Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ENGINEERING DESIGN
HANDBOOK
PART ONE
AD NUMBER
AD817071
FROM
Distribution: Further dissemination only
as directed by Army Material Command,
Attn: AMCRD-TE, Washington DC 20315 and 28
Apr 1967 or higher DoD authority.
AUTHORITY
(AMCRD~R)
K. H. BAYER
Maj()r. General, USA
Acting Chief of ,Staff
OFFICIAL:
6-14 6-14
( AMCRIJ)-R)
I
~~EGO~·~
I
Colonel, GS
Ch~ef,Adminlstrative Office.
nrSTR
I
IBUTION:
.
SPlecial
AMCP 706·185
PREFACE
ii
AIICI' 706-185
Paragraph Page
PREPACE ........................................... i
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.......................... xii
LIST OF TABLES .................................. xvi
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY OF MILITARY PYROTECHNICS
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO MILITARY PYROT:CCHNICS
iii
Preceding page blank
AMCP 706·185
IV
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CHAPTER 4
VISIBILITY
CHAPTER 5
PRODUCTION OF HEAT
v
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vi
AMCP 706-185
CHAFfER 6
PRODUCTION OF LIGHT
vii
1-------------------------------------------------------------
AMe? 706-135
VIII
AlfCP 736·185
CHAPTER 7
PRODUCTION OF SMOKE
ix
AlICP 706-185
xi
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
xii
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xiii
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xh
AKCP 706-185
xv
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LIST OF TABLES
xvi
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xvii
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xviii
AMCP 706·185
CHAPTER 1
1-1
AMCP 706·185
1·2.2 CHINESE PYROTECHNICS the use of I'ontaet or short raHge incend.iary de-
Recorus of Chinese pyrotechnic items go back vices.
to the 10th century. Rockets and Roman candles
are mentioned in 969 A.D. and, by the 13th cen- 1-2.4 MISCELLANEOUS USES
tury, colored smokes for signaling, incendiary-
The first r('corded use of sCi'eening smoke in
carrying firc arrows, and rocket-propelled arrows
more reeent times occurred in 1701, when Charles
were employed, The roci,et-propelled arrows, fired
in clusters from metal containers, were sometimes
xn f)f Sweden bUl'lled damp straw to produce a
smoke screen to cover a river crossing. Elsewhere
ritted with poisoned razor-sharp heads for attacks
ill Europe at this time pyrotechnic devices were
from ambush and the defense of defiles. Other
being developpd for their military value. The
('hinese weapons of this time included •. flying fire
J.'rench kings encouraged experiments and tests,
spears" equipped witt, tubes that thrt'w fire for-
saw that proper records were kept, of which many
ward for about ;;0 feet. Pyrotechllie devices were
are still available, and colle(~t('d information from
also used. in ,iefpuding eities-·thp Kin Tarters travelers returning from other countries. French
are known to havp used fire powders and other pri('sts retul'lling from China brought detailed
pyrotechniC' devi('es against a Mongol attack in knowleclgp of the state of the art in that country.9
12;j2 A.D.
1-2
AltICP 706·185
2%,-inch rocket bad a maximum range of 1760 screens with sucr:ess at the Battle of Jutland in
yards Itnd the 314-inch rocket had a somewhat 1916. As a r?sult of this success, the AllieD and
greater range. The rockets wel.·e made of sheet or the Germans dev('loped pyrotechnic screening smoke
cast iron and fired from tubes muunted on portable for nse on both Jand and see, during World War I.
stands or light. carriages. An 18t'1 Ordnance
manual lists most of the 1849 devices with more
1-4.1 WORLD WAR I
detail and some improvements. Two new items
During W orId War 1, opposing troops in
were also listed: an iucendiary projectile filling
trenches sepallted by short distances r('gularly
called rockfire, which burned s!owly and. was hard
employed pyrotechnic devi~es. Illuminating pro-
to extinguish. It was employed to set fire to build-
jectiles w?re USN! as protf(!tion against surprise at-
ings, ships, and flammable stores. Another new
tack, and signals were used to request, adjust, or
device was the petard, a powder-filled ,,'ooden box
stop artillery firo,; to mark enemy and friendly
that was used to demolish doors, gates, barriers,
troop locations; and for emergencies on land. sea,
and other obstacles.
and in the air.
A numbl'r of guupowder improvement" were
The advent of the airplane overcame the diffi-
:nade in the U llited Stutes and Europe during the
culties of m~iug incendiaries against distant armies,
latter half of the 19th century. After General
I<'orerunners of to,lay's incen.diary bombs were
Thomas .J. Uodman, U.S. Army, disco,'ered the
first dropped on {,ondon in May 1915 from Ger-
principle of the progressive imrning of propellant
man Zeppelins, and 8 prototype of the portable
powder in 1860, powder grains were made in sizes
flamethrower was used by the Germans :l.gainst the
adapted t.o the caliber of gun, with larger and
French in April and June of that year, although
perforated grains used in larger weapons, The
with Iittlc success. l,ater in the war, bombs con-
Swedish inventor, ~obel, made many of his im-
taining white phosphorns, thermite, and thickened
portant discoveries at this time. In 1863 he first
liquid fupls were dropped from airplanes.
manufaeiured nitroglycerin commercially, and dur-
Before and during World War I most pyro-
ing the next twenty years invented dynamite, the
techul.c development and manufacturing in the
fulminatr hlasting eap, blasting gelatin, gelatin
United States was carried out by private contrac-
dynamite, and ballistite. Another improvement
tors to the AMny or Navy. The Star rifle light, the
eaml' in IH8(j whrll Vieille, It French chemist, dis-
\' ery pistol, position lights, and simple rvckets
('overed the means to colloid nitrocellulose and thus
were the main items used. As the war continued,
control the grain sizr of the propellant powder,
the armed services began to test and develop pyro-
technic devices for special purposes.
1-4 EARLY 20TH CENTURY :!.a.~.tl:l.k,O.10 'l'he me of chemical ul5ents during the war rr-
An illtportant pyrotechnic development early suited ill the <.>stablishment of a Chemical Warfare
in this century wus the tracer bullet. 'fraccl'S have Serviee iii HIl8, This organization b<lcame a
bl'en used ill hll types of projer.tiles, but their de- permaul'nt branch of the lJ .S. Army in 19?O,
wlupment has bel'll most desely connected with and in 1946 its Ilame was (·hanged to the U.S. A:rmy
IIlIIlllunition for !lutomati(' slllall arms. Tracers Chl'I:~ieal Corps. This technical service pursued
w('rt' the Ill'st [\t'vil't's for directing automatic small thl' dl'vf'lopmPJl, of im'l'IHliaries, scrl'l'lling and gig-
arms fire again::;t f:lst moving ground t!l.l'gets. In IIltliug Sll1okt·s. fiame throwers, and t{)X~i) eheroical
this l'oulltry, J"t'sl'a "['h and devt>lopment of small l'ompoillldN.
anJlS tral't'I'S was ['aITied out a+ }<'rtmkford Arsenal. Alwrdef'1l Proving UroUlHl in Maryland was
'fhl' U. S. Xav)' and Pil'atiIlIIY Arsenal also COIl- al'tivutt·tl in Octob,'r 1917, liud by I'l'cember of
lludt'd tral't'r dpVt'lopIlH'nt for :>.0 lIUl!, 40 mm, ap.d that yt'rll" was making Il('eept'llll'{' test.s of ammuni-
largt'r gUllS. tioll alld othl'r Ordnllllel' lIlatt'I'iel Abl'rdel'n rec-
The tlt'rllIlill Na,y l':'llllu('tl'd tlet't IlIIUH'UVt'rs ()!"t!s for l!nH liNt tests of illnminating paraeput!'
l1Sill!! dWlIlil'ally prodlll'l'd Sl'f{'Plling sllloke for tht' projl'l'tiit's for tht' 1!i;)lf!1I1 gun.
tirst till\\, ill l~HHi, alit! later Ilill'd slIe' smoke l<'rallkford ~\rs(,llul, l;uring the e1\rly days of
1-3
AMCP 706-185
the war, adapted foreign pYI'oteehni(, t'ompoilitiolls bPdl littl" scientific trsting \Jf pyrotechnic de-
to small arms ammunitioll, I.Jatm', it deve10ped vit,l's, th(' botly of data that l'xisted at Picatinny
traeer and igniter eompositiolls and started a well- ArsPlIal at the out;Jfl'ak of y.,rW JI was of COll-
illtegratrd program for standardization. 'l'hese !';itiPl'ahlp valllP in developing improved pyro-
early tracer compositions W(,1'1' madr by a s:llall tl't'hnie itt'TllS llrpdcd for the hig-hly mobile forces
batl'h proeess, Wl't mixed, dried, and ground to of that war.
produl'e a stablp, uniform eompositioll. These early Aberdeen Proving Ground added development
('om positions Wl're only Illocieratply :o;atisfactory in tl'sting to its proof testing in the 1920 's, In 1921
that thl' ralonlPl used as a flam!' brightl'n!'[' pro- development test.<; werl' reported on green, yellow,
ducN] >:l'ason {'racking' ill bras.;, and also limited and white s\l1okes, and two years later trsts of long
thp life of the composition. burning white parachute signals were conducted.
During thr war til(' ~av:.. dcwloprd and used Abollt 19:33, Frankford Arsenal refined the
:3-, 4-, 5-, and 6-ineh illnmillati!l~ pro.it'etiles with proct'ss of making tracer eompm,itio[)s so that only
a projection rang{' up to 7 miles, a major a<ivantll.ge tilt' ('aleillm resillate hJII.! the hygroscopic strontium
bel'ilnst> thp Ntar rifle light \\as projeett'd to a maxi- pproxide wprp wpt mixpd, Hin('{' then, streamlining
mum range of only SOD yards, Thc ~avy also de- of th<; proprss has eontinu('d and nOw all ingredi-
wloped watf'r marker!' for lISl' from submarines, as puts in the trae('r mix arp purchased in the required
well as for dropping from aircraft, These markers granl[latioll, bl~lldptl dry, and charged into bUllet
l'onsisted of 'lurfacp burning- smoke and flame-pro- ('avitips Ilnder high preSSllI'eS, In 1936 Frankford
{hwing itrms, l'olored aerial star~, and :mrfacr bpgan developing drlay action and dim igniters,
marking dyes. some of whieh are now standard compositions. Just
bp1'ol'p the United Statl's entered 'World Wal" n,
I:<'rankford gol'{'atly improved incrndiary mixture
1-4.2 BETWEEN THE WARS
bU-l1. This standard illcl'ndillry Jllixturl', which
-:Juring the period between World War I WIIS originally de\'('!opt>d by Picatinny Arsenal,
and World 'Val' II, arsellals, such as Picatiuny wall quickly adoptpd by the British and was used
and Frankford, HUrl t 11(> Army Chemical ('orps hy Allwrican fO!'t'PS ill all small arIns incendiary
(~arried Oil limited resl'ar('h on military ilpplieatioll~
blllh·ts tIming World War II.
of pyrolr,'hlli('"l, l'j')[lle llliiwl'sities also af>sisted 1'1)(' Navy pyrotl'l'hnie tiewloplIlt."nt between the
i II this work. wars was ('('ntered at till' U.S. Navy Yard in
PichtinllY Arseual, which had been established \YashingtoIJ, D. (', Productioll was l'arried out at
hy tllP OrtiIlIlIlC,' Corps i[1 1879 as a snnll powder tl1l' :\"<[\'al OrdnClnct' Plaut at Baldwin, ~ew York.
d<'J)Ot to mallufadur" awl load lIlunitions, begall }·'or Ii tim!' its ontO produei W/IS illuminating pro-
loading' propl'lIallt ('harA'('s il! IH!lti, projl'l'till's ill .it,(,till·s, bllt ill 1n:W prodlldion of aircraft para·
1902, HIl(1 prop,'!Iallt mallllf'al'tlll'p in 1907. III l'llllt!· tlart's was also addpd. A Iso, by 19:3:{ thr
1!11 !l, it begall to dt'vt'lop and mal!ufadur(' pyro- l~xpt'rillH'lllal .\m!llllllitio[) Unit of tht' Naval (i1111
h'(,hllil' sig'lIllls, and <'Olltilllled tIl!' pyrot<,('hlli(~ Par'tory had d(·\'t,lopp(} a IIl1mbpr of PYl'ot('ehni{'
['(';;par('h allt! dl,\, .. loPIIH'llt !'frol't ill I hI' period hl'-
it ('Ills i [It' Ilid i Ilg' ('ll1prg('[I(''v idt'll tificil t iOIl signals,
t\\'('1'1I tIl(' lI'a:·s. lJuriHg' this tilll(" it mud(' ('011- II i r''I'aft signa I ('art ridr~('s, alld am [[Ill IIi t iOIl t ra(·l·rs.
sidt'rablp pr'og['PSS ill d(,\,l'lopill~~ I1t'W Slllok(', flllr!',
trw'l'[', lilld d,·la,v ('omposit iOllS, and begall to lil'-
('lIl1lllllltl' ('\'idl'l1l'(' rt'g'ardillg' lIlt' llt'l'('ssit,v for 1-4,3 WORLD WAR II
PIII't'[' ilJg'rt'tiit'llts, IIIOI't· /',1 "t'flll ('olltrol of plI[,tiel!' I II 1940, alld latt·t' with thl' (,Iltl',\' of th., 1:nitt'ri
"iZt', IIlId iIllPI'OI't't! pl'nt'!';;sillg' 11I<'!lwds. (lthl'!' il!- Ntalt's iJlt(; World \Var II, pyrotl'l'hlli(' itl'llls such
\·t'st igat lOllS pl'Od IIt'l'd t('('1t II iq lIt'S to 1IleaSHr.. lll- as fllll't·S, illuminating' projt't,tilt's, s/llOkt, sl~llals,
Illillosit,\' alld t'olo[' of PYl'ot"t'hIJi(' flall1l's, [t'('/lllil'al spott i JIg' ('}lIIl'g('S, IIlUIl,\' t,\'lw;; of ground aIHI air-
l't'qUil'l'/Il"llts for spt,,·ifyi/W illf!rt'dit'uts, '1I1t! r"('og'- t'raft Sig'IIHls, lind in('t'[Hiiarir;,; were needed in
Hitiou til' tht' ilJlpn[ ta/ltT Ill' I\\'nidi[lg !lIoistllrt' ill .'Il"!'IIlOIlS '1lllllltiti!'s
pyrot""/tui(' ('ollJpositilJlI"i. ,\ ItliolJg'h tllt·!'t, Jiad Plar!'s w('rt' wid(']), wwd to illuminutl' landing
1-4
- - - ---------------------------- ------------------------ ----- - --- - - -
AMCP 706-185
fields at night, in rain, and ill fog. They were tracers, amI troop warning dt'vic('s wpre de\'eloprd
dropped from aircraft to illuminate enemy terri- to m~t't th£' Ilt'W tactieal requirements. New in-
tory; to silhouette ships for observation; and to gredients sueh as atomized magnesium, resins, color
Iucate targets for bombing. Photoflash bombs il- intensifiers, and others werp tested and adopted;
Illlnjnatrd large areas for night photography. improvpd techniques to measure luminosity and
Smoke s~n'l'm; were used by land and sea forces ('olor, sueh as thf' barripr-layer cell photometer,
for a variety of purposes: aircraft and smoke boats \\'('re introduced.
scrpened ships during air attacks and amphibiow; The Ballisti(· Research Laboratories had been
landing'S, cOII{'!'al!'d underwater demolition teams established in 19:38 to ('entralize research activities
awl tactical JIl,lJlPuvers of ground troops. at Aberdeen Proving Ground and to undertake re-
By tIll' pnd vf tIlt' war pyrutpchllics provided search in fUIHlamPlltal Ordnanee problems. With
visual eummllllil'dtion h(It}. day and nil!ht be~·.veen (·omplption of d new l'lboratory in 1941, ba!>ic
plalh>s and tanks, t auks and artillery, infantry studies \\'(>rl' bt'g'un in areas pHtinent to pyrotech-
and airl:raft, and ships and the shore. nil'S sUl'h as flame propagation, burning rates, sen-
Inct>IHliary builds, b()mbs, projt>dilps, and sitivity of pyrotechni(' eompouuds, and the physical
grpnad~>s WPft' widely lIsed ill Europf'. Allied tac- ('hemistl'Y of gases.
li('S ill bumbing" (it'fman citit's PJIlployed equal ~aval pyrctechllics development during World
lIualltitips of ilh'PIHiiarirs and high ,'xplosivrs. On War II was et'ntered at the Naval Ordnancp
a wpi~ht basis, t!l(> ineendiary bombs caused five LaborutOl'Y, thpn located at the Naval Gun Factory,
limps more daJJlag(' than high pxpiosive bombs. The \V ashington, D. ('., and production was l'entered
(·pniral parts of 11,01'(' than ;')0 of Gf'l'many's largest at t!tp ~aval Amlllunition Dppot, ('rane, Indiana.
"iti"s werr> Ipvpled oy firp. Beforp 1l1Iclt>ar wee-pons 'I'hl' ~a\'y improVt'd existing itplIls for greater re-
Irprp wwd fifty pl'r('ent of 70 .Japanpse cities had liability awl stG!'ag!' !'ilaracteristics, and developed
bl't'll bllmpc\. l'lol'!' than !19 lwr('('nt of the total s'_ll'h it('llIs as dlPllli~al dpluy powde:os, self.releas-
bomb load droPPf'd Oil ,Japanps!' ('ities WIiS iu. in.!.!' buoyant submarillP signals, rt'seue flares, depth
,·,·tuliary, with I('s,~ than 1 IWr('f'ut high explosive. t' ha,.ge markt,!,s, aireraft sir,nal cartridges. and
Durillg' til" war, huncll'('ds of ll~ilJi()IlS of incendiary paral'hutt' flares.
hombs, projf·,t iles, and grt'lIadrs w('rl' provided by
Ill,· ('lil'lIlical Warfun' ~(,,'\'ie('--over 48 millioll
1-5 POST WORLD WAR II PERIOD4.1~
ill"('lItiiHI'Y bombs alOlw W('fl' sdppli{'d to the U.s.
