president does, many states have the
tradition of electing several of a governor’s department heads, governors have
less control over suggestions for new laws, governors have lost power through
special district governments, authorities designed to deal with a specific
problem that crosses governmental boundaries (Special Districts).
The judiciary branch is different in two ways, many states and local judges are
elected from 4 to 15 years and the state Supreme Court doesn’t have the final
decision, the US Supreme Court is over it.
- Local governmentW
The 50 states are divided into some 83000 units of local government. In
addition to special district, there are counties, towns, cities, boroughs and
school districts. The states create these kinds of local government and
determine their powers. Any of these has no sovereignty and they’re not
mentioned in the Constitution, they are meant to be tool to help.
Some are mentioned in the states’ constitution while others are created through
acts of states, varying a lot between states.
Most states are divided into counties (Louisiana “parish”, Alaska “borough”) and
they are also very different among them in population, size and function.
Counties rarely have law-making powers, even when they are the main units of
government in rural areas. They serve as administrative units that apply state-
wide policies.
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The states delegates some powers in local governments, into local facilities and
small services, such as transportation systems, schools, fire and police
protection, water and sanitation, also collect taxes.
County governments usually have from 3 to 12 people, a county court and the
chief officers of the departments. Board members or commissioners are elected
in larger counties. Their powers usually are administrating land and taxes.
The concept of city, village, town… varies among the states, so the
administration is different. This confusion of terms makes difficult to elaborate a
census.
The structure of municipal governments varies widely. In most a mayor is the
chief executive, and decides the policies with a city council. The council writes
local laws, called “ordinances”.
The mayor also prepares an annual budget proposal based on the officials’
requests for money with the available resources, and submits it for approval.
- UNIT 4. FOREIGN POLICY
o Describe the main aspects of American Foreign Policy

o Read straightforward cultural and historical documents with a
satisfactory level of comprehension
o Give your personal ideas and opinions related to certain American
cultural and historical events.
- A nation apart? American Attitudes to World AffairsW

US foreign policy has been a mixture of self-interest and an attempt to act
according to commonly held ideals. At its first age, America was a weak nation,
Europe was the centre of the world, but that changed after 1945, today is the
world’s only superpower, relying on “hard power” policies (especially after 9/11)
supported through economic sanctions and military threat or force.
There’s a mixed belief in foreign policies because European colonists and
immigrants had different points of view related with the beliefs in their different
homelands (some felt attached to their original countries, others escaped from
them).
Consequently, immigration has produced both isolationism and internationalism
in US foreign policy.
Longer-settled Americans have periodically doubted the loyalty of recent
immigrants.
Before the founding of the West coast settlements, European explorers
established the idea of an America would evolve a new and better phase of
civilization, uncorrupted by the past, would offer opportunities to start over.
America’s foreign affairs are based on the idea of “the American creed”, the US
version of a republican form of government, economic and political freedom and
democracy.
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In reality, the basis concerns that affected foreign policies are economic
success home and abroad, access to natural resources, support for its
ideological views.
Another important factor is the nation’s geographical position, creating in the
past 300 years and isolated space between the two major oceans, encouraging
immigrants to leave what they disliked. This isolationism led to a fear of other
nations’ attacks, and US always tried to defend them.
- From Neutrality to Isolationism, 1776-1830W
This is the first period of foreign affairs in the US. These policies tried to
resemble as Europeans, because of the condition of new nation.
The US tried to avoid alliances with great powers, keeping itself as a neutral
nation in foreign affairs acting unilaterally.
Fear of becoming a British or French pawn is the biggest concern of this age.
Around 1800, US was political and economic midget.
It was a region divided in a British North, a French West and a Spanish
Southeast and Southwest.
The US tried to stay away from the conflicts between these nations. These
conflicts had its repercussion on the US territory, that’s why the nation stayed
aloof from the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, even when they were
French allies.
George Washington as the first President established the Farewell Address
(1796). Its main principle consisted of avoiding political and military alliances
while cultivating trading relations with other countries.
The US overruled these principles and entered as French allies in the
Napoleonic Wars, having disastrous consequences, British forces burned
Washington DC, the US didn’t won any battle and the cost was enormous.
After this disaster, the Address became a pillar of these policies after II WW.
The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) were more evidence of the fear of becoming
a pawn; these laws were directed to people who tried to destroy the nation from
inside allowing president to deporting any foreigner who seemed as a danger to
national security.
This was the base for the Monroe Doctrine. Between 1800-20 Spanish colonies
were progressively achieving their independence. The US wanted to recognize
these nations, but feared a conflict with Spain and the possibility that Britain or
France could intervene to help. They designed the Monroe Doctrine.
The Monroe Doctrine can be reduced into 3 basic principles:
o The US opposing any new colonies in the Americas (non-colonization)
o Demanding European powers to remain uninvolved in New World’s
affairs (non-intervention)
o The acceptance of the presence of European colonies and keeping
aloof from Europeans affairs (non-interference)
The US couldn’t apply the Doctrine until 1900, when they had a powerful navy,
the British made this task as America’s ally. The Monroe Doctrine transformed
American neutrality into isolationism. The Americas were declared the US’s
exclusive sphere of interest; Europe had no place in there. The doctrine
expressed the mixture of ideological domination that was to become typical in
US relations with Latin America.
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- From Expansionism to Imperialism 1783-1914W

