534205

research-article2014
MAC0010.1177/0020294014534205Tech Talk: (2) Process Control BasicsTech Talk: (2) Process Control Basics

Contributed Paper

Tech Talk
Measurement and Control
2014, Vol. 47(5) 146­–152
© The Institute of Measurement
and Control 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/0020294014534205

An Introduction
In conducting over many years the C&I engineers need a good working both the fundamentals of measurement
assessment of Control & Instrumentation knowledge of many subjects, including and control and its practical application.
(C&I) engineers applying for professional the wide range of field instruments and To this end, experienced engineers and
registration, it is apparent that significant control systems available in a fast manufacturing companies are cordially
gaps often existed in their fundamental changing marketplace, materials invited to share their knowledge for the
technical and application knowledge. selection, piping mechanics, fluid physics, greater good by submitting for
Notwithstanding the normal variations industry-specific measurement, publication, further papers that will be of
in the ability of individuals, the academic protection and control techniques/best interest to practising C&I design
route chosen and the subsequent practice, functional safety, hazardous engineers and technicians. Publication
training offered by employers will play a area work, control systems architecture/ guidelines are available on request from
major part in the development of a well- application, data communications, publications@instmc.org.uk
rounded engineer. installation design, engineering standards/ This first paper in the series addresses
Professionals following the craft codes of practice, inspection and testing, the basics of measurement. The
apprentice/Higher National Certificate contractual awareness and much more. co-authors are David W Otterson CEng,
(HNC) route through technician training and Large companies with accredited FInstMC, and John E Edwards CEng,
who are able to obtain employment in an graduate training programmes will usually FIChemE, who has published several
engineering design capacity will usually make use of both in-house mentoring papers and books on process simulation,
possess good practical C&I application and external training, whereas smaller instrumentation and control.
skills. In contrast, their university graduate organisations are often much more reliant
counterparts, although better equipped on the haphazard self-learning process. David W Otterson
mathematically, may struggle in their Tech Talk is a series of papers CEng FInstMC
formative years with the broad spectrum of designed as a ‘pull out’ reference library. Institute of Measurement and Control
practical application knowledge required. The aim is to disseminate knowledge of Billingham, UK

Tech Talk: (2) Process Control Basics

John E Edwards
P&I Design Ltd., Billingham, UK
David W Otterson
Institute of Measurement & Control, Billingham, UK

I. Introduction time and capacity. Dead time is the
interval, after the application of an action,
Stable control is essential for the safe and during which no response is observed
efficient operation of industrial processes. and capacity is a location where mass or
Understanding the basics of process energy can be stored. These dynamic
control is essential for the instrument elements determine the way control
engineer or technician to effectively loops behave in terms of speed of
design, maintain and tune instrumented response and stability.
control loops with confidence. Each process parameter exhibits
All processes contain, in various unique properties that determine the
proportions, the dynamic elements dead ease of control and the control strategy
to be applied. Flow and liquid pressure
loops exhibit low capacity and no dead
time, giving fast and noisy characteristics
requiring a low gain (wide proportional
band) response with reset (integral
action) to maintain a desired value.
Gas pressure loops usually exhibit high
capacity and no dead time, with slow
characteristics, requiring a high gain
(narrow proportional band) response to
maintain a desired value. Liquid-level loops