Army Ail' J1'orc~. J<'ulJds for res\'ereh and devplopment of pyro-
Flalll!' thrOWN!';, whi,·1! lllul hl'I'1l d('vploped t('(·hllil· itt'lIlS wI'r!' limited ill the period following
during \Vorld War I, were improved and used with "'orld \\'a,. II; howI'v!>r, signifi"llut adVllllN'S wert'
SlH't'PSS ill HlP ('ampaigns in the Pacifie areas during C\(·[·omplish.>d w"ieh madt' l\vuilllhle impreved pyro-
Wodd War !I. tt'eltllil' devi('l's, sigllals, sllIokes, iU('t'll(liaries, and
I'i('atillu), Al'sl'lHtl dt'I't'lo!wd lIlallY impl'Il\'('cJ battlt'ti"ld iIJlllllillllllts \\'hl'l1 tit,> Kurt'an Conftiet
JlYroh ... ·hlli,· itt'llts to 111('('1 lhl' military dllUlgt' dt'\'t'lop"cl ill til(> early 1!HjO's.
1'/'(1/11 tl'l'lh'll Warfh!">, whidl had t'Xlst('c\ ill \Vol'ld Most }lyrort'('l!ni(' r,'st'al'('h lllIil d!'vt'lopltlt'nt to-
\\'Il!' !. to !ht' hiv.h1y sjI<'('jaliz!'d lllOlJilt· foret'S day is (·ani.·11 Ollt I,." tlH' (}owrlll!lt'nt at Pi('atiuny
or \\",,!'ld W'll' I; 1':;I'O\t'('lilli(' 1I1111JlllIlitioli fUl' Ars('llal, Ahl'l'dl't'\l Pro\'ing' Urouud, F,'allkfonl
lIliiila/'y lIIallPUVI'rs alld Hwans for prGviding visual ;\ l's"nal, t hI' ,\ rilly ('h('llli('nl HOlD Lahoratorit's,
(·"HlIll\lIl.il'utioll awolIlX I h,' various t'lt'lllt'llts ill- tht' :-:u\'al I )rdllall('t' Laboratory, tl\(' NUlla) Ord-
".Il\'(,!l w,·),,· (·s.~f'!itial. :\lof't· I'tli('lPlIt flar,'''' tlash !l 1\ 11<',' 'I\'st Stlltioll, tilt· :\IIVld AlIllJJllIlitioll Depot,
dllll'I':t':!, and II vllI·it·!.\, (If spottill,.;' phargt·s, siglluls, IIlId h\' (lo\,prlllll\'JlI-spOllSOrt,d 1Ij!!' IJ I' it's.
1-5
AMCP 706·185
REFERENCES
1. a. T. L. Davis, "Early Pyrotechnics. I. Fire Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, VoL X, p.
for the W am of China; II. Evolution of the 781, Logmans Green, London, 1950.
Gun; III. Chemical Warfare in Ancient R. History of Research and Development of the
China," Ordnance 33, 52, 180, 396 (1948-49). Chemical Warfare Service in W arId War II,
b. L. Katz, ,. Pyrotechnics ill Missile Design," published for The Chemical Corps Association
.
Washlllgtoll, D. C., Reinhold, N. Y., 1948.
'
Ordnance 44, 334 (1959).
c. H. Ellern, "Military Pyrotechnics," Ord- 9. L. P. Brophy, D. M. Syndam, R. C. ('...ockrane,
nance 44, 662 (1960). The Chemical Warfare Service from Labora-
2. T. L. Davis, Chemistry of Powder and Ex- tory to Pield, Office of the Chief of Military
plosives, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, Jlistor: , Department of the Army, Washing-
tOil, D. C., 1959.
1943.
:1. H. B. .b'abcr, Vol. 1,1 .. History and Develop- 10. C. H. Custard, G. Frll.llcis, W. Schnackenberg,
Small Arm~ Incendiary A.mmunition, A Re-
ment of Military Pyrotechnics, U. S. Govern-
l'icw of the History and Development, Frank-
ment Printing Ofi1ce, Washington, D. C., 1919.
4. S. Sag!' and H. W. Evans, "Pyrotechnic. Re- ford Arsenal Report R-1407-3, December 1956.
11. L. Finkelstein, A. E. Gaul, Incendiaries, Vol.
search COIl1t's of Age," Ordnance 48, 262
18, H~'story of Research and Developn ':nt of
(1964) .
ChemtCal lVat'fare Service in World War II
G. AlaI! Ht. II. Broek, A History of :"'ireworks,
publishrd for The ('hemical Corps Association'
George C. Hanap awl Co., Ltd., Tjondon.
Washington, D. C., Reinhold, N. Y., 1948. '
fl. A. M. PrPlltiss, Chcmicals in WIZr, McGraw-
I:!. D. 1Iart, R('.~llIrch and J)evelopment of Milt:-
Hill Book Co., Npw York, 1!l37. tary Pyrotf~('hnics, Piratinny Arsenal, DO'ler
7 . K . f' .'S awypr, . , .:wreenlllg
co ' ...,
"mo k es," Thorpe's
N. J., 1955. '
1-6
AMCP 706·185
CHAPTER 2
2-1
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 2-1
TABULATION OF PYROTECHNIC DEVICES
»
1. Jilares
11. Reconnaisslln('t'
b. Observation
e. Bombardment
d. Dpplsning and emplalling" of tJ·oops and materit'l
e. Prevention of enemy infiltratioll or rp(~Ollllais~:all('('
f. Target ideutificHtion
g. Battiefirtd illllmination
h. Marking targets and blllllU I'pleusp lint's
1. EnH'rg'!'ney airstrip location aud id~~lItifieation
j. De(~oys
k. Missih' tru(·king
;J. Sigllals
a. Betwe('u various 1'l<'U1pnts of g'rolllHi troops
h. Between ground troops and plallp~. 01' vit'(' v('rsa
e. Betwcpll plalH's in thp air
d. Hearch lind r(,'>(,IIt' opt'l'ations (lo('atl' slll'vi VOI'S)
e. SubmurilH' to Slll'flll~<' 01' ail'
f. Prl'(~isioll I<w:ltioll of point OJ' tilllP in SPIW(' 1'01' /lSS('SSHlellt of missile
funetioll
g. EstablislllJ Wilt of points 011 II trajpl'fory
reaction within a mixture of a fuel and an oxidant. luminous intensity through an appropriate colored
Additives or modifiers may be included to produce filter to the total luminous intensity.
more saturated colored flames, to adjust burning e. Visibility. Applied to illuminating and sig-
rates, to produce colored smoke clouds, and to nal devices; measured in terms of brightness and
increase storage life and processing safety. other qualities.
Pyrotechnic devices are employed in such a f. Efficiency. Relates the output to the original
large val'iety of munitions that classification is weight or volume of compositions; for illuminating
difficult. These devices are, however, tabulated, or signaling it is expreRsed as candle/seconds per
with their principal uses, in Table 2-1. gram or pcr milliliter; for smoke-producing devices
efficiency is considered to be the per<!ent of chern ..
2-1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF PYROTECHNIC ical vaporized hased eIther on the weight of chem-
COMPOSITIONSl,2,4,6,7 ical originally contained or 011 the total weight of
The applicability of a specific pyrotechnin . mix- munition, depending on the requirements of the
ture for a particular application is governed by evaluator.
many "yardsticks." Consideration must be given, g. Color and volume of smoke. Compared to
not only to the terminal effectiveness I\nd output standard charts or by observers' ability to det.ect
desired, but also to overall performance and re- and recognize, at prescribed distances, the color
producibility, and processing and storage char- and the total obscuring power (TOP).
actrristics. Predse and analytical determination 2-1.2.2 Processing a'nd Sensitivity !Characteristics
of the various parameters involved requires con-
Information on the processing·, st.orag~, ship-
tinued resrarch to jevelop improved evaluative
ping, and sensitivity characteristics of pyrotechnic
methods.
compositions can be found in ,Part Two of this
The more important characteristics of pyro-
series, AMCP 706-186.
trchnic compositions used for wilitary purposes
may be statrd as follows: 2-1.2.3 General Functioning Characteristics
a. Ignitibility. The ease ,nth which a pyro-
2-1.2.1 Performance Characteristics technic 'lomposition ignites, determined by standard
a. Heat of reaction. cal/gm or cal/ce. May bf' time-to-ignition tests described in Part Two of this
used as a basie criterion for seh'ction of fuel-oxi- series, AMCP 706-186.
dizer combinations. b. Hygroscopicity. The ease with which n com-
b. Burning ratf'. inches/seconr1 inches per pf1l':ition picks up moisturo:l at a preselected tem-
minute, seconds/ineh. Applied to consolidate!'! mix- pe~'ature and relative humidity.
bin's and rnrasured as a linear rate. c. Reaction characteri"tics. Puns:lamentally im-
('. TJuminous illtensity. eandela or eandlepower. portant are the heat of rfjact'on and rate of reacti:m
Visihlr output or illumination in eanlf'la. of a pyrotechnic composition. To make a consoli-
(1. Color value. The color quality of a eolorerl datt>d composition burn pNpagatively, sufficient
pyrotedmi(' flame taken ru; the ratio of the apparent llt'at must be evolved and the rate of reaction Dlust
2-3
AMCP 706·185
2-4
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 2·2
COMPARISON OF SOME PROPERTIES OF PYROTECHNIC
COMPOSITIONS WI'JH EXPLOSIVES
Impact
••
•• •
<.
~ S
Composi tion r.QQ ll< .S
PYROTECHNIC:
Delay
Barium chromatp 90
Boron 10 480 18 o 650 12
DeLay
Barium chromate 60
Zirconium-nickel alloy 26
Potassium perchlorate 14 4H7 12 o G6 23
fi'larc
Sodium nitrate 38
M&.gnesium 50
T.Jaminac ;) 14;)() ti40 60 19
Smoke
Zinc 69
Potassium perchlorate 19
Hexachlorobenzenc 12 (lIB 475 23 15
Photoflash
Barium nitrate ;{O
Aluminum 40
Potassium perchlvrate :{O 2147 15 7 700 100 26
HIGH EXPLOSIVE:
TNT 10(j0 ]000 4H 475 100 14
RDX 1240 (j00 (j() 260 18
a~ proll'l'ti\'t' (·()(ttinl!s on lIH'tal;; slwh as lIIaglH'siulll. than OIlP function, thus simplifying the composition
aluminulIl aud zirconium-nickel alloys to reduce of some pyrotechnie mixtures.
t hpir read iOIl to atlllOsphpri(' lIloistul'P.
i. Dy('s for ~llIok('s. Azo alld allthraq\lillolH~ 2-1.4 Comparison of Pyrotechnic Mixtures
dy('s. Th('st' (iy!';; providt' t hI' ('0101' for smokef; IlSl'd and Explosives1.:!,6,lO
1'01' sil!llalilJl!. lllarking. and sWltting. Pyrotrrohnic mixtures can be devised to produce
MallY of the' aboV{' substances pprform more as litt 1(' as 200 (~alori('s Jwr ~ram o{ mixture or ill
2.5
AMCP 706·185
REFERENCES
1. G. Weingarten, Chemistry of Pyrotechnics, f). L. Katz, "Pyrotechnics in Missile Design, I,
oral presentation at Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, Ordnance 44, 334 (l9f19).
N. J., 1955. 6. TM 9-] 910, JlJilitary Explosives.
'J D. Hart, Research and Development of Mili- 7. TM 9·1370-200, Military Pyrotechnics.
tary Pyrotechnics, Pieatinny Arsenal, Dover, H. H. Ellern, "Military Pyrote(jhnics," Ord-
N. J., 1955. nance 44, 662 (1960).
:3. So Sage and R. W. Evans, "Pyn'teehnic Re- 9. T. C. O'Hart, Elcments 0.' Ammunition, John
search Comes of Age," Ordnance 48, 262 Wiley & Sons, N. Y., 1946.
(1964). 10. 1'. I... Davis, Ohcmist1·y of Powder and Ex-
4. H. ElIem, .1lodcl'n Pyrotechnics, Chemical plosil'CS, .John Wiley & Sons., N. Y., 1943.
Puhlishing Co., 1961.
2-6
AMCP 706-185
CHAPTER 3
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL RELATIONSHIPS
The output characteristics of a pyrotechnic Similar ('xpressions can be written with T and p 'is
munition are determined, to a large extent, by the the dt'pendent variable. If a system has n com-
tempp-ratures to which the reaction products are ponents, 11-1 (·omposition variablrs mnst br speci-
heated as a rt'sult of the chemical rf'action between fied.
the fuel and oxidizer. Thf' maximum temperature
of the reaction products depends on: (1) the state 3-1.1 THE GASEOUS STATE
of the products at thp r!'action temperature, (2) 'fhe gaseous state is characterized by changes
the heat !'volved by tIl{' I'xuthermal chmical reac- ill volume with ('hanges ill temperature and pres-
tion, and (:3) the r3te of heat production and heat sure. Gases normally have no bounding surface
loss. Physical-r!hemical relatiollships allow the aud, therefore, tend to completely fill any avail-
state d the products, the energy rel!'ased, and the able spacp. A knowledge of thl' behavior of gases
maximum r!'adion tt'lllperatnre to be calculated. with changl's in t!'mperature and prl'ssur!' is es-
The rate of heat production and hfat loss, which sential becansp of the importanc!' of tht' gaseous
are iniiuenct'd by the ambient temperature and state at the high tt'mpt'raiUl'!'s involved in pyrn-
pressure, (·o!lfinenwnt. and many other inter-re- chemical reactions.
lated faetors, eall also be calculat!'d for certain Gaseous products formed in the combustion of
sim pie (·ases. However, for 1ll0S i rt'actions, these
many pyrotechnic mixtures may range from es-
qU8ntitips must bp det('rmined expprimentally.
sentially zero, for most thermites and some types
The physieal-rhemical relationships which are
of delay mixtures, to 15 to 20 percent for light-
applicabl!' to pyrot!'chnics aI'!' summarized in this
producing compositions, to 50 percent for some
chapter, and p!'rtilH'nt examples ar!' given to il-
smokp-produciug mixtures. At the high tempera-
lustrat!' th!'ir application.
tures produced by the burning of pyrotechnic
compositions, many substances not usually con-
3-1 STATE OF A SYSTEM sidered gaseous will exist in the gaseous state.
The slate of any system (gas, liquid, or solid) The formation of gas, both as a pei,'manent product
can hl' dl'sr:ribed by specifying a sufficirnt number and as an intermediate product which exists only
of it." properties such as mass, volume, tpmperature, during the reaction, is indicated in light-produc-
aud pressurt'. l'hl'sl' properties are elassified as: ing mixtures by the presence of a flame. Gaseou:;
( 1) exit'usiVl' propertit's which depend on the size combustion products are necessary in smoke-pro-
of the system, and (2) intensivt' properties which ducing' mixtures to aid in the formation of dis-
are indepeudent of tht' size of thr system. It is persed, particulate matter and to earry this matter
unIlecn;sary to specify all the properties of a sys- into dIP atmosphere.
trIll iu order to ehuraeterize its statr; two indepen-
dent variables, eOInmollly til(' intensive variablrs of 3-1.1.1 Ideal Gases
pressure and tpmperature, are sllffi(~ipnt for a given Th!' behavior of gases at low pressures and
amount 'of pure substalH·p. A mathematical expres- high t('mp('ratures is often approximated by an
sion for this rt'latiollship is an !'({uation of statr rq uation of statr known as the ideal gas law:
whieh, for Ollt' mole of a pure substance with vol-
ume as th dt'pendent variable, has thp form: lV
pv=nRT=M RT (3-2)
V=f(T,p) ( 3-1) wh!'r!' p is th!' pressure, l' is the volume, n is the
3-1
AKCP 706·185
number of moles, R is the universal gas comltant, be given in weight units of a particular gas in-
T is the absolute temperature, tV is the weight of stead of in moles. In this case:
gas, and Jl is the molecular weight of the gas, us-
ing any s~t of consistent units. The density d of R '-~
-M (3-5 )
an idea) gas at variOlls temppratures and pressures
is: wherl.' Jf is the molecular weight of the gas, and R
is the univprsal gas constant.
d= ~_= pM ( 3-3)
v RT
3·l.1.3 Rcal Gases
The ideal gas law applies, strictly, to a hypo-
thdieal gas, which is composed of mass points be- In a real gas, the forc!:'s acting between the
twecll which 110 forces are acting. At the high moll'tules as well as the volume of the molecules
temppratures and relatiy('Iy low prpssures pro- ('ausp deviations from ideal bphavior. Several equa-
ducpd by burning ulIconfhH'd pyrotechnic mm- tions of state have bt'!:'1l proposed to more closely
p08itiolls, thp idpa! gas law is fairly accuratp. At approximatp thl' behavior of real gases. Rome of
the higher prpssures which lIIay be produced when thrsc p<lllations of stat!:' include:
a confined pYfotcehnit, composition is burned, the Van !fa lVaal's Equation:
behayior may flt'viatp appreeiably from that of an
ideal gas. ( p + ~~-) (I' -Ill,) = nRT (3-6)
3-1.1.2 The Un"versal Gas Constant and Standard whprl' a is H corrretion for the forces between mole-
Conditions (·ulrs of a real gas, and b, termpd the co-volume,
I t has been determined that one mole of ,an is a corrpdioll for the volulIH' of the molecule.
dl'al gas /)(~cupips 22.41-1 liters at 273.HioK and The units llsl!d for a alld b must hI' consistpnt with
()lIP atlllospherp. Tlwll, from Equation a-2: thmw ns(·t1 for tht, ot}wr yariahll's.
A bl'l 's Eqllation:
R = pv = (1) (22Al-!l = () .(lH')()'" !iter-atm
01'\. moll' = nRT
7' ('>7" 1l!)
. - .). 1>
_.J (p) (1' - nb) (3-7)
(:l-4 ) where b is the correction for the vtJ1ume of the
Thl' Itni\'('rsal g·as l'OllstHnt R has tIlt' units of lIlolp('IlIf's. This equation, which is a modificatioll
PIll'r)!y lH'r dt'l.(TPI'-ppr molt,. It lIIay hI' ('aleulatC'd of Vall ([('1' lVaaZ's Equation, applicahle where the
fl'Olll gquatioll :J--l for OIH' llIoll' of gas at standard pressurp is high, has been quite widely used for
('ouditiolls. 1'11(' \'alllP of R lllllst 1)(' ('ollsistC'nt with ('alculatiolls involving' explosives and propellants.
th" ullits or 1)J'I's:-H\rl', tl'IllIWratUI'I" and voluJIle I'iriql Equation:
IIst'd ill thl' idl'al ::as law. ROJllP vailH's of R in-
dudl' : pI' = IIRT ( 1
('
+ -B,1 + ~. + --- )
1'-
(3-8)
:~-2
AMCP 706·185
7
1.!