During this period, the US was preoccupied in internal affairs, the frontier
moving westwards, the struggle with slavery, and the effort of constructing an
efficient transportation system.
Early in the 19th c., the US tripled their territory by purchasing and developing
treaties. Agreement with the British added the land between the Appalachians
and Mississippi River, north of Maine, and parts of Minnesota and the Dakotas.
America bought Florida to Spain and France sold from Mississippi to Rocky
Mountains and Louisiana.
This was seen by the Americans as a legal and unaggressive way of getting
territory. Some territories were given by the Europeans to the Natives, and the
US recovered them by fighting.
The growth of the country made the Americans feeling proud of their country.
This expansionism led to think that they were superior to “red and brown”
people, and should be confined, conquered or at least dominated.
By the 1840s expansion to the Pacific was seen as something inevitable
determined by destiny, “Oregon fever” sent thousands of settlers.
Britain gave up their territories in the NW in order to avoid armed conflicts.
Americans were more aggressive in Mexico, the tried to annex Texas to the US.
Texas border was disputed in 1846 after Mexico refused to sell the territory.
This acquisition of territory was strongly opposed, especially in New England.
After war the US achieved to annex California and most of the S mountain
states.
After Civil War (1861-65) expansionism had a lot of support, the US became
territorially and economically imperialist around the turn of century, using “hard
power” to control overseas people.
In 1898 US declared war on Spain as an Imperialist country fight for Cuban
liberation, the US acquired control over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and
Philippines, were the Filipinos fiercely fought against American domination.
American trade extended rapidly, especially in Asia and Latin America.
Some anti-imperialist critics aroused.
- Isolationism and Internationalism, 1914-45W
President Woodrow Wilson tried to keep a neutral position facing I WW, but that
was impossible because 3 main reasons, he felt sympathy for the Allies
(Britain), and also the population felt it. At last, US economy depended on
trading with the warring nations.
Wilson and citizenship needed to believe they were entering the war for high
moral reasons rather than the country’s economic interests.
He made its famous Fourteen Points (as a justification for entering in the war),
in which appealed to the tradition of the American mission to create a new world
order. They points can be resumed in three major categories, self-determination
(redrawn boundaries, independence of countries), governing international
conduct after war and some principles, such as free trade, freedom of the seas,
global disarmament and the outlawing of secret alliances.
He also proposed a League of Nations in order to put self-determination and
other principles into effect and defend them.
American troops remained separated from the Allied armies and fought under
American commanders; they were allies but because of a case of emergency.
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American participation in the war was decisive but very limited, significant
American troops fought in Europe only during the last 8 months. This and the
low number of casualties in comparison with other nations, made the Americans
feel into a morally arrogant position. Allies refused every Fourteen Points
except the League, but when President came back from Paris, American
senators refused these Points because they were afraid of a limitation of US
powers by binding the country to other Nations. The League was formed but
without the US.
During the rest of the 20s, US foreign policy was centered on eliminating
obstacles to American trade. The Europeans countries tried to cancel the debts
with the US and failed; in the 30s US borders were closed to most European
goods. In these years the country suffered disarmament.
In the 30s, this limited internationalism was replaced by isolationism. While
Europe was rearming again, US refuse to enter in conflict.
Pearl Harbor Japanese attacks changed this situation; it united citizenship in
the need of a war. In a few days, the Congress declared war to the Axis and
united to the Allies. Roosevelt called the Allies the “United Nations”. He mixed
the troops with French and British troops. Roosevelt proposed the creation of
the UN and his own vision of new world order, the Four Freedoms contained
essentially in the Bill of Rights (F of religion, speech and expression). At the
Yalta Conference in 1945, Stalin and Churchill supported the UN.
- The Cold War era, 1946-92W
The Soviet forces took communism to E Europe in the weeks after the Yalta
Conference; Roosevelt discovered their differences with Stalin. Before he could
establish a policy to deal with the new situation, Roosevelt died of a heart
attack. In August 1945, Truman bombed Japan with atomic bombs. He justified
the mass slaughter of civilians by saying the attack would save many more
lives.
The chain of events dividing the globe into two blocks was under way. A year
later, Churchill said an “iron curtain” existed between Europe and America vs.
W Europe.
Americans though that communists were trying to establish communism in the
whole world. In 1947 Pres. Truman announced the Truman Doctrine; giving
fund in order to fight communist threat in Turkey and Greece, as a prevention
communist expansion anywhere in the world.
This Containment became the cornerstone of American foreign policy
throughout the Cold War. Containment protected and expanded US interests
abroad.
The US kept the military forces near wartime levels, extended mandatory
military service and kept building up the Army, especially when the Soviets
rejected inspections of nuclear weapons.
Act of 1947 reorganized the federal government to meet Cold War threats by
centralizing control in a new Department of Defense (The Pentagon) and
creating the National Security Council (NSC) and the CIA.
By the 50s the US had quadrupled their budget of defense, meanwhile
Secretary of State Marshall became convince that the US ought to fund
economic revival of Europe (Marshall Plan) in order to contain communism
avoiding recession in America and providing markets.
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The US left its policy of non-permanent allying and founded the Organization of
American States (1948) and the NATO (1949).
When the Soviet troops crushed Hungarian revolt in 1956, Hungarian
Americans protested fiercely. US couldn’t do anything because Truman
Doctrine didn’t affected Warsaw Pact countries; the same happened in 1968 in
Czechoslovakia.
In the US, Senator McCarthy’s was prosecuting people suspect of being
communists, Hollywood starts, and famous people in general.
The tension spread rapidly in conflicts such as the Bay of Pigs or the Cuban
Missile Crisis.
But during the years and weakening of Communism, several treaties appeared,
such as the Nuclear Test Ban, the non-intervention in Arab-Israeli War, and
condemn of Irak’s invasion of Kuwait in the Gulf War.
In Asia, The US tried to contain communism in Korea, Vietnam and Laos.
The Vietnam War is the first US war lost since 1812 and produced massive
home protests and widespread anti-American demonstration abroad. In China,
pres. Nixon opened talks with the leaders, taking advantage of a split between
China and Soviet Union.
Also happened the same in Latin America, with cover operations in Nicaragua
with Sandinistas and Contra.
In Iran, a scandal was discovered made by Oliver North and Nixon among
others, who secretly sold weapons to Iran’s Contra.
Reagan pursued peaceful coexistence.
In November 1989, the Berlin Wall was torn down by the crowd and Germany
reunited. At last, in 1992 the Soviet Union split into a loose federation of
republics, and in the following years, countries of Warsaw Pact achieved their
independency.
- The sole superpower in the Post-Cold War EraW
Since the Communism fall, the nuclear tension lowered. This caused optimistic
thoughts about a better future across Europe, Central Asia and US.
European leaders moved quickly to include ten of the recently independent
countries by 2004 and two more in 2007.
Many former Eastern Bloc exhibited strong support for US foreign policies, and
most wanted to get in the NATO.
In one hand, NATO took responsibility against Bin Laden’s terrorists and
Afghan Taliban. On the other, Georgia’s wish to join the organization led to
strong opposition of Russia.
In the first decade of 21th c. US relations with Europe were sometimes tense.
Europe was divided in two; some countries agreeing with Irak’s war, others
don’t.
Some of US traditional allies criticized Bush administration; its tendency of
acting unilaterally or covertly, its insistence in Irak’s War, the war crimes and
Guantanamo illegal imprisonment in the War of Terror.
Military conflicts and political unrest continued within Russian federation and
new neighbor nations. The US wanted to help these nations just as the Marshall
plan did, but US presidents were scared of provoking Russia.
The real end of the US- Russia rivalry appeared with the agreement during Gulf
War of 1991 that drove Saddam Hussein’s invaders out of Kuwait.
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By the end of this War, the world considered the US as the sole superpower,
while Russia emerged from an economy based in gas and petrol. The tension
between those two countries kept uneasy.
It’s not clear if Obama succeeded in forming a stronger union between Russia
and USA, although superficially at least relations seemed more amiable.
US made alliances and several treaties in order to get a better position, this
situation it’s called “new interventionism”.
The results of this “interventionism” were mixed. While American participation
seemed effective in the “Balkan conflict”, missions in Somalia ended with tragic
endings for the US soldiers and their withdrawal.
But US kept always intervening in conflicts such as genocide in Rwanda or
Sudan, and a global war against terrorism after 9/11.
- The Foreign Policy Establishment DebateW
The government structures of the US are yet another factor that makes
American foreign affairs distinctive. Checks and balances system requires
legislative and executive (and many other departments) powers to take
responsibility for the country’s relations.
During the country’s history, the balance between those two branches shifted;
Congress was the dominant one in the 19th c. except during the civil war.
The shift toward executive power occurred in the first decade of 20 th c. The
president grew increasingly dominant until failures in policies of Vietnam War.
Nowadays, the executive power is dominant because of Reagan initiatives and
9/11 crisis.
The president has several powers that make him the single most important
figure in US foreign policy today. He’s the commander-in-chief, but with few
exceptions, he is a civilian with no military experience, depends on the advice of
the armed forces and other experts.
Only Congress can declare war, since II WW, has been reluctant to do so.
So the main duty of the president, US military forces or other personnel in this
field is to respond to attacks on American citizenship interests, and soon after
informs the Congress for a resolution.
As chief executive, one of the main duties of the president is to carry out foreign
policy, but with the approval of both Houses in Congress for accomplishing the
initiatives.
The chief executive has one of the most important duties; the president
designates ambassador and important foreign charges, but all such
appointments must be approved by a majority in the Senate.
Congress delegated some powers in EOP (Executive Office of the President) in
1939; the members of this office don’t depend on Congress approval.
The president alone can negotiate treaties with other governments, but all of
them must be ratified in the Senate by extraordinary majority (2/3).
Congress and departments with competence in these affairs have its own
committees and subcommittees involved in foreign policy.
- UNIT 5. THE ECONOMY AND SOCIAL SERVICES
o Write a description of American Economic Liberalism
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o Give some explanations on American Public Social Services