146  Measurement and Control  l  June 2014  Vol 47  No 5


exhibit high or low capacity and variable
dead time, giving fast or slow, noisy
(boiling) and lag characteristics requiring
medium gain and in certain applications
(boiler level control) reset response to
maintain a desired value. Temperature
loops can exhibit high or low capacity and
dead time, giving fast or slow and lag
characteristics requiring variable gain,
reset and anticipatory (derivative) response
to maintain a desired value.
The process plant design and the
control philosophy should be considered
throughout a project design process. For
example, if a processing unit takes a long
time to achieve stable and optimal
operating conditions, the feeds should
be held constant by the use of surge
tanks in which the level is allowed to float
between acceptable limits.
Table 1.  Instrument schematic symbols to ISA-5.1
Description Primary locationa
Discrete instruments
FIC
101
Shared display and shared
control
Computer function
Programmable logic
ISA: Instrument Society of America.
aNormally accessible to the operator.
bNormally inaccessible or behind panel devices.
Typical tag numbers are developed as
follows:
FIC 101 Instrument identification or
Tag Number;
F 101 Loop identification; function
descriptor (F-Flow, T-Temperature,
P-Pressure, L-Level)
101 Loop number;
FIC Functional identifier (I-Indication,
C-Control, T-Transmitter,
X-Miscellaneous);
II. Control Loop Presentation
A loop schematic or process control
diagram is a single line diagram used
to identify the basic specifications
and structure of an instrument control
loop and is developed from the
Process & Instrumentation Diagrams
(P&ID). A completed loop schematic
diagram should provide all the details
necessary to enable the loop
interconnection drawings to be
prepared correctly.
The main features include unique
identification and specification of all
components in the loop, the location
of the components, signal
interconnection type, power and air
supply type and source. Cable, wiring
and termination details are excluded.
Auxiliary locationa Auxiliary locationb
FI
101
The instrument loop number should
convey as much information as possible,
such as plant area designation and
assigned blocks of numbers for specific
functions. When scheduled, fields are
provided to the right of the symbol to
describe the component function, device
manufacturer/type specification number
and calibrated range. Signal levels and
power or pneumatic supplies are also
shown. On the P&ID, the component
symbols are interconnected to show the
relationship and functionality of the
June 2014  Vol 47 No 5  l  Measurement and Control  147
Contributed Paper
Tech Talk: (2) Process Control Basics
Symbols are defined using international
standards according to Instrument
Society of America (ISA) or British
Standards (BS):
BS 1646-3:1984  Symbolic
representation for process
measurement control functions and
instrumentation.
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI)/ISA-5.1-2009 Instrumentation
Symbols for Identification
Each element within the loop is
identified by a symbol containing the
unique identification (Tag Number). The
symbol used defines the function,
accessibility and the location as shown in
the Table 1.
Field mounted
FX FT
101 101
components with respect to each other.
The line weight and format represents
different signal types.
III. Control Loops
An open loop (Figure 1) involves an
operator manually setting a signal to
manipulate a control device, such as a
control valve or a variable speed drive to
manipulate a process variable. The result of
this action may be monitored by a separate
measurement and indication loop.
 Contributed Paper
Tech Talk: (2) Process Control Basics
Figure 1.  Open loop control
Transmitter Control Valve
Tx CV
4-20 mA 4-20 mA
Manual
Indicator
Station
XI HC
Figure 2.  Closed loop control
Transmitter Control Valve
Tx CV
Set Point
4-20 mA 4-20 mA
Controller
XIC
A closed loop (Figure 2) incorporates
feedback of the process measurement to
a controller, which is assumed to be a
proportional, integral and derivative (PID)
controller, with the desired value of the
process variable being the set point of
the controller. The basic control loop
consists of an instrument measuring a
process variable and converting it
typically into a 4–20 mA direct current
(DC) signal for transmitting to a controller.
The controller produces a 4–20 mA DC
output signal, the value of which is
dependent, on the error between
measurement and set point and the
settings PID. The output signal is
connected to an actuator, such as a
control valve or variable speed drive.
IV. Fail-Safe Control
Controller output direction in response to
an error (±) is determined by the
controller action.
148  Measurement and Control  l  June 2014  Vol 47  No 5
Direct action control (input direction
referring to set point). Increasing input
gives an increasing output –
decreasing input gives a decreasing
output.
Reverse action control (input direction
referring to set point). Increasing input
gives a decreasing output – decreasing
input gives an increasing output.
Control valve failure action is
determined by the process, for example,
a heating valve is usually fail closed and a
cooling valve is usually fail open. A ‘fail
closed’ valve requires an increasing
controller 4- to 20-mA output to open
the valve, and a fail open valve requires
an increasing controller output to close
the valve.
An incorrect match of controller action
and valve action will give positive
feedback, with the controller output
driving to a maximum or minimum signal
output, which in turn could lead to a
potentially dangerous process condition.
Correct control valve actuator
specification is critical to obtaining
correct ‘fail safe’ operation. Pneumatic
actuators should be specified ‘Air fail
open’ or ‘Air fail closed’ to cater for both
failure of the positioning signal or the
valve air supply. Electric and hydraulic
control valve actuators require either a
spring or backup source of power to
ensure fail safe action.
V. Three-Term (PID) Controller
Typically, process controllers can have
the following configurations:
•• On–off – A narrow proportional band
effectively provides on–off control;
•• Single term – proportional band (P);
•• Two term – proportional + integral
action (PI);
•• Three term – proportional + integral
action + differential action (PID).
A simplified algorithm for a three-term
controller with control modes
Proportional, Integral and Derivative,
which does not exhibit interaction
between control modes, is shown
100  1 de 
Controller output =  e + ∫ edt + Td  + Po
P  Ti dt 
where P is the proportional band, %; Ti is
the integral action time, min (control
theory basic unit is seconds); Td is the
derivative action time, min; Po is the
steady-state controller output; and e is
the error between process measurement
and set point. (Note: In control theory,
the basic unit for the time constant is
seconds.)
Inspection of the controller equation
leads to the following conclusions
regarding the controller output, which
should be remembered when tuning
controllers:
1. If there is no error, the controller
output equals the steady-state
output Po.
2. The controller gain is 100/P.
Increasing P decreases the controller
gain.
3. Considering the integral term being
1/Ti, increasing Ti reduces its effect.
4. Decreasing the derivative term Td
setting reduces its effect.
In practice, manufacturers’ controller
algorithms can exhibit unique behaviour
as follows:
1. The controller output will exhibit
derivative kick when the Td term
operates on the error due to set point
change.
2. The derivative term may be taken
from the controller output.
3. Integral wind up protection against
sustained error on a controller with
integral action.
VI. Control Loop Tuning
When tuning control loops, it is important
to understand the impact the tuning
parameters will have on the process. The
following ground rules are given for
guidance.
Safe setting values are as follows:
Proportional band P, %, highest value
(minimum gain);