1.0 U
.liI
... 0.9 a.o
Au u
f: 0.6
G.4
2.8
2.4
1.2
2.0
o.a U
Q.J 1.8
1.4
1.!
12 14 16
• 28
Ii- = -----
JlI' allows a valtlt· for allY Ollt· of tll{' thn'(' variahll's
liNT 1', I', alld T to Iw (~aleltlatt'd ill ft'I'IllS (If thp other
(II', III t('\'J\I~ of l'l'(hlt'l'd variablps: \'al'iahl!'s with a fail' dt'grp(' of a.'('ura.')', Tht- l'OIll-
pl' .. ssihilit~, fadOl' ('Ill I Ilt' dt'tl'l'lllilwd p~peri
,-
i= (' Ollstallt) (PrJ'/')
-r;--, IIlt·l\ lall .l' or by ('al('lIlatioll usillg' a suitablp P'l"ll-
tioll of stat,·,
III whil'h a J'('.hlt'l'd val'iablt- is th., variabll' dividl-d
by its vall\.' at titl' .'I'ili('al pOilll, i,.',:
3-1.1.4 Gas Mixtures
/1, ,=- (jlp,I,T, :=c (TIT"I,alld l-,_, 1'/1'" (:!-11)
Oas lIIixt Ul'.'s art' lIol'mally II'pat('r] L.v l>altoll's
TIt(· l'I'iti.'al poillt is d(·filll'd whl'1I till' propp 1'- Law, i,l'"
ti,'s of a liquid alld g'as pitast' whi(,1t al'l' ill (.qlli-
lihl'iulIl b.·"OIlI,· idl'lIti('al. Tltt' p. ,', alld T tjUlIlI- /1,«,,,/-, /1 1 + II~ -+ ---- ::cc- ~" p, (:~-12 )
tilil's, asstJt'iatl't\ with tltis ('riti('al point, al'l' r]t'- '=1
fillt·d as II" /'" alit! T" TIt("'l'foJ'(', as I'\,(·dit'!(·d by Wltt'I't' till' pari ial IH'PSSIlI'P PI of each of thl' eClD-
tli .. Jawor .'()\,('(·spolldiilg stat,·,s, if II is plllttt'd POIH'llts is d .. fill,·d as tilt' !In'ssul'(' whieh wo~dd be
iI/wi list /1, at it gi\, II 1',. d sill~d(' ('III'\'(' will I'!'sult (·xl'I'I,·tl if it ()('I'IIJlit'd IIII' total \'"lUIIII' at til,' saml'
fill' all ~!a".·s as sll<l\\'\1 ill Fil!'III'" ;l-I, Til" .'0111- t"1I1P"I'i1t 1\1"', (:as Illixllll'l'S "all aho h.· In'all'd by
pl'l'ssibility fa"',,\, "~t illlat,·t! fl'olll tIlt'S(' ('IlI'\'('S lit,' ;\Illdgat additiy,· \Olllllli' la\\'
AMCP 706-185
n
application of both of these laws to real gas mix-
Vtota! = VI + + ----=
V:! ~ Vi (3-13 )
tures is sonH'what more difficult. l
<=1
where the volumes of the individual components
3-1.1.5 Sample CalculatioDs
etc., art' the volume each would occupy at
VI. V:!,
E:rarnpll! Olle: Analysis of the product gases
the (total) pressure and temperature of the mix-
ture. For ideal gas mixtures, the r{'snlts obtained producE'd by a burning fuel block composition,
containing ammonium nitrate and charcoal, indi-
with this equation will be the same as those ob-
cates thbt the reaction taking place could be repre-
tained by use of the additive pressurE' law. 'l'he
sented by the overall reaction:
Volume of gas produ<~ed (RTP) per gTlun of __ puM _ (200)2) (44-) = 34:3 'rams
fuel blo(~k bu;.-ned is: ' v- R'1' - (O'(JH2) (31:~) g
nRT (O'()41) (0.082) (273) (f)) A::.;suming that carbon dioxidr behaves as a
V = --p- :=:: '-1----
Van der Waal 's ga::.;:
= 0.Hl8 liters per gram
(h) Siu('(' the aetna! tpmpprlcJtnrp of the product
gas('s is 10000C, tlw ealeulated yolnmp at thif': tem-
pl'raturp and (lIlt' atmosphere would b(' ronsid('rably
[ RT
greater: .I'or
L' ":!, a =,.~ .oJ,
('" -q \iters~ atm molc-~; b= 0.0427
liter Illcle-' 1
127'~
VIOOOo C = 2'1~~
(c) 'rlIP partial
produets may hr
(O.9IR) = 4.2H lit('rs per gram
il-4
AJ4CP 706-185
T,.
;na
= :J04.2 = 1.03
, I
ogp =
- 0.0522::J (540,000)
2373
+ 14.22
log p = 2.32
!<'rom Figure 3-1, K = 0.42 p ~-= 210 mm mercury
pvM (200) (1) (44) The vapor pressure of small droplets, such as
w = . KRT = (0.42) (0.082) (~13) =: 608 grams
mist droplets, is higher than the bulk: vapor pres-
sure. If Po is the bulk vapor pressure of the liquid,
The experimentally determined value is 835 grams.
the vapor pressure. of a droplet p is given by:
8-5
AMCP 706-185
:l-(j
AMCP '106·185
and will either be conducting or nonconducting fol- discussed showing' their fj,pplieation in the field of
lowing the pYJ:'otechnic reaction. pyrott'chnics. Relected calculations, induding those
The propertit's of solids arr markedly affected for fldiabati(' flame temperatures, whi('h are im-
by defects 5 in crystal structure. Small amounts of Th)rtant to the oVl'rali analysis of ('hrmical reac-
impurities in an insulating material may make the tions, arr also prt'!'ented.
material a semi-conductor. Such doped materials
may also exhibit enhanced chemical activities. De- 3-2.1 THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS
parture of a crystalline compopnd from chemical Thrrmod.v; i:-lI11i('s is based Oil three laws and the
stoichiometry, due to incorporation of extra atom~ implipatiolls \i~'ri\'('d from thest' laws. 'I'he applica-
into the crystal at interstitial sites or to vacancies tion of (,prtain t hermodynami(' rt'lationships de-
eaused by the abser\('t' of atoms i\'om normal sites, rived from th(' thr!'!' laws i!'; a useful tool for use
also rt'sults ill semi-eonductivity. ill pr!'dieting' the performan('p and out com!' of
Point defeds, inclUding those ill which an ion lIlallY pliysi('iH·hpmi(·al systt'ms.
mov('s from its lattiCl' site to an interstitial posi-
tion (Fr!'nkt'l dt'ft'l't), or t host' in which a pair of
3-2.1.1 First Law of Thermodynamics
ions of oppositp ('harge art' mi,;sing from their lat-
The first law of th!'; JIlociynami('s is a statement
ti!'p sitr (S{'hottky dt'frct), do Hot altt'r the t'xact
stoidliolllPtry of the sl)lirl but do provide a means of tIl(' law of eOllsPl'vatioll of ellPrgy, i.t'., that
PlIt'!')!Y {'an bt' ])('ith!'r <:rpatptl lIor dt'stroyed,
by which atollls can lllOW in thr solid phast'. I~inpar
dt'f,'ds. disl<)('atiolls. provide a 1\1 '1' Ilwans for
'I'h., first law of thprmodYllamies ('an h,c> ex-
\.1 ('ss(>d matlwlllati('ally:
atoms to movp with rpslwct to t'u('h ( ' I ' in tht' solid
pllast'. 'rJwse tlt'fpi'ts pl'o\'idt' mt'('hanislllS for mallY tlE =: (i --- II' (3 17)
of HlP pro('t'ss('S whit'h Ol'enr in th" solid stab'.
",h('I'(' (I is the' t'llt'I'gy ill tir!' forrll of hcat, trans-
TlH'Y provid" sitl's at whidl \'ht'mieaJ reaetions
f,'rrt'd illtn or 011t of tilt' sy~tPlll; W is til(' rllergy,
alld physieaJ (·han!res ('an take pia!'!' l'radily. '1'111'
;ll tht, fOl'llI of work t!'ansft'rr('d to or from til('
point of P!llt'rg-i'IH'(' of it dislo(·atioJl at th{' surface
is a sit!' of in(,I'PIIst'd dlt'miea] rel1l'tivity. systt'Tll; alit! j,E is tlIp l'han!rl' ill intt'rnal elll'rgy.
'1'11(, P:'PSt'IH't' of ('rystal dl'fpds ill p,vl'ot{'C'hnie If til(' syStt'lIl ab~orbs ht,tlt, If has a positive valne;
inl!rt,(lit'lltS ('11ll haYt' a mal'kt'd illfllll'llCI' on tl;t' if tlIl' systt'lIl dot's work. w hilS a lJositivt' valut'.
('OIlI'l>;t' of tht' rpadioll lind, th('I'pfo!'p, illflllt'I!!'(' tilt' TIlt' val1lt' of 1lJ..' dqwJlds only 011 tht' initial and
fIllal statt' 0 1' tht' systt'lll. 'I'h!' qualltitit,s fJ and w
('hal'lIt"tt'I'isti(' 1}{'llayior (imilldiJl)! stability and out-
Pllt) o~' P,\'l'ot ('('hlli(' (·olllj)ositioIlS. d"\H'lIt! 011 t h(' path tak"ll fro\ll tilt' initial til tht'
/illal stat!'. }.'!)I' <l ('YI,li(' pro('!'ss, i.t'., a. pnw.ess
'.Vhidl Itas the sam!' initial and final stage, ilE = ()
3-2 THERMODYNAMICS
";0 tllat (I == 'U'.
'l'h("'III(HiYllilllli('s is th,· study 1)1' t ht' quulltita-
t i ':t' J't'lai lOllS hips hd \\'('('11 h('at and ot Iwl' forms of
3·2.1.1.1 Heat Effects at Constant Volume and
t'lIt'n!y, i!l all ('as('s. ('llI'IX)' ('all ht' p;;pr'l'ss('d as
Constant Pressure
tilt, pl'odlld of t\\'/I fal'!ol's. all int('nsity t'a('/ol' (i.t",
Th,' h"al !'t,!t'a>i('d b~' II pyrot('I'llIIit' rpal'1 ion t'llll
t"llIlkl'atllJ'(' ditl't'r"IIt't'), alld a (·illllll·ity fador (i.t'.,
I'aist' III,' l<'lIIpt'ratlll't' of th(' !'l'udioll pr()(lut,ts,
llt'llt ('a/lilt·it." I. III th,· 1'1,'lwti,H\ of a l'Yl'o!I'\'hlli('
('a liS" plraSt' .·hl11I~'·S, alld ('allSt' otlI .. !' ('hpllIi(,1l1 re-
(,OlllP(ISititlll, th,· (,II,'mi('1l1 "ll"I')!,\' is ('OIl\'P!'t,'d illto
avl iOll," (;IIt'\1 as diss(wiat inll) to takt' pial"', If a
Ilth,,1' 1'1l['1I.\" of t'lll'J'g-y. pl'illlilrtly It,'at 1!lltl work.
dit'llli"HI l'<'lwliUII or ph::si"111 dian!!,' tukt's plan' at
'I'll" pl'<,dlH'\:i hI' "OllllillstiOl. aI'" IIt'id"t! to tli(, I','al"
('()IISlalll \,ollllllt', alld ollly prt·ssllrt'.\,olulllt' work
tioll I ('llIJH'ratlll'l', aJl(l, if 11Ill'ollfillrd, \\'ork l'all b('
i" ('oll"iti,'r,'(L llit' IIl1illllllt of wlIrk d01l1' is z\'ru IIlld
dOlI<' :t!!lIillst I lit· at lIlo"ph,·r,'.
tilt' II,'a I .. Il'"v' iU't'Olll pllll!, illg- tilt' rt'ad iOIl is t'q Hill
III t\I(' f(/lI(}wi/l~ Plll':I:.'I'<lI'II,;, ,,'rtHill La"i(' laws
tll 1ht· ,'''itlll!(' ill illl"I'lI1ti .'!It'I·),!,\'.
of t 1i('J'IIIIlt\y Jlilllli··.... t \)/'l'dIOdit'llIist I'y, ,·h,·lllil'll!
"'1llilihl'illlll, 1\1t' ('Oll("'i'i Ill' 1'1'"., "IItT~y, t'!('" arl'
,------------------------------------ ----- ----
AMCP 706·185
;J-H
AMCP 706-185
Heat capacity values are l'ssential for many capacities of solids at higher temperatures. s Where
thermochemical calculations involving pyrotech- thest' values are not available, the room tempera-
nics. 1'he temperature attained by the p~oduets of ture value may be used in conjunction with a value
a pyrotechnic reaction will drpend, in part, on the of 7.25 calories per gram-atom per degree-Kelvin
hea.t capacity of these products. Calculations of for the next transition point, assnming a linear in-
the heat balance for a given system utilize the creasf' of Cp with temperature.
heat capacity to obtain tht' t'uthalpy t·hange in 'fhe lwat capacities of molten inarganic sub-
going from ont' tt'mpt'rature and/or state to an- stances do not differ greatly from those of solid
other. The latest tablt's, however, provide enthalpy materials. When handbook values are unavailable,
ehallges directly, making it UllIWt'essary to calcu- Kopp's Rule may also bt' applied to compounds by
late heat eapal'itit's illdepl'ndt'lltly. assigning' thp following values of atomic heat
l'apacities to thl' atoms of the liquid: C, 2,8; H,
3-2.1.1.2.1 Heat Capacity of Gases -t.,3; 13, 4.7: Si, 5.8; 0, 6.0: F, 7.0; P, 7.4; S, 7.4,
awl to most oth!'r elements a value of 8.0.
Aecorciillg' to the kineti(' th('ory of gases, the
()t.IWI' Illl'thods for I'stimating heat capacities
heat capll('ity of ili('al gast's, Hll(i of mOllotomic real
of liquids and solids are Ilvailable. 6 In most cases,
gases sUl'h as h('Iium and argou, to relatively high
"aieIlJatil)lls are UIlJlt.'cessar~', as tht' -"alues have
tl'mpera~ures is:
bN'1I <'xpt'rillH'Iltally detcnnilwd and may be ob-
Ct , = 3/2 R = 3 caljgmole OK (3-29) tainl'd from handbook tabulatiolls,
The ht'at l'apaeity of liquids and solids decreases
(\' = C" +R= [) cal/gnwle OK ( 3-30)
('()Il,;idt'rably with II deerl'asp in temperature and
Diatolllil' 1'l'1I1 gases, iU('luding gast's such as oxygen is zt'ro at IIbsolllt.(· zero. For tt'IllIwratures below
and nitrogPll, and lint'ill' polytOllli(' 1ll0Il'l'lIlt's tave ;iOOK, tllP ])pbyt' gqllation applies and:
two dl'grl'('s of rotatiollal frl't'tIolll ill addition to
(' _ -tr-t :- . 'I n. ('a I OrIt'
.
tlt(' thl'l't' d('gn'('s of fl'('('doIll ass(wiatt'd with trans-
latiollal lIlotion. At lIol'mal Il'mpl'l'lIll1rt's the heat
, ..- ) •• J es de~rce-Kelvin gram-atom
(3-33)
('apa('itit's of tht's(' gaSt'S aI'!' IIppl'oxilllatt'ly:
WII!'I"> 'J' is tlit' absollltt· tplllpt'rature in dt'grt'es-
Cu ::::: 5/2 R = [) cal/gmole OK (a-:u)
I\.t'lvill, allll ~ is tl'rlllPd th!' l'harat~t('ristie tempel'a-
Cp == V" + R = 7 cal/gmoh' OK ( 3-32) IIII'!' and is dt'tillt'd by:
3-9
_Ud,GP 706,185
\'(,I's('d h~' all illtillitl'sillllil ('hallg'(' ill ('xt(,I'llai ('011- il IH'('OIlH':, a (loll1inl'Lllt fa('tor, Hrlll'(', all chemical'
diti()n,~, J';lltI'OPY has tht' SI111I(' lIllils as heat cu- I'padiolls wili('h illvo)w an illl'reas" ill entropy will
JJ:~I'ity, i,I' .. ('alol'it's IH'I' g'nlllHttolll !lP!' degl'('('·KI'I- (I('('Ul' spontulIl'ollsly if tltt' tcmperaturp is high
VIII. t'/lollg'h, A dis('IISsioll of free l'llcrgy and the equi-
By lIsiJlg ('nlroJlY, th(' S('('oIHI law ('1111 IH' ('x- libriulII (~()llstHI'I is JH'('S(mtl~d ill Paragraph 3-2,3,
11I'('s~;l'dIllal h(,llIati(~ally :
3-2.1.3 Third Law of Thermodynamics
A('('ol'tiillg' 10 tIl(' third law of thcrmodYIU!mics,
g\,(,I',\' spolllalll'ollS dl1l I!i!t' ill a S,\'sj('III, 1I1I'I'('fol'!', I hI' (,lltl'f)P} oj' it IWl'fl'et. (~rysta\liIH' sllbstance at
IS III a dil't'l'l i"ll slwh 111'.1 ils ('III I'Opy, pillS that of OOK is ZPl'O, AltI\lIu~dl it is impossible theoretieally
its SIII'I'Ollllllillg's, illt'l'paSl's, lIo\\'I'\'t'I', if thl' sys- to attai,!, absolut(' 7('1'0, tlH' validity of ~lle third law
1t'lIl alOlll' i~ ('ollsidl'l'l'd, SpOil 1alH'i I y of ('Ii('mica I hw.; h"('1l t,h('('k('d hy ('Xllel'illl('ntatioll. It ran also
l't'al'1ioll" lIIay ht' 11'('alt'<I hy tal,ill~ lwo (It'ivillg' h(, slil)\\'ll thai till' "'1tl'opil's of all pm'(' ehelllical
1'01'l'('S illio ;\('('011111; a tl'lld"II"Y to adopt tl\(, lo\\'('sl ('olllllllllllds ill tili'il' st.ablt, stlltt'S at ()'"l( art' zero
"lIt'I':!,\' alit! a 1('lIdl'II(',Y to :Idopt. IIt(' Ili).rh("'t, (,II- !J('('lII1SI' ~ ht'i,' j"Jl'lllatioll 1'1'0111 th(, dt'IIH'lIts is:
I I'Opy, I r I h" hl'o ('ltall).!'t's <11'1' Oppos('d, tilt' syst('1II ~''''II· 0, 'l'his law stat!';; iha t absolut!' l'Jltropips
will PI'O('('I,d ill tIll' din'('jillil ,d' ,h(, lal'g('I' ('hallg'I', 01' ~o-l'idlt'd thil'd law ('Iltl'ol,h ,; t'lt11 bl' dl'terrllim'd
If Iht, I\\'() 1!llillltiti('s al'l' t':-;;!I'II,\' t'qual, 110 ('hallg'I' t'I'OJlI Itl'ltt t'apl11'it,v data ('xt 1':l}Jolal('rl to 0° K whidl
will (w,'111' alld tIll' "y:-;II'1I1 is said to !)f' al ('qlli- "illl lit, lISl'il ill ('l!lIilihl'iulll (~al,~lIlati()lIs:
lilll'illlll, Tit" 111'1 dl'iyillg' 1'01'('" is t('~IIII'd IiiI' \Vnl'k
1"llllt'lilHI 01' 11"lltdll!ll;t, 1'1'('(' t'lIt'I':!,\' .1, alld al ('011-
~;t;1II1 1"lIlp, .. ,,,III/'(' :1:"Jt;
8 ~':: or
L. ( , r
'/'f)
!.:!~- )
'I' ( ,II,/, --t ( :1-42)
(:1·:11-1 i
I tI'l'
----
(
I' l' tlrl' 111('I'I'a"I' III I'II/rupy, is ob-
"'01' ;( "jllllllalll't111s (l1""'",;s at ,'oll:-;tallt \',l1ll1l1t' alld
""llst<lI:1 1,'lllp,'I'all/l"" .1.1 Is alwllYs III'galiYI': 1'(1
:1- 1()
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 3·1
CRITERIA OF SPONTANEITY
talurd for each phase by graphical integration and 4. Whether or not the re lction is at constant
~pc, the entropy increase due to a phase change,
volume or COl stant pressure.