o Develop and argument well enough to be followed without difficulty most
of the time
o Exchange arguments on the American Health Care System Debate
- Economic HistoryW
US economic expansion form the 19th c. can be explained by the country size,
natural resources, commercial structures, population growth, the people’s
characteristics and the ideological basis.
Before colonization, Native Americans had varied economies, on food-
gathering, fishing and hunting to settled agricultural communities. A similar
economy was at first adopted by colonial Americans, who developed more
sophisticated agricultural systems based on small farms.
British settlers in the 17th c. were usually employed for working in the trading
charters of the Crown, such as Virginia Company, (Jamestown, 1607). The
colonies produced raw material for Britain’s mainland. This relationship
collapsed when Britain tried to impose taxes and restrictions.
After the War of Independence (1775-1783), US developed its markets,
especially in agriculture.
People’s qualities (linked to religion) such as encouraged pragmatism, hard
working and individual initiative were developed (plus the pioneer spirit). We
can find some traces of this in nowadays Americans.
The US in 1800 was still an agricultural society and largely based in self-
sufficiency.
The 19th combined significant agricultural (selected crops or animals) advances
with expanding industrial and manufacturing bases. This plus a better
transportation and government protectionism, developed the country, and
exported their goods. Economic progress in this century was affected by Civil
War (1861-65). The Northern victory led to an emphasis on industrialization.
Between the Civil War and I WW (1914-18), the US rapidly industrialized and
became a more urban and suburban country. Expansion was based in natural
resources, iron production and steam and electrical power, and later helped
with technical advances such as combustion engine, telegraph and telephone,
radio, typewriters… Exporting became more important than raw materials.
The markets developed a lot (competition policies, efficient management,
advanced technology…)
Larger corporations were developed, leading to giant trusts and monopolies
with owner such as Rockefeller and Carnegie.
Anti-trust feeling begin to appear and the government tried to regulate this
situation during the years. However, large corporations still had power in the
20’s and low taxes, too much money circulating and national enterprises
overprotection led to 1929 crisis, beginning the Great Depression. President
Roosevelt tried to fix this situation with his New Deal and many new
departments. After a long struggle the country grew and competed successfully
with European countries, and collaborated with them.
In the Breton Woods Conference, the US helped to develop several economic
policies, IMF and a bank that nowadays is part of the World Bank.
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The US economy grew after the II WW (1939-45) and in the 50s and large
corporations appeared (Exxon, Wal-Mart, GM, Ford, HP, AT&T) that continue
nowadays.
The US economical history suffered inflation and deflation periods. Nowadays,
US is facing recession, international competition, political uncertainly and strong
competition of emergent economies.
- American Economic LiberalismW Theory and practiceW
The founders of the US stressed economic freedom. They were influenced by
philosophers such as Adam Smith and argued that consumers and producers
should pursue their own self-interest and profit-making in a free enterprise
economy. The market decides what to produce and the prices based on supply
and demand.
Greater competition would benefit the society, the economy would produce
what is needed and consumers could buy products with a competitive price.
Many areas of the economy such as industry, business, airlines, telephone
systems, energy supplies and railways are therefore in private rather than in
public ownership and US governments have historically been confined to a
regulatory role in the economy.
Since the 30s they have employed anti-monopoly and deregulation measures to
promote competition.
They divided many enterprises (airlines, railroads, telephone, postal
services…).
But an attempt by the Justice Department to split Microsoft in two parts because
of alleged monopolistic behavior was dismissed in 2001 in the US Court of
Appeals.
Governments (particularly democratic) and official bodies now intervene more
actively in business, making fiscal policies, controlling subsidies and prices and
purchasing goods in the defense and aerospace industry.
Regulation also includes safety standards for manufactured products; labor
welfare and equal-employment reform, environmental protection, training
schemes…
However, there’s some room for some things such as the establishment of
minimum wage, depending on the states’ government.
Economic restrictions are fiercely debated. Conservatives and corporations
argue that there is too much regulation, bureaucracy and taxation. Liberals
generally support an interventionist role in economic matters.
Americans have distrust on “big government”, but they also dislike the nature of
some “big business”.
The US also has a big public sector involving many features (state and federal
government, police, fire protection, public education, public health, railroads,
public spaces and social security). It is not a an absolute “free market” and
Americans support public sector in someway.
- Social Class and economic inequalityW
There are social and economic differences between Americans. These
differences formed a class model divided into working, middle and upper based
on jobs, income, capital and birth. 19th c. industrialization increased the gap
between entrepreneurs and workers. It was argued that class divisions were a
natural result of the freedom of competition. In this century, workers were
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placed either in skilled and unskilled sectors. It was felt that these groups were
different from the European notion of “working class”, and were seen as “lower
middle class”. However, Americans still saw themselves as “workers”.
The development of society reduced manufacturing base and raised living
standards, declining unskilled profession and accepting more skilled jobs.
Class distinction became less rigid in a big middle class, but a minority
developed outside these groups, described as an unemployable and alienated
dependant under-class.
Nowadays, Americans had reevaluated their positions in the traditional class
system. The US is a very wealthy country and provides most of its people the
highest standards of living, despite minorities have much lower incomes. The
gap between rich and poor people is considerable. This because of the actual
raise of relative poverty, low wages for female workers, low incomes for
minorities or ethnic groups….
- The contemporary economyW
Most of the US government’s income comes from taxes paid by individuals and
social security contributors paid by firms and workers.
Americans pay federal income tax and also property tax, sales tax and state
income tax, in addition to medical and dental costs.
Tax increases and cuts can affect in elections or reducing significantly public
services.
People with higher incomes pay proportionally more taxes, and the money they
pay is depending on taxes fluctuation and home expenses (mortgage, medical
expenses).