Integral action time Ti, min(s), longest
time (or off);
Derivative action time Td, min(s),
shortest time (or off).
A wide proportional band should be
used on noisy signal control loops, for
example, liquid flow, liquid pressure and
level; note the controller gain is 100/P.
Integral action times (Ti) are used to
eliminate error; short times can make the
loop less stable. Derivative is never used
on noisy signals as Td operates on rate of
change of error de/dt, where rapid
changes in error will result in large rapid
changes in controller output leading to
control valve slamming and damage.
A. Proportional band (P)
The proportional band setting
determines the magnitude of the
controller output change as a result of
the error between the process
measurement and the controller set
point. There is no error at one specific
process load condition:
Use a narrow P in the range 1%–50%
on slow processes: Gas pressure,
temperature and vapour pressure
control
B. Integral action time (Ti)
Integral Action Time changes the
controller output signal at a rate
proportional to the magnitude of the error
until the error is eliminated. It should
never be set so fast that the resulting
load change exceeds the process
response characteristics which will result
Table 2.  Initial controller settings
Controller type P, %
P only 2 Pu
P+I 2.2 Pu
P+I+D 1.6 Pu
in the controller driving to its maximum or
minimum output:
Use a low Ti in the range 0.05–2 min
on fast and noisy processes: flow and
liquid pressure.
Use a high Ti in the range 2–120 min
on slow processes: temperature,
vapour pressure and composition
control.
It is used on critical level control
applications such as boiler drum level
and distillation column reboiler level
control, where settings are application
specific. It is not used on liquid level
control where a specific control point is
not required, thus allowing for steady
flow conditions, for example, surge tanks
between process units. The use of Ti is
often unnecessary on gas pressure
control.
C. Derivative action time (Td)
Derivative Action Time changes the
controller output at a rate proportional to
the rate of change of the error de/dt and
provides an anticipatory characteristic.
The controller action can be likened to
that of an experienced operator adjusting
a heating valve to achieve a set value as
fast as possible. Not normally used on
noisy processes such as Flow, Liquid
Pressure and Liquid Level.
The fast rates of measurement change
can lead to control valve slamming and
damage. Td is typically used on
Temperature, Vapour Pressure and
Composition and should be set
conservatively (short Td) to protect
against control instability resulting from
Ti, min
Tu/1.2
Tu/2.0
June 2014  Vol 47 No 5  l  Measurement and Control  149
Contributed Paper
Tech Talk: (2) Process Control Basics
unanticipated load changes. Td usually
set in the range Ti/6 < Td < Ti/2 is
considered reasonable.
D. Integral action time saturation
(wind up)
When a sustained error is maintained
between the set point and the measured
variable on a controller with Ti, the output
will drive off scale (valve full open or
closed). This condition is typical of
heating and cooling a batch reactor to a
desired temperature and composition
endpoint control. Controllers
incorporating Proportional and Derivative
modes only do not experience this
problem. Modern controller designs
employ nonlinear techniques to prevent
the integrator output becoming too high.
E. Controller tuning methods
There are many practical and theoretical
approaches to controller tuning. Modern
controllers are provided with auto-tune
facilities which should be applied with
caution on new systems. A long
established procedure due to Ziegler and
Nichols known as the Ultimate Sensitivity
Tuning Method will produce conservative
parameters allowing for further final fine
tuning.
Set the control modes to their
minimum effective values: that is,
maximum P, maximum Ti and minimum
Td (or off). Reduce P while making small
set point changes in both directions until
the measured variable begins to oscillate
at constant amplitude, providing a trend
reading of the proportional band Pu and
the oscillation period Tu. Initial controller
settings are determined from Table 2.
Td, min
 
Tu/8.0 = Ti/4
 Contributed Paper
Tech Talk: (2) Process Control Basics
Figure 3. 
This procedure can be used as a
‘starting point’ for tuning control systems
on batch or continuous processes, Tu
being established at a stable condition.
The following plot (Figure 3(a)) shows the
process simulation to study the effect of
150  Measurement and Control  l  June 2014  Vol 47  No 5
tuning parameter settings (Figure 3(b))
when controlling level in a surge tank
with a controller set point of 2 m. The
initial inlet flow is set at 4000 kg/h with a
step change to 16,000 kg/h after 15 min
and then back to 4000 kg/h after 50 min.
F. Interpretation of Figure 3 trends
(note that derivative mode is not
used due to the noisy signal)
P only set at 25%. Initial error is 0.1 m.
There is a specific flow condition that will
 Contributed Paper