The specific influence of these conditions j'J de-
is determined for each of the phase changes. The
scrih£>d in the para~raphs which follow.
Debye Equati0n (Paragraph 3-2.1.1.2.2) is used
for the temperature range OOK to approximately
0
50 K as experimental data a.;.-e difficult to obtain 3-2.2.1 Heats of Reaction
in this temperat'lre lange. Absolute entropies can The heat effect associated with a pyrotechnic
also be caleulated by the method of statistical or other chemical reaction is the heat of ~·eadion.
IlIpehanics. r. 'l:'he heat of format·.vn is the heat of the reaction
associated with the formution of a compound from
3·2,2 THERMOCHEMISTRY its elements. 'l'he heat of combustion is the heat of
'l'hermoeht'm:stry is the study of tiI<, heat effects the reaetion associated with the complete com·
at'companying ('}lPmical reactionR, the formation of bustion of a substance in oxygen. The heat of ex-
solutions, and (~hangt's in state such as fusion and plosion is the heat vf reaction associated wH;h the
v.lporizatiou. Since tl:e amo.Hlt of hrat librraten rapid explosiVt' decomposition of a material in an
from a pyrotecnni(' reac·tion stl'ongly int\uPIlces the inert atmosphere.
~haracteristi(' output, I'n un(ierstanding of the For pyrotechnic reactIOns at constant pressure,
principks and applieation of thermm'hemistry is if only pressure-volume work is considered, the
of vital importance. heat effeci. qp can be obtained from the enthalpy
Thf' heat ~>volvrd (vr absorbl'd) ill a ehrmical l'hangp for the reaetion as follows:
r!'Retion depf'udfl upon:
qp = D.H (reaction) = 'f.H (products)
1. 'rill'propl>rtif's of thl' products and reac- - 'f.H (reactants) (3-40)
tants, and the amount of thest' substatH'es in-
volved. Tf tlw readion is u standard st.ate reaction,
2. The physi('al stat!' of the substaacl>s ill- whl'f(' th<' rC'aC'iallts in their standard states react
volwd. to giv<' the products in their s+andard states and
;~. Thp t\'mperatutt' and prt'ssnrt' at whid} the the fltuTJilard lleats of formation D.H 7'0 (f) of the
rt'action takps plllt·f'. plemt'llts is assullw!l 10 bp zero at any given tern-
3-11
AMCP 706-185
)liP
perature, then the standard heat of reaction i1HT o 3-2.2.2 Effect of Temperature OD the Heat of
(reaction) is: Reactil)D
As illustrated schematically in Figure 3-3, the
AHrD (reaction) = AH(f)To (products) heat of reaction at ar'v temperature T and constant
- MI(fh o (reactants) (3-41) pressure is :
~
(q"h (reaction) =: AE (reaction)
A.Ti} r ° (reaction) :-:::: I:.AE (f h 0 (prt,ducts)
Rimilarly, (f TCpdT + AliI"') (products) is the
-- 'f,AE(f)rO (reactants) (3-46) TIl
3-12
AIICP 700-18..')
heat absorbed or evolved in heating or cooling TheL:e tabl!'s clln also he us('a for calculations
the products from T/I to 1'. According to Equation of free ('Ilrrgy (~hanges for chemical reactions. This
3.47, if th(' heat rvolved by eooling the reartants is shown in Paragraph :1-2.3.5
from the higher to the lower temperature is gl'eater
than the amount absorbed in heating the products 3·2.2.4 Bond Energies 1
from the lower to the higher temperature, the heat Bond energy (B.E.) is defined as the average
of reaction at the higher 1emperatllre will be great. mnl)unt of energy per mole required to break a
PI" than that at the lower temperature. particular type G1' bond in a molecule. Bond eneI'·
In cases where reactiolls begin and rnd at the gies may be calm:.ln.tcd when heat of combustion
same tempcrature and where no changes in ph lise data are available. However, of l:,'Teater utility is
are involved, the standard iwat of '"eaction at the estimation of the heat of reactivn from bond
temperatllrr T is defined by: l~nergy data for compounds for which no enthalpy
data are available. In this casc:
(:3-48 ) ~H = B.E. (bonds broken) - RE. (bonds forn;.ed)
(3-51)
Til
where ~Cp = ~Op (products) -- ~Cp (reactants), Bond streugths or hond dissociation energies may
and H T o R is the standard heat of reaction at the differ from mean boud energies derived solely
reference temperature T1/. 'fhis is known as Kirch. from thermochemieal data on Illoleculeb and atoms.
hcjf's Equation aJJd, for small temperature
ranges, heat wtpacities may be treated as constant 3-2.3 FREE ENERGY AND EQUILIBRIUM
and the equati(Jll r~duces to: A state of chemical equilibrium exists in any
~]{TO = J.Il T o II + ~Cp(T-TR) (3-49) chemically reacting system when no further change
in compusition with hmc can be detected provided
For othrr eases, experimental heat capacity data
the temperature and pressure are not altered. The
expressed in the form shown in Paragraph 3-2.1.1.2
(~riterioll of equilibrium is that the change in free
must be Ilsed; however, if enthalpy tables are avail-
energy of any possible reaction !lnder these condi-
able, heat eapal.~ity data need not be considered as
t ions shall be zero.
such.
Wher(~ data are l'equired at temperatures above (~Fkp=O (3.52)
~hofle listed, it mel)' be ucce£:>ary to e:l!.:trapolate the
111 ordrr to estimate maximum flame temperatureE
data to the desired temperatllrr.
from pyrotechni(' reactions, a knowledge of the
3·2.2.3 Enthalpy Tables e'lllilibrium concentrations of the combustion prod-
ucts is required ill additIOn to information on the
Calculatiollf> of heat of reactiull at differ('nt
heat released. If a state 01 equilibrium exist.s among
temperaturl's art' simplified if tabular enthalpy data
the JH'oduct species, the equilibrium c(lmposition
are available. Tables 3-2 for solid magnesium ox·
for the combustion products is fixed at a given
idc, :l-:l for solid aluminum oxide, :3-4 alai ~-5 fIJI'
temperature and pressure (or volume) when t,he
solid and liquid sodium I)xidr, and :3-6 for ga.seow'
atomic composition is specified.
oxygen, (!ontain these data. In these tables, stan-
Pyrotechnic reactions often illvolvc the oxida-
dard hpats of forma.tion ~Jlfo, at different tcmpera-
tion of a metal to form a refractory oxide. This
tures, are tabulated. In other tables only values
reaction limits the ma."dmum temperature attain-
for tht' puthalpy ilUwtioIl, HO - II T /I 0, along with
able to the vaporization temperature of the metal
the heat of fOJ'mation at S(l!ll(~ referenel' tempera-
oxide whpther this oxidl' decomposes on vaporiza.
turl', usually O°I( or 29B.9:3°K are tabulated. The
tion, 01' not. Th~ mptals commonly used as fuels
heat of r('aet ion at any temperature becomes:
ilL pyrotechnit·s deeompos(' Oil vapo:oization. In
fill T
O
cc::: ~/lTR ° + ~(HO --1I"'1I 0) (products) mo;;;t cases, thl' metal dc::!omposrs to yield metal
- '2:,(H" - HTR 0) (reaetallts) (8-50) atoms; how('\'t'r, a few metal oxides, such as alum-
3-13
AMCP 706··185
TABLE 3·2
TB'ERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF SOLID MAGNESIUM OXIDE
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) (SoUd) Mol. Wt 28.32 =
,_.. _ . ____.__.___ ~al. mole- l deg.-' _ _ _ _ ~ ~_ _ _-_--kcal. roole- I _____- - - - - . .
T, OK. C~ SO -(Fo-}lo",)/T }1°_Hom ,6.Ho 1 6Fo, LogKp
0 .000 .000 INFINITE - 1.235 -142.702 -142.702 INI<'INITE
100 1.865 .608 12.488 - 1.188 -143.156 -140.918 307.961
200 6.380 3.369 7.184 - .763 -·143.559 -138.501 151.340
298 B.9Otl 6.4:19 6 439 .000 -·143.700 -13u.981 99.672
300 a.g39 6.494 3.439 .017 -143.701 -135.933 99.022
400 10.148 9.252 6.807 .978 -143.705 -133.310 72.850
500 10.854 11.598 1.537 2.031 -143.654 -130.755 57.150
600 11.323 13.621 8.386 3.141 -143.583 -128.181 46.688
7GO 11 .656 15.393 9.263 4.291 -143.513 -125.619 39.218
800 11.905 16.966 10.130 5.489 -143,457 -123.067 33.619
900 12.098 18.3~ 10.969 6.670 -143,4?.5 -120.521 29.265
1000 12.251 19.663 ll.775 7.888 -145.541 -117.799 25.744
1100 12.375 20.837 12.546 9.119 -145.529 -115.025 22.852
1200 12.478 21.918 13.283 10.362 -145.538 --112.252 20.443
1300 12.565 22.920 13.986 11.614 -145567 -109.478 18.404
1400 12.638 23.854 14.658 12.874 -176.04'/ -106.235 16.583
1500 12.701 24.728 15.301 14.141 -175.712 -101.261 14.753
1600 12.756 25.550 15.916 15.414 -175.375 - 96.309 13.155
1700 12.804 26.325 16.505 16.692 -175.034 - 91.378 11.747
1800 12.845 27.058 17.071 17.975 -174.693 - 86.467 10.498
1900 12.882 27 .753 17.616 19.261 -174.a51 - 81.574. 9.383
2000 12.915 28.415 18.139 20.551 -174.008 - 76.699 8.381
2100 12.945 29.046 18.644 21.844 --173.665 - 71.84.4 7.477
2200 12.il71 29.M8 19.130 2:j .140 -173.321 - 67.004 6.656
2300 12.994 30.225 19.600 U.438 -172.979 - 62.178 5.908
2400 13.016 30.779 20.054 25.739 -172.636 - 57.368 5.224
2500 13.035 31.311 20.494 27.041 -172.295 - 52.572 4.596
2600 13.052 31.822 20.920 28.346 -171.955 - 47.790 4.017
2700 13.068 32.315 21.333 29.652 -171.616 - 43.018 3.482
2800 13.082 32.791 21.734 30.959 -171.280 - 38.264 2.986
2900 13.095 33.250 22.123 32.268 -170.945 - 33.518 0.526
3000 13.107 33.6!H 22.501 33.578 -170.613 - 28.785 2.097
inullI oxide, deeomposp to yield a llIixtm'p of other chemical reaction is directly proportional to the
oxide molecuh's. 'l'ypical of the decomposition re- "active ma1'ses" of the reacting materials. For
a(,tion is the following general reaction: 8 any ehemical reaction:
MxOv (1) ~ xM(g) + y/2 Oz(g) (3-53 ) aA + bB + ... ;= gG + Hk ...
where M represents a metal t'lpllIrnt. Since the where the capital letter indicates a chemical species
reactions are reversible, the degree of decomposi- and the smaH letter indicates the number of moles
tioh will depend on the oxygen partial pressure as of each species.
well as the temperature. At the high temperatures An equilibrium constant for this reaction, desig-
produced by pyrotechnic reactions, many other natl'd K, can be written in terms of conce.ltrations:
equilibria, such as the dissociations of gaseous
products, relatively unimportant at lower tempera· K_ .J!Jil. _. [Gjll (HI h
( 3-54)
tures, must be considered. - k(r) -- [AJa [B]b
3·14
AMCP 706·18.5
TABLE 3·3
THERMODYNAM.IC PROPERTIES OF SOLID ALUMINUM OXIDE
Aluminum Oxide (alpha AI2 0 a) (Crystal) Mol. Wt. = 101.960
(JANAF Thermodynamic Tables, Interim T.ble ' .. ued March 31, 1964)
for the revel'S(' rt'aetioll, and K is th(' equilibrium stant. The expression in terms of p3rtial pressures
(·onstant. Tht' ('oll(~('ntration ean bp expressed as for the f'<juilibrium eO!lstant, therefore, will in-
a partial pr~'SSIHp or as a mole fraetion ill addition ('Iude only terms for tIlt' gaseous materials.
to the mort' ('olllmon eOI)(~t'ntratioll units. Por aetual The Pljuilibrium between phasps is an important
syst('rr1S, aetivities or fugaeities f..t)(H1ld 1)(' used in- tyP(' of heterogeneous (,quilibrium. Th(' free ener-
~tead of (·O/welltrations. 5 ,11 gies of til(' vapor and liquid phases are the same
WIH'll more than Ollf' phase is pr!'sP/lt, as is true whieh l,'ads to tilt' derivatiou of the important
for most pyrott'ehllie rpaetions, the (·quilibrium is ('In: lsins-Chqll'yron Equation: u
het{·rogell('(Jlls. ~ine!' tIlt' partial prf'&<;lIres of the
glls phas!'s ill t'qllilibriulll with the solid phases are (a-55)
('Ollstllnt at a giV(,ll telllperatur!', tlH'Y ('all be a~
SUlIIt'd to h!' ill('orporated into tli,· "<juilihrium (,Oll- In this pqt!atiol!, p is til<' vapor pressure in milli-
3·15
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 3-4
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF SOLID SODIUM OXIDE
Sodium Oxide (Na 2 0) (Crystal) Mol. Wt. 61.982 =
_ _ _ _ _ cal. mole-I deg.- I_________ kcal. mole-I _ _ _ ~
T, oK. C~ So -(PO-HOm)/T H o_H 0 . . . .6Hof .GFo, LogK,.
0
100
200
298 17.436 17.H90 17.990 .000 - 99.400 -9Cl.125 66.060
300 17.454 18.09B 17.990 .032 - 99.398 -90,007 65.610
400 18.442 23.254 18.687 1.827 -100.647 -86.862 47.457
500 19.430 27 .475 20.034 3.720 -100.601 -83.417 36.460
600 20.418 31.105 21.584 5.713 -100.428 -79.995 29.137
700 21.400 34.327 23.178 7.804 -100.138 -76.612 23.918
800 22.394 37.249 24.757 9.994 - 99.737 -73.277 20.017
900 23.382 39.944 26.297 12.283 - 99.235 --69.998 16.9'.17
1000 24.370 42.459 27 .788 14.670 - 98.641 -66.780 14.594
1100 25.358 44.828 29.231 17.157 - 97.966 ~3.629 12.641
1200 26.346 47.077 30.625 19.742 -143.685 -59.625 10.859
1300 27 .334 49.224 31.974 22.426 -142.423 -52.670 8.854
1400 28.322 51.286 33.280 25.209 -141.067 -45.~17 7.152
1500 29.310 53.274 34.547 28.090 -139.615 -39.004 5.691
1600 30.298 55.197 35.778 31.071 -138.067 -32.409 4.427
1700 31.286 57.064 36.975 34.150 -136.420 -25.854 3.324
1800 32.274 58.880 38.142 37.328 -134.681 . -19.40l 2.356
1900 33.262 60.651 39.280 40.605 -132.846 -13.044 l.500
2000 34.250 62.382 40.392 43.980 -130.916 --6.791 .742
wh?re Po:! is the partial pressnrp of the oxygen and whpre K is tlw ('(tuilibriUln constant. () is a ('on-
PM is tht' partial pressure of tIll' mptal vapor. tinllOw; flll1ctio/l similar in form to K (Equation
3-16
AlIICP 7()6..1B5
TABLE 3·5
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF LIQUID SODIUM OXIDE
Sodium Oxide (Na 2 0) (Liquid) Mol. Wt. = 61.982
3-54) but which applies to the "eoncelltrations" partial prf'SSllres. For example, thc equilibrium
or partial pressures of the products aml reactants cOllstant for the decomposition of a metal oxide,
at allY tinw during a partieular reaction. For real Elplation 3·57 is related to the standard free energy
gases and other substanccs, the K and Q should be c1langt' for the reaetiol1, Equation :i-fl9, as followtl:
terms of activities or fugaeities. If tlir f('action is
a standard stat(· reaction, til(' hypothrtical reac-
!::.po = _ RT In Kp = - RT In (Po 2(U) )1I/2(PM(O)'"
( 3-61)
tion in which thl' rt'actallts ill tlleir stalldard states
at OIW atmosplwrt' read to give j>rotiud.s in their where P02 is the partial pressure of the oxygen and
stalJ(lard ;;taU's at olle atlllosphpre, Q bt'comes unity P.II is the part ial pressure of the metal vapor.