Government’s deficit and surplus fluctuated through the history.
The US is the world’s biggest economy power in terms of its Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). This comprises the goods, services, capital and income that the
country produces. GDP is mainly derived for service industries, followed by
industry and manufacturing and at last by forestry, agriculture and fishing.
The GPD shows that the US has a diversified economy. Its wealth reflects large
natural resources, agricultural output, industrial production and service-sector
income.
The US produces 25% of the world’s agricultural products and manufactured
goods. Traditional manufacturing industries (automobiles) have had setbacks
and agriculture is under threat, but service sectors have expanded.
The US is the world’s biggest importer and exporter; US economy is crucial in
global trade. Imports are traditionally things such as automobiles, petrol, food
and drink, machinery, iron and steel and consumer goods. This sector suffered
because of strong and cheaper foreign competition.
Globalization made the US less isolated and less self-protectionist, the country
has to interact with other countries to maintain its economy.
America’s main exports parents were Canada, Mexico, China and Japan, while
US imports from China, Canada, Mexico, Japan, and Germany.
There are several trading treaties keeping America’s interests such as North
America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
US economy grew and shrank through the history, with periods of big wealth
such as the period after the II WW and during Clinton’s administration, and
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periods of relative poorness such as big depression in the 30’s and actual
recession.
- Industry and manufacturingW
Historically, manufacturing and industrial production has been a crucial factor in
the US economy. Today, the sector is a leading global power, technologically
advanced, very diversified and had 19.2% of GDP. Important areas are the
manufacture of heavy transport and automotive equipment, non-electrical
goods, electrical machinery, food products, chemicals, steel, mining, timber, oil,
communications, electronics and high technology hardware.
The traditional industrial and manufacturing heartland of the US is the Midwest
region of the Great Lakes, S. Michigan, N. Ohio, and Pennsylvania around
Pittsburgh. Growth and production here has fluctuated, abandoning some areas
or switching into high-tech industry, while other areas grew in NE, SE, Texas
and California.
The industrial and manufacturing base is represented by corporations such as
GM (Detroit), Ford (Michigan) in vehicles, Exxon (N. York) in oil refining, IBM
(N.York), General Electric (Connecticut) and Boeing (Seattle) in aerospace and
defense.
However, automotive industry had serious problems in 2008 when big
companies faced bankruptcy and required a government bailout (rescue).
Industry and manufacturing production growth rates fluctuated but the US is still
the second biggest producer of industrial goods, even when recession lowered
the number of unskilled workers and industrial plants.
- Service IndustriesW
Service industries have grown faster than other sectors since the %0’s and now
are the leading sector, with an 80% of the GDP despite recession. This process
is seen as some kind of “post-industrial” society because of the shrink of
manufacturing sector.
The service industries vary in size from small firms to large corporations. They
have developed nationwide, but especially in the NW. It comprises government
services, business and health, banking, data processing, hotels, restaurants,
leisure activities, trading, personal services and communication.
Although more people are now employed in the service sector, many of them
are in unskilled or semiskilled and part-time positions.
It is argued that the service sector is financed by and dependent upon the
consumer wealth and profits are generated by agriculture and manufacturing
advances.
The open question is if the sector can sustain itself and grow while other
sectors decline. However, many service companies are forecast to be the fast-
growing and most managed to survive to 2008 recession.
- Agriculture, forestry and fisheriesW
These three fields have a large productivity and mean a small 1.2% of the GDP.
Agriculture:
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Almost a 50% of the US land area is farmland and is devoted to crops and
livestock. Midwest is an important agricultural region in the country, with corn
and wheat as main crops plus large-scale livestock and dairy farming.
The S. traditionally provides crops such as tobacco, corn and cotton. The
economy now has diversified and grown, Texas and Florida are the US’s
biggest providers of cattle, sheep, cotton and rice. The W is important for cattle
and wheat, fruit and vineyards are harvested in Pacific states and livestock
herds in the SW and Rocky Mountains states.
The US is one of the world’s largest food producer and exporter (corn, wheat,
soybeans and cotton) and it’s largely self-sufficient although there are some
imports.
Small subsistence farms are substituted by large farms (agribusiness) and labor
is now more specialized and mechanized, making a high productivity resulted in
occasional surpluses and prices reduced.
The agricultural market has reduced since 1980. However, global tariffs and
protectionism still continue.
Forestry:
Forest covers a third part of US surface, mostly in W but also in N and S. About
and 80% are softwoods and a 20% are hardwoods. 2/3 produces wood items
and timber commercially.
70% of forests are private owned and a 20% are federal owned and state and
local government supervises the rest.
Fisheries:
The US ranked 4th in world’s fishing after China, Peru and Indonesia in terms of
fish catching. Fishing fleets operate from ports on the Atlantic, the Pacific, the
Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. Alaska is the leading state followed by
Louisiana (shellfish) as do Texas and California. Massachusetts and Maine are
major players in fisheries industry.
- Social services HistoryW
Until 1930s there were no widespread public services for the population; people
should be self-reliant in providing for their own social, health, employment and
housing needs.
Early pioneers were cooperative and provided collective support and protection,
as many Natives did. This reflects the tension between individualism and
collectivism existing in the US.
Industrialization and urbanization brought wealth to some groups and misery to
others. Social assistance was still largely private and individualistic, or
sometimes provided by voluntary charities (ethnic or religious groups) or in
small amount s by the state and local governments.
There was (and “is”) a distinction in “deserving” poor or “undeserving” poor
unwilling to work.
During the 19th c. and beginning of the 20th, there wasn’t a proper public service
because of citizenship reluctance.
The existing system couldn’t support the wave of unemployment and poverty
caused by the Great Depression in the 30s.
The situation improved with Roosevelt’s New Deal in the mid-30s when the
president tried to rectify faults in economy and social protection. Many
contemporary policies stem from this. Regulatory agencies were created. Social
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Security legislation in 1935 established pension and benefits for workers,