Tech Talk: (2) Process Control Basics

VII. Advanced Control Loop

Figure 4.  Multiple loop control
Configurations
Cascade Loop Ratio Loop Auto-select (Override) Loop Single-loop control systems have limited
application, with more advanced control
Tx Tx Tx Tx Tx Tx systems requiring multiple loop
configurations. The more common of
Wild PV Control PV these multiple loop systems are shown in
Figure 4.
Master Ratio
XIC RR XIC XIC A. Cascade control
The output of one controller, the primary
or master, manipulates the set point of
another controller, the secondary or
Slave Hi Lo Select
slave. Each controller has a separate
XIC XIC < or >
measurement, and the secondary
controller manipulates the controlled
device.
The principle advantages are that
process upsets in the secondary loop are
corrected before they can influence the
CV CV CV CV
primary measurement and lags existing
in the secondary loop are reduced,
Split Range Valves Ratio PV Control Auto PV Selection improving the speed of response. Also,
the secondary loop provides exact
manipulation of the mass or energy
balance by the primary controller. The
Figure 5.  Steam boiler drum-3 element level control
secondary loop process variable must
respond faster than the primary loop
Steam process variable. The simplest example
of a cascade loop is a control valve fitted
FT with a positioner.
WF=WS+mL+0.5 A temperature loop is frequently
√ cascaded to a flow loop. When a
Steam differential pressure type of
Drum WS
WF measurement is used, for example, an
SP
LT LIC ∑ FIC √ orifice plate, the flow measurement
mL
signal is normally linearised by square
root extraction, in order to provide
FT acceptable control.
An example of the application of
Feedwater
cascade control is shown in Figure 5,
depicting steam boiler drum-3 element
level control, in which the boiler
feedwater flow set point is set equal to
result in zero error. The level increases to deviation is 2.24 m, with the error a steam flow and the level controller
2.47 m and then returns to 2.1 m. being eliminated after 30 min. trims the boiler feedwater flow controller
P only set at 10%. Initial error is now in cascade to maintain a material
P set at 25% and Ti set at 2 min. balance.
reduced to 0.04 m. The level
This reduces the time to eliminate
increases to 2.2 m and then returns to
the error, but the controller is now
2.04 m. Reduced P has reduced the B. Ratio control
more responsive and is approaching
error as a result of the load change.
its limits. A further reduction in Ti Ratio control is frequently used in
P set at 25% and Ti set at 5 min. This would result in the tank level ingredient control where any number of
eliminates the error. The initial cycling. streams can be set in ratio to one

June 2014  Vol 47 No 5  l  Measurement and Control  151

 Contributed Paper
Tech Talk: (2) Process Control Basics
Figure 6.  Stream blending by set point radio control
Figure 7.  Auto-select (override) control
independent stream which is set
according to production requirements.
This type of system is used in gasoline
blending, bio-fuel additive control,
furnace air-to-fuel ratio control and
152  Measurement and Control  l  June 2014  Vol 47  No 5
composition control in many industries.
An example of the application of ratio
control is shown in Figure 6 which shows
two additives being mixed with a single
independent stream.
C. Auto-select (override) control
This configuration is used in the situations
where two or more variables must not
pass specified limits due to economy,
efficiency or safety. Pipe line transfer
systems require the maximum flow to be
delivered subject to satisfactory operating
conditions being maintained at the prime
mover, be it a pump or compressor. If a
selected parameter, such as suction
pressure, goes below a set limit, the
suction pressure controller output
overrides the flow controller output via a
signal selector and will control the flow.
If a processing unit is to be operated
at a maximum allowable measurement
parameter across the unit, where several
measuring points are provided, a high
selector is used to select the highest
measurement for input to the controller.
An example of this would be to control at
the highest temperature in a fixed bed
reactor or furnace.
An example of the application of auto-
select control is shown in Figure 7, which
shows a system, where it is required to
provide a preset steady flow to a
downstream processing unit, provided
there is an adequate level in the
upstream surge tank. If the level cannot
be maintained, the flow to the
downstream unit will be cut back to
maintain the surge tank level.
This multi-loop configuration is used in
situations where two or more process
variables must not cross specified limits
for reasons of economy, product
specification or safety
Funding
This research received no specific grant from
any funding agency in the public, commercial
or not-for-profit sectors.
References
1. Edwards JE. Process Measurement & Control in
Practice. 1st ed. Thornaby-on-Tees: P&I Design
Ltd, 2011.
2. Shinskey FG. Process Control Systems. 1st ed.
New York: McGraw Hill, 1968.