3-17
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 3·6
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF OXYGI<:N
Oxygen, Diatomic (0 2 ) (Reference Stat~Idea1 Gas) Mol. Wt. = 32.00
3·18
Aliep 706·185
tions AJ!'To can be calculated from the standard the equilibrium constant with temperature is more
free energies of form~tion, t;.F'1'0 (f) : complicated.
flli' 'E 0 ="i:,AF'T ° (f) prod uets = };aFTO (f) reactants
( 3-62)
3-2.3.5 Tabulated Free Energy Values
Standard free energy of formation of the elements Calculations involving free energy changes at
in their standard state at one atmosphere pressure any temperature are made easier if tabulated values
and at the given temperature is taken as zero. are available fo1' the standard free energy of for-
The stand[l.rd free energy change and the associ- mation at variou:> temperatures. Tables 3-2, 3-3,
ated equilibrium constant (Equation ;j-fi8) are 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6 contain this information in ad-
functions of temperature. The change in free ditioll to the information on standard enthalpies of
energy, the enthalpy change flH, and the tempera- formation. In these partiCUlar tables, the stan-
ture are related by the Gibbs Helmholz equation dard free energies of formation of the compoupd
which, for a standard state reaction, is: from the elements in their standard states, along
with the equilibrium constant for the formation
-- dilF'° _ d(ET l~ K 1 ( 3-63) reaetion, are tabulated for various temperatures.
dT - dT
In other tabulations the free energy functioI!
If illP can be considered ('Olls:ant l'ver the range
of temperature, or is an average valti.;·: FT o - FTI'
T is tabulated for various temperatures
ilFO ilH o
R'l' = - log Kp = + 2.3RT -+ Constant (3-64) along with the standard free enf\rgies of formati(\ll
at sume reference temperature, whcre T is the reac-
If ilHo cannot be treated as a COllstant over the
tion temperatnre and Tn is the reference tempera-
temperature rangt', the ealeulation vf the change in
ture.
Then:
ilF'T" = };ilF7 ,O 11 (f) products - };ilFTR ° (f) reactants (3-65 )
+ "'T
,;., ----r--
( Pro --- FTR ) pro(I uets - ,;.,T
"" (FTO -T FTll
--- ) reactants
The reference temperatures normally used are two temperatures is related by:
298°K or O°K. 'fhe free energy change at these
and of the energy I"eleasl'd by th(' reaction. The rpat'tion is ('qual to it.<; fllthalpy change:
( 3-67)
3-19
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -
AMCP 706··185
"
>00
i
:::>
0
0
tabulated values for Hro - HTR 0; H T o - HO ,,0r
[ heat capacity; heat o~ fusion; heat of vaporization;
!
",£, .~ and heat of dissociation. The heat of reaction is
,'0
located on the ordinate of the plot and the hori-
zontal line is drawn from this value nntil it inter-
J -----
____ - - - - - BOILING
sects the heat content curve.l1 The adiabatic flame
- \
___ POINT
'00
\
AOIAeATIC fLAM( tpmpl'rature is read from the abseissa.
'1EWPER,ITUfiE'
')113- K
______ WUTING
'0
------
.----- POINT
3-2,5 SAMPLE THERM:ODYN AMIC
CALCULATIONS
The following sample caicubtioD3 have been
TEMPEFIATURE, ·K
selected to illustrate the application of thermo-
dynamics to pyrotechnic reactions.
F;gu'e 3-.-1. Enthalpy of Aluminum Oxide Versus
Example 1. The adiabatic flame temperature
/'emperature for aluminum burning in a stoil~hiometric amount
of (lxygen can be calculated as follows. Th~ overall
where 6.H r 11 0 is the enthalpy change for the reac- stoichiometric reactian is.
tion at a refereJ1(~e temperature Til; "i:,6.H (diss) is
the summation of the enthalpy ('hanges associated
2AI (R) + 1.502 (g) ~ AhOs (8)
with t hI> dissociatioll of gaseous pro(lucts and with The heat of reaction at 298°K is the same os the
iOllizati~\1l if tht' flam!' tt'mperatures art' suffieirntly heat of formation of Al 2 0 3 (s) ,..." 400 kilocalories
high: ;'':'6.1/,)(. is the summation of t.he enthalpy per mole. (See paragraph 3-2.2.) The heat con-
change!> af..soeiatcd with phase ('hanKes in the rear- tent plot for this reaction is given in Figu~e 3·4
wh!'l'e the reference temperature is taken as 298°K.
T 7' Approximately 400 kilocalories are released in
tioJl pr()liu('ts; alld ~
f
Til
(lp (products) dT is the
the formation of solid aluminum oxide at the
rt'ft'rt'Jwr tt'mperaturr of 298°K. As shown in
<-mOlln1 of heat necessary to raise the reaction I"iguJ'{' 3-4, approximately 140 kiJocalorit'A of this
products to the flam,> tt>mperature. l'lIf'rgy are rcquirt'd to raist' one moll> of aluminum
Befort' eaiculating th!.' enthalpy change for the oxid(' to its boiling' point. The diiferen('e (400 to
reaction, f'quations must be obtained for the molar 140 kiloealorit's) is ('onsllm('(l in vaporization of the
3-20
AMCP 706·185
~1
'">-::>
0
about 3400oK. II the magnesium were burned in
c
i pure oxygen, the calculated adiabatic flame tem-
!!: perature would still be limited to about 3400°K.
/
%;= Example 3. Compositions contaiIling magne-
I
X sium Mid sodium nitrate are used in many illu-
40
mi ... "tiag flares. There are several possible ways
fc, l' this reartion to proceed which, in turn, deter-
mine relative amounts of magnesium and sodium
20 nitrate required for the stoiehiometrio:! (balanced)
.O .....TlC fL ..... E
T(Mptll' ..TUIIt£:
140Q" Ie
chemit'al rea(ltion. Two of the possible stoichio-
I metric reacti.ms are:
+------~----r---~----_.--~I~I----,--
'000 '000 ZOO<> ""'" ..ao 4000
1. 5Mg(s) + 2NaNOa (s) ~ 5MgO(s)
+ Na20(S) + N (g-) 2
and:
Figure 3-5. Enthalpy :>f Product.. of Magnesium-Air
Reaction 2. 6.Mg(s) + 2NaN0 (s) ~ 6MgO(s)
3
+ 2Na(s) + N (g) 2
liquid aluminu!Il oxide. The v[lporizatio:l of
For tht' first rea{~tioJJ, the ratio of the weight of
A1 2 03 (1) at approximately 3800 0 K may take place
sodiuHl nitratt' required to weight of magnesium is:
as follows:
AI 2 1):J(1) ~ 2AlO(g) + O(g)~ 2(85)
--.-.-.-- 140
>-
5(24.3) - .
{<'or this reaction, t/IP standard enthalpy change is:
and for the seeond I'eadian is:
H021lS0K == 436 kilocaiorit's pcr moJe
As the!'£' i:-: lIot enough £'Ilergy available to vaporize 2(85) 116'-'
all tht' almnilluJll ()xitit" tht· maximum temppratllre 6(24.3) - = . "
is limitt·d to the boiling' poiut (If alllwiIllHll oxidt·, OJ'
TIll' ht·at of J't'aetioJl fOl' Ow first reaetioll at 29RoR
approximately 3800°K.
is:
~lf0298:::-: [5( ---143.8) -+ - 99.4] [;'l(O) + :2( - llfi.O) 1= . fi8~.4 kil()('aJorit's
and for the :ll'eonti reaction is:
fli(O) + ~( ---- 115.0) 1= --- fi:i:U' kiloealorit's
3-21
AMCP 706·185
From the heat content plots for the two reactions, in the hot (over 2500°1{) portions of the flame
Figures 3-6 and 3-7, the tidiabatic flame tempera- plume can b(' selected from thermodynamic con-
tnr(' is nearly the same for both reactions: approxi- siderations in the following manner.
mately 3280 0 K for the first reaction, and 3400 0 K At 2500 0 K, the free energy change associated
(the boiling point of magnesium oxide) for the sec- with th£> reaction:
ond reaction.
'fhe reaction equation which bf'st represents
Na zO(I) ~ 2Na(g) + .50 2 (g)
the reaction to produce the produe~s which exist is given by Equation 3-62 (Paragraph 3-2.3.4).
for wlii"1! til,· ht'at of r,'adioll ;).// o~UH is 1i:32.H kilo- whil·1! "oldd bl' \'aporil'A'd by this umount of !'IJt'r~.,r)r
'·lIloril's. 'I'll!' IlIIlllht'r of lI1olt's of ruag-llt'siUIll 11 IS:
:!-22
AMCP 706-185
"
./
./ ./
./
1000
900 9OO-
/"
..-
.00
-
700 -
700
600
tu
:>
• 00
400
."...
";;;
...
":>
-
400
Q
0
a:
"0
a:
~ ~
l· :z:
!
.00 t '00
I
Z i
'00 too
100
l
'00
,I
--
~
:...:;:.'----'T"~-~.
-'>-- - ~.~ m _ •• ~---. t----41
.-- t
0
Figure 3-6. Enthalpy of .products of Magnesium-Sodium Figure 3-7. Enthalpy of Products of Magnesium-Sodium
Nitrate Flare (Reaction 1) Nitrate Flare (Reaction 2)
tHI0 21l8
n = -------------- -------------,------- ____ 6a2._~
40.75 -
__ 11: 1:<) 11101('."
~
.:llIll\1l{(\")l;l~IOOK --l\Ig(s)29H"KJ i).<J...
3-23
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 3-7
EXAMPLE OF THERMOCHEMICAL CALCULATIONS:
LANTHANUM·POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE REACTION
THERMOCH:EH\l.ICAI..J CALCULA'T'IONS'"
tIw rat(' of a pyrotl'ehnie 1'\ adion, which is affl'cted 2. RilllOlt'l·ulaJ'. A reaction ill whieh two III01e-
hy ('xtl'rllal tl'mperaturl', prl'SSUrt' l'Onfillf'nl(>nt, ('lilt's (of 1h!' Slllll'> or of ditr('rent kinds)
('olllpositioll, pHrtil·le sizl-, l'()IIsoli(iatioll, and ollieI' rt'ad to yi['ld tlH' protluct(N).
illtt'rr!'latt-d fadors, is usually 1I,'st dl,tl'rmiul'd ex- :3. 'Tl'rmo!t>l·ular. A fl·actioll in which thre(;
Ill'ri!II('lltally. molt'(,II]es N'llet to form the product(s).
a-24
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 3-g
EXAMPLE OF THERMOCHEMICAL CALCULATIONS:
ZIRCONIUM-OXYGEN REACTION
THERMOCHEMICAL CALCULATIONS·
REACTANT:::;
Zirconium (s) 74.3 91.22 o 6.49
Oxygen (g) 25.7 32.0 o
PRODUCTS
Zirconium Oxide(s) 100 123.22 261.5 5.6
REACTION CALCULATIONS
Zr(s) +
02(g) - - Zr02(S)
Stoichiometric: 91.22 +
32 -~ 123.22
Thermal: AHr o +
0
__ 261.5
Wt Reactants, gs 123.22
Theor8tical Densit.v (calc.), glml
Heat of reaction (ca.lc.), Kcal 261.5
cal/g 2120
Adi.abatic Temp (calc.), oK App. 4500
Gas Volume, liters/g o
EQUIV ALENTS
One g Zr 0.346 g O2 2860 cal
One g O2 = 2.89 g Zr 8250 cal
('l'here are few, if any, termolecular reac- tions, k is the specific rate constant, and the e:;r-
tillns. ) ponrllts m, n, and 0, arc:> empirically determined.
F'or gaseous rractions, concentrations are often ex-
The over. ~ll rractions oe!'llrring in the' burning of a
pressed in terms of partial pressurer Similar
pYl'otecllllic composition cOllsist of a sequence
expressions could be written for the disappearance
of Illany simple intermediate unimolecular, bi-
of othrf reactants or for the appearance of any of
molecular and tt'rrHuleeu!ar reactions.
the products.
The overall order of the reaction is the sum of
3-3,2 ORDER OF REACTIOli
thr exponents of the "eoncentration" terms. The
T!l(' illstantallt'()IIS rate of a chemical reaetion, ordc:>r of a reaction, with respect to one reactant, is
as Illl'a!;ul'('d by the rate of d isaplwaranc(' of one of the t'xponent of the concentration term for that
its rf'a(·tants. ('un be writtep : rt'aetant. Examples are:
-- dA
elt k/A/"'/BJ" [C]o ... (3.68) 'I
,,('ro 0 "(I fr:' -- - d[AJ
dt
--- =k. ( 3-69)
wlH'r(' che minus sign il\diea,~'s till' disappearancr 'l'he rt'aetioll ratt' is a constant and itl independent
of real'tllnt A, t:w sywbol r J i~ldicatt'S eon centra- of thf' ('oIWf'lItratioll cf the reactants.
3-25
AMCP 706-185
_ . ENDOTHERMIC
---'--r-
''''' - - EXOTHERMIC
-r----
AHe..
..., . ~!!!
."" -r---'--
'00
AHi..
"'" ___1_.______ ~
I"" - Figure 3-9. rile Relclfion,hip Between Heat of Reaction and
Heat of ActivC:.fion
! 100
% The reaction rate is proportional to the px'oduct
,~
%
1:SO
of the coneentrations of two reactents or to the
concentration of one reactant squa.red.
I()()
Only a very few r~ctions follow zero, first,
second, or third order reactions. Most chemical
reactions, especially &t the high temperatures in-
volved in most pyrotechnic reactions experimentally
determined, are complicated combihations of many
simpler reactions. These complications include
TEMPERATURE. OK consecutive reactions, !'cverse reactions, and side
reactions. Hence, it is possible for the order of a
Figure 3-B. Enthalpy of IM·ll Incendiary Mixture reaction to br fractional. 12
Pirst Order:
dlAJ
----_. 3-3.3 INFLUENCE CF TEMPERATURE
~::: k I A. j (3-70 )
dt ON REACTI(JN RATES
1'h{' rea~tion rate is proportional to t.he concentra- 'The rr8ction rate is strongly dependent on tern.
tion of a reaetant. In thiR case, half-lift' (the time peratm·e. 11 qu.mtitative fplationship proposed by
l'equired for one-balf of the r~'actallt present at. any Arrhenius relating the specific ratc constant and
given time to disappear) is indeprndent of the the absolute temperature is:
initial eoncentration.
8 econd Order; K=.'lexp
-Eu]
[RT (3-73 )
- ~1/1J =~IA liB] (8-71) where k IS the :;pecitIc rate constant, s is a constant,
E'a is the activation energy, R is the gas constant,
or:
and T is the absolute temperat.ure. Another ~me
--d,'AJ what more complicated relationship, based on the
-----;it-- = kfA I~ ( 3-72)
dwory of absolute reactions rates, is :18
3-26
AMCP 706-185
k= (~~'_)
(
. !lEa
exp [ -If-.
J)( [- J)
exp
!lII"
Rl"
In some cases, the reaction of a chain carrier
with a moleeule may produce more than one chain
(~arrier. This Ulultiplication of the number of chain
(3-74 ) carriers, or chain branching', can lead to an in-
finitely rapid rate for the reaction, Explosions
whert' It- is the specific rate eonstant, R is the gas
resulting from l~hain branching are definitely dif-
constant, N is the Avogadro'R number, h is Planck's
ferent frow thermal explosions. In a thermal ex-
constant, Sa is the entropy of activatior~, II a is the
plosion, br;!ans(' of the exothermal nature of the
enthalry of adivatioll, and l' is the absolute tern-
reaction and the difficulties attending heat removal,
peratllre. The relationship between the heat of
the temperature of the system rises rapidly Ilnd
activation for till' forward Imd revprse reactions
an l~xtrrmely rapid reaction or explosion may re-
alld thp ))('at of reactioll:
sult. A brandl!'d ehain explosion can take place
tllI (reaction) :0= AHa (forward)- till a (rpverse) ~~ven thoug'h isothermal conditions are maintained.
is illllstratt·d ill }<'igh r'e :J-9 f,)1' an exothermic 3·3.5 HETEROGENEOUS REACTIONS
reaction.
In heterogeneous systems, reactions ta,ke plac p
at phase bounds-ries. While the kinetics of chem-
ical reactions involving more than one phase is less
3-3.4 CHAIN REA(:TIOYS
developed than that. for homogeneous systems, the
'l'heoretical and e:;;:pel'imental I'e'>lllts indicate overall pro(;ess includes at least three steps:
that atom-lUolt'euh' and radical-molecule rel:'.ctions
1. Transport of re&.c:tants to the phase bound-
Ilorma!ly l'equire mudl smaller activatioll energies
ary.
than reaetiollS betw(,l'n two mole('ular sp~cies. A
2, Reaction at the phase boundary.
varipty of (~helHical processes procet'd by mech-
3. 'fransport of prodllcts away from the phase
anisms which involve free radicals or atoms
boundery.
in a "eqllellet' of rpaetions forming a ehain. These
pro(~('ssps indlide thermal and l~hl)to-ehem,cal de- As indicated earlier, a series of reactions will have
('olllpositioll pro('Pssc':;, polymerization and depoly- relatively simple kinetics if the rate of onfl step is
mprizatioll processes IL'lder the infhlt~nCe of heat mnch slower than any of the othel.'s. Heterogeneous
Hull light, as well as a variety of oxidation" and l'£actiolls, therefore, are divided into two general
halog'cnatiolls involving hydrocarbolls which ..:an types: (a) transport rate cOI'trolled, and (b) phase
g-ivt, ris!' to tht' production of flames ar..d ex- boundary rpaction rate controlled.
plosions. Reactions involving a gas as one of the reactants
I n a strai,:::-ht ('hain rraction, 11 l'haill earripr-- arp freq \lently phase boundary reaction rate con-
whie/J may be a free radieal, fre!' atom, or an ex·, tl'ollt'd at low temperatures and pressures; how-
('it"d JllOlt'l'ldp 01' atoJll-is pr()(L.(~ed by som(' ('vel', many of thes(' reactions become transport
~;!litabl(' primary readioli, Tlds (·hain carrier reacts ratr controlled at higher trmperatures. For con-
with a lllo1f'cul(, to produc(' anotlwr lllo1!'l:uh' and dpllspd phase reactions, t he transport rates will be
another elwin ('arrirl' "'hidl, ill tU1'II, I'l'acts with ('ven SIOWPl' st' that rea(·tions are often transport
allot/WI' molt'('ujn to PI'OutH'P anothl'1 chain l~arrier. ratp ('ontrolletl even at low temperatures.