depending on the contributions made by them during their working period. The
Wagner Act protected labor rights, the Fair Labor Standards Act introduced a
minimum wage and restricted working hours. Administration provided jobs in
public sector programs for the unemployed.
However these programs were not comprehensive and were directed towards
who people who were willing to work.
After the 30s, reformers argued for increased social services. Federal and state
governments became more involved in planning social policies, and programs
expanded after II WW.
From the 60s to the 80s more federal and state money was spent on public
social services (Medicare, Medicaid). New departments were created such as
the US Department of Housing and Urban Development, Department of
Transportation and Corporation for Public Broadcasting. These policies didn’t
create the American Welfare state, they were intended as opportunities for
people who were prepared to work and better themselves.
Reagan and Bush Sr. administrations tried to reduce the cost of public
programs; he wanted to make more responsible Americans than self-dependant
from state.
In 1993, Clinton tried to establish universal healthcare financed by individual
and corporate contributions, but this had a strong opposition.
Bush Jr. tried to privatize some sectors and Obama extended health insurance
coverage to 5 M. uninsured Americans.
- The organization of contemporary social servicesW

Americans rely for their social protection on contributory and non-contributory
federal and state programs (public); insurance-based services paid for by
individuals or workplace groups (private); and help given by publicly-supported
voluntary bodies to the needy.
These sectors overlap and people may receive help from several of them at
various times as they privately insure themselves by paying for healthcare and
pension plans in addition to contributing to federal Social Security and
employer-employee packages. They also benefit from subsidies in education,
home loans, tax breaks and (now) healthcare.
Social services in the public sector are large budget items for government, but
the quality varies from state to state. This is partly because of “matching funds”
policies, the wealth of individual states, their prioritization of programs, states’
cost of living and their need to produce balanced budgets.
Budget responsibilities for the main public sector are allocated between
Washington and the states.
At federal level, public services are administered through government programs
and departments such as the Department of Health and Human Services.
This federal organization has a large number of departments and
responsibilities.
The state and local levels implement and deliver their own and federal public
social services and are also often divided in separated bodies.
- Public Social ServicesW
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Public social services are generally divided in two parts, the Social Security
System, to which workers contribute during their working lives and through
benefits are earned. The second includes people who receive assistance based
on need. This is awarded according to means of income, but it’s no tied to
contributions, and is generally known as “welfare”.
Some people depend on this public system while others debate its complexity,
inefficiency, abuse and cost.
Social Security Benefits:
Is the largest social service program in the US. It’s administered from
Washington and paid by the contributors.
Social Security originated in 1935 Social Security Act, covering the Old Age,
Survivors, Disability and Health Insurance program. Employees and employers
each pay one half of the Social Security tax and the self-employed pay the
whole of the tax during their working lives.
Workers (and families), receive benefits based on these contributions including
retirement pensions and disability payments.
Medical care for the elderly (Medicare) is usually grouped under Social
Security. This was formed in 1965. Because of the incomplete coverage of
Medicare, many elderly people cannot afford the full cost of some types of
treatment, particularly the most expensive and long-term. They usually need
additional private insurance or savings for the balances of medical fees.
Illness, accident and unemployment payments are also included under Social
Security, with an Unemployment Compensation organized by the Department of
Labor with each state. This compensation consists in 26 weeks of pay per year
and between 50 and 70% of an average weekly pre-tax wage.
Some people believe strongly in social security while others think that is a
sector in crisis and are in favor of privatization of the full sector.
Social Security is problematic because more workers are needed to support a
growing elderly population and because of the cost of the system. Alternatives
to this are higher taxes or privatization.
Welfare programs:
Federal legislation form the 60s provided financial help work, training and
rehabilitation for the needy and poor, resources to house and feed the
homeless and healthcare for the sick. The expenditures are shared by federal,
state and local governments. The main federal programs to the needy are
Medicaid, TANF, GA, Supplemental Security Income and food stamps.
Medicaid is a direct federal program (1965) providing coverage for poor,
dependent and needy people under 65.
- The needy and the poverty lineW
Welfare payments in the US have historically been made to people who do not
have the resources to live at an appropriate minimum standard. These
programs are based on the “official poverty line”, which is calculated annually
by the Federal Social Security Administration.
The number of people living in poverty fluctuates because rates of
unemployment and the state of economy. Last figure amounted almost 50 M.
Americans living under the line of poverty.
Poverty remains a reality for a sizeable minority of Americans who have low or
no incomes.
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The poorest and most deprived people are concentrated in inner-city areas, but
also exist in rural areas.
Poor households may consist of single parents with children, or people who
maybe pensioners, disabled or unemployed.
Although fewer Americans are poor today than in the past, the poverty rate is
considerable and the gap between rich and poor is arguably increasing. Critics
maintain that the federal government should provide funds to eradicate poverty;
others feel that programs are expensive and ineffective, and incentive people to
live depending on social problems (“dependency culture”).
- HealthcareW
The delivery of healthcare is structurally divided into private, public and
voluntary sectors. But although the US is the world’s highest per capita spender
on healthcare, it is argued that this has not given better medical outcomes
overall. Some people are excluded and there is insufficient preventative care.
The quality of medical provision is varied and complex; depends upon wealth,
gender, ethnicity, residence and insurance coverage.
Healthcare has been traditionally led by the private sector, with many workers
and their employers benefiting from health insurance policies that can facilitate
speedier access to treatment and more advanced medical technologies. Those
who can afford it are often restricted to emergency, Medicaid and Medicare.
Around an 80% of Americans (and their families) have some kind of private
insurance or support against the cost of treatments. The remainder received
public sector healthcare from state hospitals, government programs, Social
Security, or Voluntary non-profit hospitals.
Around 50 M. people don’t have any kind of insurance or health cover; they
can’t afford it or other reasons.
Many programs are designed in order to protect these uncovered people (the
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, PPACA) and extending public
insurance.
Private hospitals and clinics are generally well-equipped, efficient and run by a
variety of commercial organizations. Many of those in the public sector tend to
lack resources and adequate funding. Therefore, the US has a range of high-
quality medical facilities, but gaining access to them is a problem for many
people.
Pharmaceutical companies spend billions of dollars on research and
development of new drugs; medicines can be expensive and the profits on
successful new drugs are consequently high. Hospitals and medical schools
also spend substantial amounts on research because is also very profitable,
improving quality and expenses.
Compared with other countries, the US spends more on healthcare and helps
fewer people. The US is 37th country in the world for its quality of health
performance. It found that a 10% of the US population is the healthiest people
in the world, while a middle group gets a mediocre attention and a 5-10 have
bad services.
The main reason for this is the lack of an efficient Social Security system.
- UNIT 5. RELIGIOUS CULTURES.
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o Exchange ideas and give your opinions on contemporary US religion

o Write an essay on attitudes to religion in US
o Link a series of events into a linear sequence
o Write a text commentary
- Religious HistoryW
Contemporary US religious life and practices derive from Native American
beliefs, colonial history and the waves of later immigrants into the country.
This historical development is characterized by certain features. Religious
diversity, fundamentalism, conflicts between faiths, emphasis on the social
aspects of religion, religion linked to freedom and democracy, religion linked to
social class and ethnicity, separation of church and state. These features are a
reflect of some periods throughout American history.
During the colonial age, colonists practiced different types of European
Christianity. Dissenters of this tradition wanted to create communities in which
practice their worship without persecution, mostly Protestant.
There were several conflicts during those ages between worships, for example
Quaker and Baptist minister were arrested during the 17th c.
Different groups came along the century, in addition to the already settled
Anglicans in Virginia. Pilgrims in Plymouth separated from English church and
settled there, and a second larger group of Puritans arrived in Mass, in 1630.
Neither group was religiously tolerant; they believed that God have chosen
them for thriving in the new land.
Hard-working means pleasing God, one of the Protestant worship pillars.
Religious diversity was most obvious in the middle colonies (all Protestants);
Calvinists, Presbyterians, Lutherans, Baptists and Quakers.
Protestant and Roman Catholics established themselves in Maryland, with
religious tolerance for all Christian Worships.
First Catholics who arrived America were missionaries from Spain, Portugal and
France; they established missions in the S and W.
A few European Jewish traders also settled in English colonies, despite the
general ban.
Most of the 13 colonies had an established church from the colonial times until
the War of Independence.
There was a decline of immigration for religious reasons during the 18 th c.; the
people came for free land, adventure…, nevertheless people kept their
homelands beliefs.
Two events produced a religious revival; the Great Awakening (the forerunner
of modern evangelical church) and the War for Independence (divided loyalties
among faiths).
Anglican Church lost a lot of popularity after the war due to its ties to UK.
However, despite these two facts, Americans weren’t very active in religious
terms.
In the 19th c. religious groups recovered while the population and the country
expanded.
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A second Great Awakening came in the beginning of the century. This