As bllg' as thr chain rClIlains unbroken, the disap-
jWaralll'1' of ont' chain can'it'r is a('('ompanied by tll!, 3-3.6 IGNITION AND PROPAGATIVE
fOl'matioll of another chain carrit'l' T:le chain BURNING
('an hI' brokt'll by tlIP l'('ulOval of tl](, ehaill earriers, TIl!' hm'/,ilIg' of solid !H'opellants and eOllsoli-
as t!w r('stilt of reactions hetW('/'ll ,hai:1 (~arriers dat('(l pyroff'('hllie mixturrs are similar in many
or 1'l'tw(,1'1I thl' ('Iwill ('aITipr and ntlwr rf'adivl' !,(>sJlt'l'ts. W 11t.>Jl rais('d to thei I' ignition tempera-
/!Hlt!'rials, or hy tllP !'oliisi'Jlt of a ('haill HllTl('r tun., t hp), tllldt'l'g'o prri~/Jitioll reactiolls followed
wi t h tllP wa II of t hp ('011 tllillillg' V('ssP!. hy all igllition rt'uetion. If eonditions aI'(' favorable,
3-27
AMCP 706·185
G.O
3-3.6.1 Ignition (/)
U.I
crystalline transitions, phase changes, or thermal 2
~ 1.0 '--_ _-.1._~..I-1_ _ _ _......dL-_ _ _ _ _....
decomposition of one or more of the ingredients.
1.04 1.08 1.12 1.16
In many cases involving propellants and pyro-
technic mixtures, a gaseous phasl' is formed and I/T IC 10~ 0)(-1
combustion starts in tIll' gaseous phase. This is Figure 3·10. Ignition Time-Temperature Plots for a B:inary
true for wood and similar materials where cambus- Pyrotechnic Mixture
tiol1 starts in the gaseous phase after the formation
uf gM:eous combustibll' intermediates by thermal where t is the time to ignition at the temperll.ture T
decomposition of the fuel. Combust:on of liquid in degrees absolute; Ea, the activation energy, is a
fue~s also sta:!·ts and takes place in the gaseous cunstant; R is the universal gas constant; and A
phase. is a constant, depending upon the material A
The preignition period begins with the appli- large number of propagatively reacting sYE,tems,
cation of the ignition stimulus and ends with the such as explosives, propellant:>, and pyrotf'chnic
start of sdf-sllstainillg combustion. During this compositions follow this type of equation. The
period, the' rate oi heat trlinsY~er to, the rate of value obtained for activation energy for the igni-
heat produ;~tivn in, and the rat~ of heat loss from tion proees.<; ean be considered a measure of the
that portion of the material being ignited, are sfl.sitivity of the compositi~n to beat. It will de-
important. As the temperature rises, the rate of pend, partly, on the speeific experimental ~ondi
thl' heat producing reactions will increae2 as pre- tions.
dicted by the Arrh(>nim: equation (Equation 3-73). Time to i~nitinn is often measured 11l •1tI by
The rate of hea', less will also incrcase with tem- quickly immprsing the sllmple in a suitabJe con-
perature but, because of the exponential form of the tainer into a liquid such as molten lead mailltained
Arrllenius equatiun, Ii temperahlre may be attained at a constant temperature and observing' the time
at which the rate of heat gent'ration is greater than to ignition. As shown in Figure 3_10 11 the results
the rate of heat loss and ignition will result. obtained are presented in an Arrhenius type plot
Thl' time to ignition call be expressed by an in which the natural logarithm of the :i,n~ to ig-
equatjon similar in form to th<, Arrhenius cqua- llition i.s plotted against the reeiprocal of the abso-
timl. 18 • 14 lute temperaiure. An ~vcrage value fnr the activa-
tion energy for ignition can be obtained by:
Ea --= [2.:3(slofJe)]R
;1·28
AMCP 706·185
3·29
AMCP 706·185
glycerin. Relatively small amounts of other ma- T", • MAXIMUM REACTION TE'APERATURE
terials are added to improve the properties of the TI ., MINIMUM IGNITION TEMPERATURE
propellant. A composite propellant resembles a Tf • FUSION TEMPERATURE
pyr:>technic mixture in that it is an intimate mix· Ttr • TRANSITION TEMPERATURE
To .. AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
ture of a fuel (reductant) and an oxidizer. It
AZ'. AZ". AZ.... At·... LENGTH OF ZONES
consists of a finely divided, solid oxidizing agent I • REACTION ZONE
in a plastic, resinous, or elastomeric matrix which 2 • ZONE OF FUSION
normally provides the fuel for the eombustion reac- 3 • ZONE OF CRYSTALLINE TRANSITION
tion. Solid reducing materials are sometimes in- 4 • HEAT CONDUCTION ZONE
cluded and other minor constituents may be added l • DIRECTION
to modify the properties of the binder or to change V .. VELOCITY OF 8URNING
3-30
AMCP 706·185
3-31
AMCP 706-185
where a, band n are constants, and 'P .is the pres- 100 I !
turoe is measured at 1',) and the Ilample temperature Figure 3-14.3. Thermogravimetric Curve for the Ingredient
at 1'8. Laminae 4H6
Thl' referenl'L' mat('rial cho.-,en Rhollld be therm-
ally inert and undergo no 1'1ldotlt('l'lHa] or exo- temperature of the inert sample is eonstantly in-
thermal reaetiolls over thc temperature rangc lIIHI('I' ereasillg', an pndothrrlllal differential temperature
eo~jderatioll. Consequently, the inert ~ple heats ,·(·suIts. ConvprsP]Y.:l1I pxothcrmal reaetion causes
at It rate equal to that of the furnace. When the thl' ,;amp]p /.pmlh·ratllre to inerease more rapidly
sample !:Icing Itnalyzed undergoes all cndotlwrmal than tlt(' /'t'j'crPII('e tempprature, and the re~u1t is an
reaetion, its tplJlpcraturr remains relativel! eon- I'xotherrual differential. Whf'/l thl're is no thermal
stant or Ul(!rl'ases very slowly. Therefore, I:Illlee the reaction. the oorJlple and reference compollnds heat
3-32
AMCP 706·185
~
wei~hing a &'lmph' as it is heated, either at a con-
stant tpmperaturp or to plevated temperatures at
~ Q o
a constant ratp. Curves are ubtained as a function
of temper8tllre ('1' time. Since thermogravimetric
I curves are quantitat.ive representatiulls of weight
L - - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ J ehangep, they (~an he l'plated to the chemical and
TEMPERATURE (OC) physical changes taking place in the sample as it
is heatrd, and c~n often bp used to determine the
Figure 3-15.2. Differential Thermal Ana/y.sis Curve for t~e l1a+,ur(' of th£' intf'rmpdiatr and final reaction prod·
Ingredient Magnesium
nets.
Typical If'sults obtained by thermogravimetric
and diifp'fpntia.l thermal analyses techniques are iI-
LAMINAG 4111l
lustrat<'d by the results obtained in a study of the
479 pyrotechni(; illuminating mixture composed of 54
o
ppr('ent magnesium, 36 percent s::ldium nitrate, and
Hi IJercPllt I.JIl.minac.24 The thermogravimetric stud-
ies under normal atmospheric couditions indicate
--------
,
)71 J tha, all thh'e ingredients undergo thermal reac-
tions involving weight rhange as Ii function of
TEMPERATU(iE: (Or) furnace t(':rlperature, lik illustrated in Figures 3-
14.1 through 8-14.:3. Sodium nitrate exhibits a
Figure 3·15 . 3. Differefl1ial Thermal Analysis Curve for :he
Ingredient Laminae 4116 wright loi's at temperatures from 700°C to 1000°0
which corresponds to a eomplet~ (Jon version to
at the l,auw rate and no differential temperature is so(lium oxide. The curve al~;o fJhows a point ,)f in-
ubsrr-,'ed. Dehycirhti():1 of a hydrated or hygroscopic flection at about 8f>(l°C clue to the eorwurrent de-
substance is an (>ndothermie p~oce&., as are those composition of th!' intermediate product, sodiUl'1
of fusion boiling. Transitions involving hans- nih'itt'. Mllgneslm;l shows It continuous gain in
~ormations from one crystal latticf' to another, or -.veif{ht whieh beg-ins at about 625°C and continues
the free rotation of ions in a lai.tice are, most often, Oil pa.st the maximum tempI'ruture. '{'he C1E've
endothermal IH'oceSses; however, thf're are several varies in slope, becoming' pereeptibly steeper at
isolated exeeptiou!'l to this general rule. Decomposi- (ifj()OC, alld markedly less steep at 680°C. This
tion reactions may bf' eitlH'r endothermal or exo- weight gaill is attributed to tht successive !'orma-
thermal depending upon the system and -.empera- tion of magrw,ium nitride and lIla;:;-nesium ex:de.
3-33
Allep 706-185
40
MG""NaN~1
22"10/78"10
'- ---~
,- 78%/22%
o
NaNOl-C
88%/12"10 ,
297
TEMPERATURE COC)
Mg-LAMINAC
84.,./ IS'll.
/TlD I
-~:r-:r-
.J
of
;::
Z
W
0:
3!o t
641
• 0
Mg - NONO. - LAMINAe
I·
......
W
~4'11./n%/IO"
I
6
TE!4PERATURE ('C) TEMPERATURE ('C)
Figure 3-16,5, Differential Thermal Anal)"s;s Curve for the Figure 3-17,2. Differential Thermal Al1alysis C,'rve for the
Magnc'lSium-Laminac Mixture Magnesium-Sodium Nitrate-Laminae Composition
..J
<{
Mg +- NaN03 ~ MgO + NaNO:z.
~
z 0 ('ontaining only 22 percent magnfsium, ignited at
w
a::: {il;3°C all(I displayed endotherms at noo and 310°C
w
I.J... whieh w('rl' ('ans('d, respeetively, by the crystalline
I.J...
Ci transition amI fusion of sodium nitrate. SodiulIJ
20 llitl'att'-IJaIlliJII!(' igllit~d with an apparently small
L I j---L--- 1'\,,)ItI~i()l1 ot heat at -!]7°C ~hat may have been due
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
to a ('olllbination of small sample size and forma-
TEMPERATURE (Oe)
tion of gasl'ous prodllets. Til!' difi'l'rential thermo-
figure 3-1.7,1. Differential Thermd Analysis Curve for the gram I'xhibits tlip l'rp;tallill(' transition of sodium
Magnes;L'm-Sodium Nitrate-Carbon Composition nitratl' at :~(iHo(, and its fusion at 297°C. A broad,
shallow I'l1dothl'l'lI1, during- whieh a colorless and
I)'I'A ('\'idpll(~t' of tilt> tlll'l'Illa\ tiP('oJllposition of the tlH'n a ,\"plio,," Jiqui(l ('ondl'lIst'S on thp sample tube,
Lalllillll(' IJI'est'lIt hy s{'\'l'ral shallow !'Ildotherms 1'\!llllillatI'S ill ignition. 'rill' sodiulIl nitl'ate-earbon
prim' to tilt' sharply I'lldoth,'rmil' fusioll of mag- systl'\Il l'xhibits tilt' l'rystallinl' transition of sodium
IlI'SiUlI1. Tltl' llI11gllt".;iulll fusioll pHdot hl'I'Il1 is fol- nitrate, sll('('('SSflllIy followp<i by sodillm nitrate
lo.\'(,d by all I'xotlipl'llIa\ ,'padioll, probably til(' fusion, alld tlWIl ignitioll at 467°( '.
oxidatioll of 1ll0ltPIi lIIaglH'si\llll, TIll' abst'\lI'e of allY D'I'A 1'\1I'\'\,S for thl' two t('l'lIllry (~()mpositj."Jls
,'xotllt'l'I11ilJ pI'ak pI'ior' to ItIltg'II('si 1,11Il fusion SUI~' al't'sho;m ill 1"i~\I\'(,s :1-]'.1 and :1-17,2, The mix-
gl'sts tbat, ,dtliollgh thl' Laminal' tltH'S Hot ('l'al'l tilt''' "tJIi1ailling lIla~Jli'sil\lIl, s>odiulll nitl'atp, and
Ilitil till' blllk of thl' llll'tal, it Jll'ot!'l'ts tlil' solid ('arbOll is \,I'I',\' siIllilal' to tlil' sodiulll llitratp-('arboll
Illag'IlI'SiUIIl hom \"('al'1ioll witli ail'. Thl' fUll)' hilla!'." llliXtlll't'; i.t'" it ignit"d at 4G;)oC immedi-
billilry fu(·I.oxitlallt Illixtllrt's did igllit". I<'or hll all'l,\' following tit,' ('r,\'stallillt' trallsition aIHI fusion
tilt' Igllilihl" sodiulll lIitrlltl' t'\)lllpositi(dlS I'\lll 011 IIf thl' SOt\illlll Ilitratl'. 'I'lte mixture (·ontaining' mag-
tlit' tiIlH··,basl' apparatus, tlil' 1'1lduth"l"IlIS l'O!T('- Jj('Silllll-sodiullI llitratp·Lallliutle igllited at 489°(.;,
"pol'(lillg to tit .. l'ryst,:llill(' 1ram:iliol! of sotii!llll 'J'ltl' fin;1 tll<'l'IwJi plH'nllll'''nli obser\'l'(l were the
AMCP 706·185
crystallinp transition and fusion of sodium nitratE' from the second exothprmal rpaction. These and
at 270°0 and 299°C, respectiwly. There was a relatl'd results iudicate that it is not feasible to
small, sharp exothermal I'eadion beginning at write preignition or combustion reactions for the
37:1 0 C, 'lnd another hpginning at i50°C, with peak systems containing Laminae due to the complexity
temperatures of 405°C and 485°C, respectively. of thp polynwr and the uncertainty of its com-
Ignition occurred as thE' systPIlI was recovering bustion products.
REFERENCES
1. M T. Howerton, Elluinccring Thermodynam- eation of th(' Absolute Rpaction Rate Theory
il!,;, Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Princetoll, N. J., to the ignition of Propagative Reaction Sys-
1962. tems. The Thermal Ignition of the Systems
2. Handbook 0/ Chemistry and Physics, 45th fJithill1ll Nitratr-Magnesium\ Sodium Nitrate-
Ed., The Clwmical Ruhber Co., 1964-65. l\Iagnt'siuIll," .J uurual of Physical Chemistry
3 G. Custard) G. :B~rancis, W. Schnackenberg, 60,8(j7-71 (19[,6).
SmaU Arms Incendiaries, A Review of the 1 'j, S. Gordoll and C. Campbell, "Pre-ignition
History u'fI:d Development, -i Vols, Frankford and Ig'uitioll RrHl'tions of Pyrotechnie Sys-
Arspual R:'port R1407, 1956. tPllls, Procfl'dillgs of thr Piftlt Sympo3iurII
<. Reilly anI Rae, Physicc "lll'mieal 111ethod, 1111 Com/illstio/l, Hpillhold Publishing Corp.,
2nd !i i., Van ~; ~~,. rand t d., inc., Princeton, ~. y" 1955.
N . .J", 1't12. 16. 11. IIpllkiu and R. MeGill, "Rates Explosive
f;. Wa' Moore, f'lI ,IIsical, Chemistry, 3rd J~:d., ])('('()lIlposition of Explosiws," Indnstrial and
i'ri~' .ial:, N. y" 1!)(j2. Eugillt'('ri ng' ('lwlllistry 44, 1:J91-;) (1952).
6, O. Kllhascl.~'wski and E. Evalls, Mrta urI', 'cal 17. l\L nilrol'd, l-<, Gordon, G,Weingartp!l, 'l'her-
Thcrmochemistry, .John \Vilpy & HOI' , N, Y., /IIai /'aralllci'l's Associa/rr{ With the /gnit1' m
1956. of till' Ma!Jllisilllll-8odium Nitr'ate SystC'J IS,
7. Irving I. Klotz, Ch ('III it:ol TIII,!,I1/, ,'ynG.:ics, Pil'atillllY Arst'llal 'rt'('hnical Notr 27, Dm .)1',
Prentic('-Ilail, N. Y., l!lfiO. Nt'\\' ,/t'I'>;<'Y.
H. Irving' Glassman, ,lIdo! C'mllbllstililt "roccsscs, 1M, 11. (', ('hristt'11St'1l, R. II. I(llipt', A, S. Gordon,
Pa:' IJI'pspntf'd at l.tth AllulIal l\lt'pting', 8111'/'i'1l ()/ Ail/lIlinlll/! Particlc C()mbu~ti()lI,
Amt'rl('UII Ho('k!'! !-io('il'ty, ~~()\', 1 (i~(', .195~1. Papl'I' (ll'l's('nktl at M. t'till~ of tilt· \V'stt'l'U
!). R Glal,st;l!IP lind D, Ll'wis, HilI/It ,: i of Phys- Statt's :-it'd iOIl of tilt' ('omhustioll Illstitute,
.,;al Chcmistry, V:lll ~()stl'alld Co., lit'" l'rill~(,
I {'lIin'l'sity of t'tait, Salt Lakt' City. Oct, 26-27,
t.on, N .•1., 1!/t)O. 1!lti.t.
10. AMCl' 7()(i·~H:2, 1~llgillt'l'l'illg- I ('Sigh Huud- 1!1, \\'.:\1, l<'assdl. (', A, Fapp, D. )" lIill'nu1'alld,
book, I'r/lpuls~()n lind I'r()pdlall s. /lnd 1', /" Sl'l'lIka, Till' Kl'pl'l'illlfntal Natu/'I'
11. .J. B, Conway, A. '; Uross(', I', II'till'ed Melal ()f till ('oil/In/sholl of ,lfduilic l'OII'l:/'I'S, Roli.tl
J<'lllmts, Oflie(' of i\'aval Ht',';l' ,~h, Coutral't I'I'opt'liant HlH'~1'! i{.('st'al·('h, At'ad('lllit, Prt'SS,
N!l-ONR-H7:101, Washi;lg-toll, D I', :--:. Y, l!Hi(),
12. Kt'ith.J. IJaidlt'r, ('/lIl11i(,1I1 "ill I iI's, l\ll'Uraw- :!O. '1', A, BrzlIstl\\·ski. l'apor-I'hllsl' /)itJusi{)/I
Hill Book ('0., 11]('" ;,\, y" l~):;(i. PII/IIII s ill tli, ('/I/II,I,lIsliulI lif Jla!lll(si:l1Il allli
1:J, 8. G1asstmlt', K, .1, Laid 11'1', ;t11d 11. Eyrill~, . til/iii ill 11111, I'h,l>, 'I'ht'sj~;. Prijlt'doll I flliv('r-
REFERENCES (coIlt'd)
presented at Western States Seetion of the 23. S. Gordon and C. Campbell, Differential Ther-
Combustion Institute, University of Utah, Salt mal A nalysis of ltborganic Compounds, Pica-
Lake City, Oct. 26-27, 1964. tinny Arsenal, Dover, New Jersey.
22. Eli ]1'reeman and Garry Weingarten, A Ther- 24. V. D. Hogan and S. Gordon, Pre-ignition and
mal Theory for- Rates of Propagative Burning, Ignition Reactions of the System Magnestum-
Picatinny Arsenal Technical Report 2596, SodilWt Nitrate-Laminae, Picatinny Arsenal
Dover, New ,Jersey, 1956 (DDe AD 2J.8 171). Teehnieal Note 23, Dover, New Jersey, 1958.
3-37
AHCP 706·185
CHAP'fER 4
VISIBILITY
4-1 INTRODUCTION and the COIlf'S, 'l'he eentral portion of thf' retina,
in the design lind dpvelopmt'llt of nditary the fnyca, is populated exclusively by COllI'S, and is
Ilyrvtl'ehnie <Iedeps for ill '!lllillllting a selected the ar('a of ('olor pNception, The region immedi-
arpa, /tnd for visnal sig'nalillf'~ WhPll othE'r methods I!.tply surrounding the fovea il' known as the para-
of communication an' imp;'a.·tical 01' impossible, fovea and (·ontains the rods, whieh do not recog-
an lIudl'rstandillg' (Jf humall visual performanei' nize ('olors, The f'y(' has two distill!'t states-t.he
is important. Thr ('olllpl('x 'asks pprformPll in lighr-adltpt.ed state and thp dark-adapted state.
Ill(,df'rn military operations rt'cjllire sufficient light 'fhe eye is ill the Jight-adaptf'd statr wheu the field
in ()I'(ipr that unfamiliar objpds can Iw located lumillanel' is about 10-:1 eandella pE'r square foot,
and r('('ognized against thpl1" hackgl'ounds and is dark-adaptrd at lumillaIwE's brlow this, How-
Sign'lling hy lIll'tho(is which dE'PE'IHi on sigh': Krc pV(,l', the (>ye is 1I0t fully dark-adapted until it has
t'OlllllIolIiy Ilst'd ill military tadi('s, in training ex- bE't'1l pxpf's(>(l t~) thp low level of luminancp for
ert'isps, and in eyaluatioH of lwrformanep of mili- about :~o minut('s, Only two to thrpp minutes are
tary items durillg deYl'I(,rHlHmt programs, ThesE' r(''Illirl'<I for thl' ~ransition for thp clark-adapted to
sigllals dt'ri \'(' fr,)1lI paekagNI units desigved to th!' light.a<iaptNJ stat!',
,'1,1;' ~'JlIok(', tlanJj', ()). light, or oth('rwise to give In tllP light-adapted state both thE' rods and
I'isllal i'ltli('ation of so ow eVt'llt, e,g" th(' marking of ('Oll('!, '11';' l'p('eptiw to li{!ht. In the dark-adapted
II par/i('lIla1' spot on th(· occ'all, 01' to trace the tra- 'itat!' only the parafovea, eoruposed of rods, is ac-
jPl'iol'Y of lIJissilps OJ' otll('r nlOvillg d"vicf'S, They ti VI', with t hI' rt'sults that color difff'rences art' not
m:ly hi' ('0(1('11 b,\' ('olo1' to \'0I1yey information re- 1,t'('og'llizl'd aIHI that faint sigllals are best Sf'en when
lating to dif'fPI':'lIt tYllt's of 1'\'('I'ts or a st'quPllce of off to a fooidi' (looked at "out of t!lt' corllcr of thE'
('\'I'llts For t'xllmpl!', a red signal mig-l·t be u3ed (,),(,") 1'atll('r thaI! Wlh'T1 looked at directly,
to i,:dieC\je tilt' arming' of II fuzl' and a greell lIignal
to indi('at(' ",1t"11 fHIH,jiollillg oe"lIfS, ~igll'lls for 4-2.1 BRIGHTNESS CONTRAST
IlHd killg" plIrpost's ('al~ hI' lls('d to aid in trd('killg fill objet'! pun hI' disting'uish('d from its back-
t'lll'llly sUiJlJIlIl'illl'S, to allow ;illlllll('l'g'e<! submarines
gr'olllld (01' from anotllPr object) because it has a
to III II k(' tllPil' positiolls known, to l(H'att' tow tar· tlifft'r(,llt ('0:01' or brightrH's;" rt has been shown
g-,'ts, lIlIt! to (all att('lItioll to slII'\'i\'UI'S of ail' ('rashes t'xpt'riIlH'ntally that difi'pr!'ll('(,s ill inightness arf'
oj' sinkil'g's,
IIsl l ally lIIu('h mOl'\, important than differences in
(,0'01', Tlw brig-htllt's).; eOlltnlst C is denllPd by the
4-2 VI"ION 1"lIlatioll :
IllllS!1llll,11 as VISIOn is f! s(,lIsatiOll rfcordccl by
tilt' t'yt', it is iJllportant to ('ol\sidt'r soml' of thf'
(' __ it --- H~
(4-1 )
-- If
propl'i tit'S alld dIHl'adl'l'ist.i('s of tht' (.'Yf', The
flllli'tIOllillg' of tht' .')'t. ill\'O!""s It ('OIllpll~X of \\'IIt,I'I' J: is tht' bl'iglJtll"SS of till' objf,(·t ll11d H' is
P hysi('u l. ph;.-siolof,!i('ltl, a tid psy('h()I()~~i('al factors, til" brig-htll('s,," of th .. ha('kgrolllld, If 1111 obje<'t is
Li:,.:lit l'a:liilg' IJP(lIl till' t·y" al'ts as '. ~tiJlllllus to 1I0t it" h";~:hl 'IS its bal'kf,!rolllld, th.· "1'l~htIH'sS ('011-
I'l'Odll\'" i\ s,'II"at iOIl ",hi .. ". ill til" S;lllpl":o>t ('a.-ito, is Ii tnl-':! i, lll·g-illil',. Hllti IlP)lI'OIlI.'h('s a "altlt' of -1 as
S('llsat i'lll /)f' hl'll-dltll"SS ;, !iltl:', W'll'l1 t h.· objPd i>.; bright,·" dl/1I1 its baek·
';'1..' ","(' ('("IL,illo.; 1\\'(. tYllt·" of ("'("·pt"!,,o.;, th,· "ods !!I'''lIiid. th,· "olltrast lllll~' Iw 1"'1)' lar/rt'. for t'X·
4-1
AKCP 706-185
(4.2)
where r:b is the brightness contrast, and Co is the
ar.tromatic brightness contrast, equivalent to the
dlromatic eomponent of the cont:!'adt. As chromatic
components of contrast are rarely over 25 percent
of the total llnd al'e invaliably associated with
brightness contrasts greater than 25 percent, visi-
bility, under field conditions, depends primarily on
the bright.ness contrast. This is especially true for
_3L-~L-~~~~J-_L-L-L-L~~~~~_~~ objects viewed at a distance since the scatterecllight
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0 1 2 :I
LOG B (CANDl!S/"')
from all sources tends to stilI further dilute the color
('ontrast. Where brightness contrasts are limited,
Figure 4-1. ThresflOlds of Brightness-Contract for 80% as ill the case of signal flags or panels, color dif-
Detection for Five Angular Fields (Minutes of Arc)
ference may increase visibility. However, at or near
ample, a bright light on a dark night. The bright- the limit of visibility, the hues of chromatic target
ness contrast in daylight or in artificially produced are not perceptible. This is parijcularly true for
white light, where the differenee in brightness is violet, blue, green, and yellow stimuli, Orange,
due mainly to the amount of light reflected by rf'd-purple, and red appear reddi3!J or brownish
the oojeet as compared to its background, seldom under th('se circumstances.
f~xceedN Ii value of 10. If an area has been el',mou-
flaged, the brightness contrast may be 0.1 or less,
4-3 ATTENUATION OF CONTRAST
If the brightness ratio 11/ B' approaches unity,
The apparent c/.mtrast (both brightness and
a etage is reached where an object can no longer
neh romatie) between an object and its background
be distinguished from its ba(;kl!rOlmd.
is reduced when viewed through a medium which
While the thrl'shold contrast varies with each
indbidual, average values at> shown in l'-'igure 4-1 seatters and absorb light. For a homogeneous
medium like the atmosphere, containing both the
depend on the angle which the object subte'lds at
obsl'rver and' th,~ object, the amount of contrast
the ob!.erver's eyl' and the mean level of illnmina-
reduetion is governrd by the balance between the
tion. "'or daylight conditions, n value of 0.02 is
light transmitted from the object, and its back-
ger\('rlllly ae('l'ptl'd as an average value for the
thrl'sholll 1'(Hltrast or limen. ground, Ilnd thp space light contributed by the
Visual a(~l!ity is oftL'll expn'ssed as till:' rc- intervening medium. If the medium is stratified,
I'iproca! of this angl" in minutes of are. All acuity liS would be the ease when a smoke screen is locaicd
value of 1.0 is aeeeptl'd as a standard for lIormal between the object and the obsrrver, reflection due
yisillll e\'en though, undf'f id('al c(llulitiollS, much to IIluitiple-f'eatteriup, may still further reduce the
I!reatl'r tll'tuil (~all bl' rl'solved. appart'ut contrast,
Op to about ollt'-fifth sct'ond, tht' [)hot()t~hemieal III gem'ral, if tilt' inherent bright'1ess contrast
rl'ciproeity !IlW applit's and the produd of th" il- betw('l'n two objrcLs, or of an object and its back-
lumination tim!'s t.he duratioll is a (~Ollstallt. It hps grollnd, iH b,ri ven by EquatiOl. -1-1, thr apparent
LrightlJ(,s~ eOlltrast ('.t. when viewt'll at a distance,
lieI'll dl'lIIollstrated ill tlm'sholl! lll('aSllrt'mellt~: of
will be:
visual perfm'marwf' that. ill thm;!' eaSt'S where
thl duratioll is IOIlg"t'r thaB olll-fifth 8('("011<1 (as is (8 - B')f-{Jx
trw' f(,r most ('USPS of illter'.~st jll Jlyr·ott·dlJlics), Cr = --------
B'c- i3 ;r + (}
(4-3)
this is not applicable.
wiH'l"t' f{ is Hl(' hrightnt'ss of the first object and H'
4-2.2 OVERALL CONTRAST is til!' hrigiltnl'ss of the SCCOJl(l objpd or the hack-
Tilt' oVt~rall eOlltrast ('0 betwcen an object. and g'rolllld, ~ is til(' sl'atterillg' (~()dlkj(,llt, .r is th(' dis·
it...; ba('k~r()ufl(l is approximatl'l y : tallel', alltI (] is thl' glarp seutterl'd iJlld fl'fiected by
4-2
AJ(CP 706-185
'-l
of the background (or second object); and ~ is
I~g the scattering coefficient.
110
1.0 If the atmosphere is optically homogeneous,
60
'.0
i.e., the apparent hright.ness of the sk,f is: not
~o changed by moving toward or away frOT.l the
30 horizon, this equation reduces to,
i (4-5)
I-
~
'-'
I-
20
:.0
1 wher~ Ox is the apparent contrast at a distance x.
The Pleteorological range, the horizontal range
Z 0.9
for which the transmissi(IU of the atmosphere is
i'"
~
oe
07
0.6 two percent, is given by:
0'
0.4 -1 3.912
0.3
Xl< = -~- In 0.02 - -~- (4-6)
4-3
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 4·1
METEOROLOGICAL RANGE FOR TYPICAL WEATHER CONDITIONS
-----_._--- -'.._------
Daylight A ttenliati01I
Visual Ooefficient, It, Tr(1,nsmission,
Weather Range, r Per &a Mile Per St'a Mile
Dense fog 50 yar'ds 156.4 0.0240
Thi~k fog 200 :19.1 0.0210
Modera.te fog' 500 15.6 0.024
Light fog ]000 7.82 0.022
Thin fog 1 spa mill"" 8.91 0.02
Haze 2 1.95 0.141
Light haze :1 1.30 0.272
4 0.98 0.376
Clear ;) 0.782 0.457
6 0.651 0.52J
7 0.55!! 0.572
8 0.488 0.614
9 0.434 0.640
Very clear 10 O.a91 0.076
11 0.356 0.700
12 0.326 0.723
14 0.279 0.756
16 0.244 0.783
Exceptiollally clear 18 0.217 0.805
20 0.196 0,823
24.1 0.162 0.85
:37,1 0.105 0.90
7l,~ (J.051 O,!J5
1'heoretica lly pur!' air 167 0.02:14 0.976
I'ifpl'liw opti('al rang!' If is r!'latt'd to adual path the smokt' may o(~('lIpy only a relatively narr(l'\·¥
Ly: rl'g-ioll bl'twPt'lI tlw target and the obsen"er. Undt'l'
thest' ('irl'ulllstallces, the iuten,;ity of illumination
_.-; ___~~,7~( 1 - /. [_~_J( Sill~"~]) (4-8)
h - ~lll (..) 21,7(J() lllay vary gl'patly depending on th!' r;:lati\'e loca-
tioll of thp objPei, the observer, thl' smoke cloud.
whl'r" (..) is ill!' Clllgl(' that tlIt' "hemt pat,h Jl makes
wit It th" horizolltal. Plots of this !'<lllation for lind tht' SOlll'I'e(S) 01' illumination, sO that til<'
\'lIriolls \'alues of (>o), applil'abl<' fOl' ilitprIrIl'diatl' quantity of ;,l1lokp c!'qllil'ed for obscuratioll i~; a
\'allll's of tht' slaHt rallg!' R, ar(~ prt'spHtpd in Pigurp highly variahl(, quantity. Bpealls!' cf thf' comp!i..
4-:1. 'I'ht' vaIIl!'s of thp tl'll(' altitnilp ar!' ill(lil'atl'd l'atl'd way in wldeh Hw inl'idt'llt light is !'.('attpred
hy till' dashl'd lill('s 011 this diagralli. liS a flllH'tioll of angle and beedllSP of muitiph·
;;/'attpl'ing, till' <It'gl'P!' to whieh light will pellt'-
4-3.2 OBSCURATION OF VISION triil!' a 1'10lld l'l1n only bl' approximatp'l. While a
BY ARTIFICIAL SMOKE CLOUDS lllajor' fral'tion of tlip light scattned by partiei<'s
TIll' of artifil'ially pl·()(ltH·l'd Slllok('
ilIflIll'lll'1' llt'ill' ti'" optillllllll sizl' for a sel'!~('nirrg smoke lS
('Iolld~; 011 \'isihility i." ('()lliplil'ated by th(, fad that sl'attpl'l'd in thl' fOl'ward dirt'l'tiou, S()Jll(, light is
4-4
AMCP 706·185
0
,0,.000 00
,0, 0
~25,OOO
----- .00,000
-·575.000
l?n,OOO
350,000
II~.OOO \
I
"O,OO()-~ 325,000
'05000 J
t
t=
-300.W'J
IOC,OOO
I
::::: 1 ~.~
~
85,000 -I ~ -'.' , -----f 250,000
I/)
r-
Io
-.: FO,OOO ...
Z
~ 225,000 :r.J
n,ooo-
~
!AI
-
I
-,
I 2CO,OOO
'"
~
I '"
1'1
...
(/) ~O,OOO
I ;j
t
175,000
55,( ~O-
I
. -i---- t
I
i --_. - ISO,OOO
~O,O(,O·
t
I
45,000
40,000
I I i
i -J
I
+-- 125,000
~5,OO('
")0,000
-.
-l-I I
____ .1.- ,00,000
,,I I
I
I 75,000
25,')00 .
t
20,000
I
50,000
1~.vOO
t
10,000
I 25,000
5,000
0
0- '10 0
.00
0
Figure 4 .. 3. Optical Sinn' Range Diagrclm for the Optical Standard Atmolphere
.. 1
Allep 706-185
4-6
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 4·2
REFLECTANCE VALUES (IN PERCENT) OF VARIOUS TERRAIN
FEATURES AND BUILDING MATERIALS
I. Natural Terrain
a. Soils,' 0,4 O.!3 0.6 0.7 O.H 0.9 .1.0
Dry yellow earth 8 16 37 55 69 76 82
Wet yellow earth 5 9 25 42 58 67 76
Dry sand 18 28 il7 45 52 56 58
Wet sand 10 15 26 32 37 41 43
Dry red earth H 8 20 28 33 35 37
Wet red earth 6 6 12 28 22 24 25
Dry brown earth 8 11 15 19 21 23 24
Wet browll earth -l 6 11 14 15 17 19
Dry loam )ol 12 18 20 20 21 22
Wet loam fi [> 7 9 10 11 11
h. Vegetation:
Grass 6 8 10 13 55 67 70
Evergreens :1 4 7 6 24 24 24
Straw 7 15 24 33 3!J 44 46
Dead grass 7 13 20 26 31 35 37
Dead brown leaf 6 9 11 27 43 51 69
Dead yellow leaf Ii 10 23 39 45 48 51
('. Terrain as seen frum ·4,000 fect,'
UrcPIl field 4 7 10
BrowlI. field 3 4 5
Y(>llow.grren vegetation 5 8 15
Light ;Jand 12 16 21
l-iandy ground 8 12 14
Wet mud 5 8 9
'\1!Hi eovered with water 4 7 6
Pond water 3 2 1
Watl'r with sllsppnoed material 3 4 5
Dark vol('anic rock 6 6 7
BIa!'k asphalt rllllway 4 4 4
4-7
AMCP 706·185
4-8
A)[CP 706·185
t-- -- -
I
~g
~~ 0.2 j 1 g:: I
io~ ~=:1~ Jn~
'1
I'
,..