influenced future religious developments and the creation of modern
evangelical and fundamentalist movements.
Religious groups usually had quarrels between them during 1830-60; dividing
into new sects (spiritualism, Mormonism, Shakerism…) and churches (divisions
in traditional faiths) meanwhile Catholic Church was strengthened by Irish,
French and German immigration. Catholic newcomers suffered extreme
opposition from the Puritans. Jewish population also expanded (1840-1880)
because of European prosecution.
Churches became involved in education and created schools with religious
identifications.
Civil War made opposed religious views of slavery, an anti-biblical issue.
In the 20th c. large number of immigrant arrived bringing their worships with
them (Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam, Christian Orthodox, Buddhism) and
strengthening some beliefs such as Roman Catholicism and Judaism.
Separatist and ecumenist situations happened then. Nowadays, the three major
faiths (Protestant, Catholic and Jewish), share American religious life with many
other churches, groups and sects, while suspicion still exists toward Mormons
and Islamists. Anyway, there’s a high secularism in the American population in
a more relaxed and informal society.
- Contemporary US ReligionW
US religion underwent changes after the post-war revival. The influence and
membership of mainstream Protestant and other traditional religions declined in
the liberal social climate during the 60s and 70s. But increasing pluralism led to
new religious groups such as fundamentalist and evangelists, sects and
Eastern religion (Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism…)
The largest majority of religious Americans are within the Judeo-Christian
tradition (Protestantism, Catholicism and Judaism).
The US people nowadays usually say that they belong or have preference to
some religions instead of being active members of it; others reject organized
religion or embrace other forms of spirituality.
There’s a high number, nowadays at the top of its rate, of people being atheist,
agnostic, secularist and “nothing in particular”.
Religion is a very important thing in a high percentage of American people
(25%), despite the fact that some of them rarely attended to religious services.
The US nation can be defined as a “competitive and religious marketplace”
where religions compete for new members. Also it is argued that any presumed
decline in religious belief was slow and gradual.
Protestantism is the largest and most diverse of the US faiths. It is divided in
many churches and sects, with conservative or mainstream and liberal
outlooks. Each church depends on itself financially, has its own ministers,
buildings and follows their own beliefs and practices. It is divided into
Presbyterian, Lutheran, Episcopalian, Reformed beliefs, Baptist, Methodist.
They are divided into mainstream, fundamentalist, and evangelist churches.
Roman Catholic Church is the second largest after Protestantism. Catholicism
was historically confined to Irish, Polish, Italians and Germans, but nowadays is
also composed by Latinos and Asian people.
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The Jewish community religious practices range from Orthodox to moderate

liberal Reform groups. They have an established Hebrew system of schools
and contributions to Jewish charities. Nowadays are very assimilated in society
despite the anti-Semitic feelings during the early 20th c.
There’s a big mix of other groups such Buddhists, Hinduism, Islamism, Sikhism
and minority religions such as Native American, Wiccan, Pagan and Spiritualist
At last also there are a high people with no beliefs divided into Atheists,
Agnostic and people having no religion.
- Church, state and politicsW
Church and state in the US are supposedly separate. The First Amendment of
the Bill of Rights (1791) states that “Congress shall make no law respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof”. This forbids
state-supported church and promotion of religion. It also protects individuals’
right to practice their own faiths. This is applied to government, not the states.
Religion or the lack of it is a private matter, American people believe in the
intention of the founders of making a country with religious freedom, despite
some people think that Islam is incompatible with the US national standards.
There are different opinions in the promotion of religion in the government or
school; some people think that the promotion of a specific religion would affect
to the people who don’t belong to that worship, and other people felt that the
government should not avoid promoting religion.
Some people support a direct role of religion in school; teaching creationism,
organized school prayers, allowing religious symbols.
This shows different positions in the separation of church-state. Some people
think that religion is being under attack and other believe that the church-state
barrier should be abolished.
Traditionally, there were official states’ churches, but eventually all churches
were separated from the state; nowadays the churches are not supposed to
receive any direct state or federal support.
Therefore, religious groups are independent organizations and self-supporting,
depending on their members donations.
Although religion is a private matter, public and private lives are not
inseparable. Religion is always present on political issues such as death
penalty, abortion, same sex marriage and armed conflicts.
A religious sensibility is reflected in national symbols and emblems, the
currency of The Pledge of Allegiance and the American flag.
Personal beliefs always affect to political issues; how they vote, which parties
and candidates they support.
- Religion and educationW
Administrative and financial organization of public schools is generally carried
out by local districts, and school boards composed of elected citizens oversee
the schools in their area. The influence school policy and often what is to be
taught. It is at this level that battles between fundamentalists and modernizers
over the school curriculum have been fought. Education is supposed to be
neutral, as it’s reflected in the Constitution. Any attempt to do so would be
regarded as an infringement of the “establishment clause” of the First
Amendment. Schools and courts have tried to balance separation with religious
freedom (and many other issues, such religious holidays, dressing…).
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After the colonial period, most public schools supported a historically dominant
Protestant Christianity by means of school prayers, religious instruction and
activities.
The fear of Catholicism growth in the 19th c. led some states to ban schools
from obtaining public funding for religious purposes and public schools
secularized.
The Pledge of Allegiance and school prayers has been central to education
debates. Use of the pledge in the school day varies, with some half of the states
committed to it; some critics argue that this practice indoctrinates children with
“civil religion”.
In 1962, US Supreme Court removed elements of school religion and banned
some prayers.
An important issue is whether or not religious organizations may use
government money, grants and school vouchers to subsidize religious
schooling.
The same happened with private and public schools funding from federal or
state government.
However, the 2001 Supreme Court decision ruled that publicity funded schools
must allow religious groups to use their facilities for religious activities during
non-schools hours if they provide the same use to other non-school
organizations, and the same happened in the university. This decision aim at
distinguishing between state recognition of religion by the participation of
officials at public ceremonies and the participation of students in voluntary
religious activities on state property.
Some parents send their children to religious or alternative schools because
they feel that public schools do not reflect their values and want their children to
attend faith schools. Private schools are run by churches or religious groups at
both elementary and high school levels, such as Catholic, Jewish and Islamic
school. The secular public school, the controversy over evolution and
creationism, variably quality in schools and devout parents’ disillusion with the
public school system contributed to home teaching and other alternatives.
- Attitudes to religionW
Historically, American attitudes to religion and religious belief have been
generally positive, although there have been declines in recent years and more
varied individual responses.
In 2010 a poll showed that for an 80% of the population, religion was personally
significant for them, irrespective of whether or not they were members of a
denomination, while other answered that religion was very important on their
lives. Also, many people felt that religion is losing its influence in America.
It is argued that Americans were more religious in the 1940s and 50s, although
they appear to be as individually religious now as they had been in the 70s and
80s. This distinction between declining a formal church or synagogue
membership and a personal belief reflects the lowest membership to a church
since 1930.
Significant changes in religiosity have occurred in the recent years. Polls have
traditionally shown that most respondents believed that religion could answer all
or most problems, but in recent years this opinion is in a historic low.
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There seemed to be a view, that religion was old-fashioned and changing

perceptions about the religious and social composition of the US were also
noted in the poll.
Nowadays, people consider the country as a Christian nation less than in past
years. Respondent showed a movement to more liberal positions on social
issues.
Nevertheless, the poll found that Americans’ personal beliefs haven’t changed
much in the last 20 years.
Not so many people believe or have confidence in “the church or organized
religion”. This is affected by scandals involving some priests and cover-up by
the US. Protestants show more confidence than Catholics.
The varied personal beliefs of Americans include expressions of traditional faith,
such as God, miracles, heaven and many examples of Christian dogma; a
sense of spirituality outside organized religion; and some supported alternative
belief systems.
Large minorities of adults also accept ghosts, UFOs, astrology, witches and
reincarnation.
Evolution and creationism continue to be debated in relation to religion and
education. Some people believe in creationism, others in God-guided evolution
and other without the guidance of God. Also, some people believe in Darwinism
while others don’t.
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Resumen 2º Cuatrimestre. American Civilization

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Resumen Mundos Anglofonos América

Mundos Anglófonos en Perspectiva Histórica y Cultural (UNED)

StuDocu no está patrocinado ni avalado por ningún colegio o universidad.

ANGLOPHONE WORLDS FROM A HISTORICAL AND

- UNIT 1. THE AMERICAN CONTEXT

o Write or give an oral description of the main aspects of the American

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Although religion is a private, personal matter separated from the state, it

Racial or ethnic differences, immigration and social diversity affected to national

Responses to pluralism have often resulted in consensus politics based on

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- UNIT 2 THE PEOPLEW SETTLEMENT, IMMIGRATION, WOMEN AND

o Describe the political context of the Independence of the British

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o Answer questions about personal ideas and opinions related to attitudes

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A Catholic French enclave survived in S. Carolina, but French Huguenots and

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- Attitudes to immigrantsW the contemporary debateW

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social status. Popular attitudes continue to keep women in traditional places.

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The Proclamation of 1763 made a line through the Appalachians, proclaiming

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- UNIT 3. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONSW THE FEDERAL STATE AND

o Describe the American Constitutional Framework

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This loose confederacy became a federation whose national government had

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- The political partiesW

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The federal bureaucrats are hired through competitive examinations required by

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- The Place of State Government in American FederalismW

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- UNIT 4. FOREIGN POLICY

o Describe the main aspects of American Foreign Policy

- A nation apart? American Attitudes to World AffairsW

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- From Expansionism to Imperialism 1783-1914W

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- UNIT 5. THE ECONOMY AND SOCIAL SERVICES

o Write a description of American Economic Liberalism

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o Give some explanations on American Public Social Services

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Security legislation in 1935 established pension and benefits for workers,

- The organization of contemporary social servicesW

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- UNIT 5. RELIGIOUS CULTURES.