C;::+=:jlt:'-:=:' I. u •••• '"
~
8
O· 20"
ANGLE
40· 60·
BETWEEN INCIDlNT
100·
LIGHT AI
I ,rl" 140·
OBSERVER
160- 180" '"Ci
4-9
A)[CP 106-185
'fABLE 4-3
MAXIMUM ANGULAR SIZE OF LIGHT SOURCE AS A FUNCTION
OF ADAPTATION BRIGHTNESS
-------_._-----------
Arlaptatio'n brightness i~Jaximum a1tf)l.llm· .~izc
(foot-lambc1·ts) (minutes of arc)
1,1:00 0.708
100 0.70B
10 0.750
1 0.8!H
10- 1 1.30
10-:; 2.82
10--~ 6.68
10- 4 B.5G
10- 0 15.0
.A flashing point-source light, wherp t.he flashes values of l' as low as 1.0 second) because of the
!l.re of short duration (le';s than D.2 second), must lower visibility of short flashes (according to
have, in general, a hi.r~her candle power than a Blondel and Rey). If T is greater than 1.0 second,
steady light in order to be seen. I t has been :'ound tlll' finding ti,Hf' is also longer because t.he eye
that the threshold intensity F', requir\~d for visi- Illay pa:;s over the light Joeation during the off
bility of a light of duration to sflconds, IS given illtel'Val. It was found that a light of ten times
by:· threshold intensity was almost always located at
the first flash while three flashes were need0d if the
l't. == Fa (tv + 0.21) ( 4-14)
light wpre only five times the threshold.
where /I'. equals tile threshold int.ensity of a steady TIt(, eft'ed of selective transmission by some
light.. Thus, WhfIl a flash last:> sew'ral seconds so type~ of htmosphere is also important when con·
that 0.21 is nef,ligiblt', the threshold is the same sidering ('olorl'd lights. Table 4-5 indicates the
&'1 for steady light. However, as shown in Table mag-nitllGI' of selective absorption of components
4-4, for small values of to, whcl'c P will be' larger of sunlight by thp atmosphere.
thUTl /11•• this is no longer truc. These ratios are not
changed grl'lit!y for ealldlepo\\,prs up to 50 times 4·4.3 ESTIMATION OF VISIBILITY
thre'lJlOld for flash durations from 0.05 second up '1' Ill' ('stirnation of visibility ean be simplified
to 1.0 or 2.''> seconds. by the Ilse of nomographic visibility charts pre-
1"01' sit.Iatjull:'. in whieh it is not known where a pared for this purpose. A (~hart for circular- tar-
fla.;h will appear in th,; field of vi,'w, til(' filldin~ gets, which has hpl'll adapted from the morc com-
t.inw is quite important.. 'l'he two varigbles of rna. plpt(, ('liarts it vailable, is given in I"igure 4-1. To
jor imp/)rtaw,(' ill t/)(' (·onspicuity (short findh.g IlSf' this e1lal't for deit'rlllilling' visibility along a
tinH') f.f a flashing- lig-ht of II ('Il11(lIepowrr well horizontal path, a straig!tt('dge is laid across the
ahoy!' thrt'shold intt'l!sity art': (1) thf' timp interval ('hart ill slH'h a manlll'l' that it connects the value
betwt~f Ii flashl's 1', and (2) til\' dun.tion of eneh of th(' llllIt'rt'nt tontrast b('tW('l'1l the objeet and it.s
flash Ie, in St eOl.lds. A flw.;hillg light is most (~OIJ bm·kgTolIlHI with tilt' yahw of the sky· background
spienous Whl'lI l' lips betWl'l'II n.1l alltl l.() s('('olld hl'ightlless ]'atio (this sl(y-baekgroulld ratio is uIlity
lllHl t" is 1)(·tw('('11 O.2;j I!I)(] O. ?;i owc"uJ.:1 Decreas- if t Itt' h1wkl!l'Ollild of ! Ii(' targd is the hori.zon
ing l' or irwrPllsing t o /l' illl'I,;'aSes the fillding tiult' sky). t'xil'Hded to intt'r~('d tht, Zf'ro liminal tar-
lx'{'ausp of redudioH of Ih('kl'f. If (; is Iwlow U.fi god <li:·tlll1l·(· liTH'. Tht' straightedge is then re-
s(>cond, til(' aVl'fll),{I' fil'riillg' tillH' is im:n'hsed (for IOl'lItl'd SLl that it l'OIllH'l'iS this point with the
A)(CP 706-185
TABLE 4-4
VISIBILITY 0]' FLASHING LIGHT COMPARED 1'0 STEADY LIGHT
'fABLE 4-5
ABSORPTION OF SUNLIGHT BY ATMOSPHERE
value for the meteorological range. The intersec- .1can be calculated, for targets which 8ubtend a
tion of the straightedge and the curve for the small angle lit the /)bservp;,'8 eye, by the equation:
('orrect general illumination level locates the lim-
inal target distance. (A sin 8) (4-15)
The procedlll'(' for l'stimating the visibility for
slant ~)aths is som"'vhat mort' complicated, espe- whpre R IS the first approximation of the optical
!'ially if the atmosphl'l'e is stratified. If no optically slant. range estimated by use of the nomograph, R
dissimilar strata are presl'nt. thf' optieal slant range
is thr eorresponding slant range for a sighting path
ean be df'termil1f'd in thl' sam" mannf'r as the visual
whieh makes lill angle e with t.he gmund, and A
rangr, along Ii horizontal pl'th. TIl(> aetual slant
t!U1ge cun thl'll bt' approxill1at('d by thp lIS(' ()f Equa- is tht' Itl'eli of tht' target. 'fhis value fur A ill now
tioll 4-18 or I<'ignrt· 4-;~, Bf'eanse tht' slant rang" lls('d til ('1I 1"111':!" II better value for the optical
is 1I00'mall), grplltrr than tIt" optieal slallt rang!', slallt "ILII !!(' H and I',~rr(,spoll(lin,~ slant range R.
t IH' I'tTf't'ti v(' art'a of thp targf't is It·~~ thall its aetnal TIll' lJolllOgl'aphs art' aiso useful when stratiti-
art a and th(' prl'liiett'd slallt rallg!' will he high. (~atilJll of thl' atlllosp!H'rt' ('RUSt'S an effective di&.(lD-
,\ ht'ttl'r valliI' ('11II Ill' obtllillt·d. if 'III e/fedivt' area tiul!ity in th!· Ilit'tt'orological l"angt'-altitude rem-
4-11
AMCP 7(}6·185
~L-~£--.£,,L _ _ _ _ _ ._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--1
---~~----~---~--~~~~---------------.------------------~
CONTRAST
11).,,., ('II 80 S S 0
OC'> 0 C d 06,j 0 '"
~~LL~~__~~~~~~~~__ru~~J__~J-~-uIIUI~IUI~I_I~I~1~~IUI~IILLI~I~I~I__~I~LL-~IL!lUI-L~-L~~__LU~-Y
I---I---,f-f--H--.---------------------.-----------------------------
+---+-;-·7~·----------·-----------·----------------·------· - - - -..-.-------------
r-t----nf-+------·--.---------.-..-=-----::..--:....---:-----.-----....:----.-.-------.:::.:::.:::-----------. -.------------=-=--=-=--====1
----------------------_._---_._._-----_._--------_.-.-----
(;)
'"
.
METEOROLOGICAL (,..fI.ES) 1. Pfi
fit/ure .,·7. Viubilifr Nomograph
4-12
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 4·6
SKY BRIGHTNESS
Ambient Brightness,
Condition millilamberts
Hazy· 10,000
Clear 1,000
Light Overcast 100
Heavy Overcast 10
Twilight J.
Jeep Twilight 0.1
Full Moon 0.01
Quar+,er Moon 0.001
Starlight 0.0001
Overcast Starlight 0.00001
TABLE 4-7
SKY·GROUND RATIO
Sky·Ground
Sky e01lriition O/'ound Condition Ra,tin
(h~r~ast Fresh Snow 1
Overcast Desert 7
()vercast J;-'orest 25
Clear Fresh Snow 0.2
Clear Desert 1.4
Clear }<'or('st !)
tiollship. Ll't it lw asslIlllt'd, fol' t'xltmplt', that ther!' otf, Bp('allst' ,)f til(> problems involved, the estima-
is II grolllld hHZP whi('h has a top at ;;000 fel't. and tion of !'lunt rHngpl-' i~ It>ss satisfaetory than the esti.
that thl' mt'tt>orologil'1l1 rang!' is fivp tiJll{,fj goree.h>r IIllltioll Ilf horizontal rangt', Where experimental
aho\'!' thp hazt' bOlllltlary thall bplow it. J<'Ol' this \'l\l1ll's a 1'\' lIot Il\'aiiahlt', typielll valllps for thp- sky
typt' of \'isibility prohlt'JIl, II lilll> is ('ollstrnetf'd brii!'htllt>ss art> given in Table -t.() for "ariou!! IUD·
till thl' optit'al slant 1'1i1lg'P diagram, !<'igul't> 4·3, bi t'llt ,'(;llditiulIS, Typi!'al valll{,s for tilt' sky·
frolll tht' ol'igin to thl' illtt>rsP('tio/l of th!' ('urvp for ~~rolllld rutio al'(' givPIl ill 'rabl!' 4·7,
thl' (iPsil't'd v.i{>\\'illg allg-It' H, with tht> dasilpd lillt' It is to bt~ noted that. the nomograph predicts
rt'pr!'st'lltillg- tilt' trill' altitudt> I)f fl(100 ft'!'!. A It distalll'(' <'it "hil'h tilt' tarl{t't is liminuliy v:sibl('.
>;\'\'olld ('UI'"t' (whi('h has tiVt, tilllPs tit!' slope of tht' If till' ('OIl! 1'11:;1 vulue is tlivitll'd by two \)('1'ol'{' llsing
orig-illlll t· II r\'(' ) is dl'awlI stlll'till~ lit fhi:.; poillt. th,' IlOlllOg'raph, the result obtained is tht' sighting
Tht, rt'llltiullship IH'tWt'PII il, tilt' opti,'al slallt )'ang!', I'll llg t' , tht' distaq,·p at whi('h tilt' nbj('('~ '.'IHl be
allt! H, tht, slHllt rllllg'!" full!)ws tltt' !'t'sultallt ('un'p, ~""Il witb thl't'"hold ('oltfid('Jl('p, For HI" obje(>t
If th\' udllal boundary of tht' groulld 1'lIzt' i~ dil'· t () hI' ,'asil)' St'I'lI, till' ('olltrast valllt'>.; ."hould h(>
rust', tltt, sharp ('!JlIlIgt' ill slop!' ('1111 hI' roulldpt! di"id!'d hy lit !t'llst fOil 1'.
4·13
AMCP 706·185
INTENSITY (CANDLES)
-----
---== =====--
---==----=:------- l
.",
l
l
I
"o~
------------.<+----+-----J/'----,,----;''---7.Y'-:~_,._.--------v~
-----;"'/
~ ~-~--~~~.-~~~~~~~~~--~--~~~
..
-------------I-'-----n---r
+-t--+--+---I-y"'"yf------------------
--------------- $"
3
-+----,;'--.#-c~~-\------------------
~
I..
.f~~---~~~~~--~----------------------~
--~--~~~E~-=-==---==-==--==-
-~- ~-~-~~~ -~= --\--.:--=--:.-- -------------~-
---- -,--- I-
""
C>
--r-~~~~~~~-----------------+_----------- ----~ II:
,n ~
\-
1----+-f----I--I-I-7H-,L-------------------L----
\
l'
g
...<>
TABLE 4-8
INCR.EASE IN ILLUMINATION REQUIRED FOR
POSITIVE RECOGNIT.ION
Pi(:ld Factor
Applied 10 ThresJwtd DetectibiUty uf
Cnndlcpow!'l' Light Source
Lig-ht somcl' difficult to find even if loca·
tion is knowlI.
Tlight SGurCe modt·ratcly difficult to find if
location is approximately known and ob·
Sfrwr is on steady platform and has long
tirrH' fer search.
;;·10 TIi~ht sourN' I'asy to find lind!'r circum·
stan('es aboy!'.
Squat'" objl'l'Is 11.1'(' as visibll' liS (,irl'ulal' obj('ds foot·lamberts will be liminally visib1.e on a clear
of til!' sallll' arpa. ()hjt'i'ts of othl'r shapl's art', ill day, when the meteorological range is 20,000
:.rt'II!'I'al, ll'ss visihlt,. yards, can bp es·Umated in the following mann!.'r:
j<'i~lIr(' .t-t' is II \'isibili1~' "hart fot' prpilietilll! As sky brightness 011 clear da!' is approxi-
th, l'Illl~1' at whit'll si)!lIal lamps IIlId olh,'!' point mately 1000 foot·lamb!.'rt:., the contrast of ta.rget
SOIlI'\'I'~; of li:.rhl will til' r minally \'isibll'. To \I",' against sky as background is:
this ('hill't, 1\ strai)!hl<'(I~1' ,>' pl,I('I'(\ a('ross tlH' eh,trt
I ""I it "Ollllt'('ts Jill' 1III't\'orolo~i('al rtl!ll~\' with
10-1000 _ !)!j
-lO()O-- - --., .
til" Illtl';lsity lit till' li:.rht slIlIr("('. Thl' illtprsPl'tiun
of thi" st raight lilli' with 1 b' ,\11'\'1' for thl' pro»!'!' Thl' sky-~rollllll ratio is 1.0 sillt'e the oLjert is being
>iky ll!'ightllt'SS 1,,\",.1 is Ih.· liminal targl'l distlllH'e. vil'Wt'(l agaillst sky. To obtain liminal target dis·
\<'0" "i~lIIt1i!lg plll'I)tIs\'~' .Il this distant'" \\'hl'f!' I'o.-i. tall('\' 1'1'0111 lIolllograph, ('Ollll!'('t (I\S shown in }<'ig.
IiVI' l'I'('Ol!lIitioll is rl'quit't,d. tilt' illl1lllilllllioll vallI!' ,I/'(' .t.!I, will. a st rHi~htpdg'I' /I sky-~rolllltl ratio
~llOlIld ht' in"!·PIl.s,.d a:" jlldil'atl'd ill Talil .. .t-t'. of 1.0 wit h It ('olltrast of 0.99 alld Illark iutersec-
tioll of strai~htt'd~(' with till' zl'ro liminal dis-
4-4.4 ILL USTRA TIV:t; I:XAMPLES IIUlI't' lillt'. (''''IIII'd this poillt with th,' Illeteoro-
l.a. Tht, distalll'l; at v'hieh a un;forlll circular I,,~!i,'al nll.~:" of :!lJ,(I{\f) yards. 'rl\t' lill,illul targ·t
t!!r~l't of 100 squure fert wit), a hrightness of 10 d isUtll('~' is rl'ad wht' rt' this sl raight IIIit' ill t ('Nil'('ts
4-15
AMCP 706·185
G:
.
• en~ "
w
..
:::I
..J
>
~-------+--+-.;--t~hH~'-------- ---------{
-~-~-. -. -~- -..-- -~ ./1
ii>
~ ~
~
g"
o· ._._-- - ._-------------1 !
I~
."
- -- .---.. ----~------.--; I l-
If)
is I
I:
I-
.""
CI
cr
.,o·
" I~a
¥ :!
,"
I-
~
..o· :::i
i
::; .,
"
,.~~
------.-----------------.-------------------------~
I
!
4-17
-----,
AMCP 706·185
witn the curve for the ambient illumination, 103 ditions is approximately 6,f)(lO yards. The sight-
foot-Iamberts. 'fhe liminal target Jistanee, in this ing distance and tilt' distanee at which the target
I' a." r , is a.pproximately 11,000 ya.'ds. ('ould b~ seen easily would also be raleuluted in
1.b. TL, sighting range is ealculatt:d in the thl' sa~lie lliunner as illustrated for Example l.b.
samp way f ~It that the effective contrast is: and I.e.
a. The distance at which a signal h:lving an
. 0.:9 = 0.495 intensity of 2,500 candles would be liminally vis-
iblf' on u fuggy II ight when the mf'tcorological
The sighting range is approximately 9,000 yards. range is 5,000 yards, can be estimated JIsing the
I.e. 'l';" distancp at whieh this target could signal light nomograph. A straightedge is placed
hI' seen easily ulldrr field conditions: aeros,'l the nomograph for signal lights so that it
I n order for a target to be seen easily, thl' conneds the rr:eteorological rangl', 5,000 yards, with
('{lIltrast v·tlues must be divided by at least 4.0. the cnndlepower, 2,500 cdudles, as shown in Figure
Under difficult field conditions, the contraf'lt value -1-lO. The liminal distane(' is given by the inter·
might have t() bp dividpd by a number as large as sectioll of this line with th(, eurve for the iUumina-
WO. The effective contrast range, therl'fore, is j ion level 10-:1 fooi-Iamberts.
4. The illt.el1Bity required for a spotting eharge
0.99 -- 021': O.9~} 1
f rom-T ..), tl) 100 = 0.0 to be Sef'/l at 2,000 yards over water and toward 11
rising sun on a clear duJ', (~an hI' estimated by
and the distance at which th(> target eould be seen us~ of the siglH::I light visibility nomograph. Un-
easily might bl' as low :is 2,000 yards (2,00(1 to der theNe conditioIW, ihe illumiJiat i oJ1 level would
7,f/OO yards). approa{'h W 4 ~:::;::t!:llL~,'; :... 'Phr meteorological
2. The distanee at whi('h the same target w()uld J'ang-e is assumeu to bl' approximately ;jO,OOO yards.
hi' Iiminally visible un<!t'r the same conditions, if a ('!par day. The intrnsity requirrd for a light
it werr to br obsrrvrd against a background having sourcl' to be liminally visibl!' undpr these condi-
a brightlH'ss of 200 foot-Iamberts ean be calcu- tions is obtain I'd from the signal light Jlomogldph
latrd. (SirH'e till' target aIHI baek~~round are both by connecting thl' D1et<'orolog-ieal rang<', 20 miles,
illuminatrd l1y thp same light soure(', thp rpfipetallcp with tht' point of intersl'ction of a liminal target
of the baekground is approximat('ly 20 timps that distall(,(' of 2,000 yards, and the eurve for the gen-
of tht' target.) I II this ('asp, tht> sky-ground ratio I'ral illuminatioll Il'v<'] (approximated by dotted
is WHO 1200 =- :1.0, and t hI' ('ontrast is: l'urV!' on Figurp 4-10). 'fhr intersection of this
linr with the zpro liminal distance line gives the
..!O-200
200
= __ II .9!i t'alHllepowrr requir('d, /thout 4,000 ('andles. In
ord('r to bl' spen readily undrr these field condi-
As indieatt·t\ ia Figur,· -t-!I, thp dt'tt'rmination of tions, HI<' ill!t'llsity valtH's should be multiplied (sl'e
tht' liminal rang(' is tht· saul(' /1." outlined for Ex- Tabl.· 4-8) by 100 to 150, yil'lding a required in-
arllplt· 1.1t. 1'1.(· limillrll dislall('1' 1I11<11'r thesi' eon- tpllsity of -t X 104 to Ii X 10~ candles. lI
REFERENCES
1. '·i.~ibilily 8t1/dil'.~lind Nomf Applications in :1. R. ('. CaSI'I'l'SOIl, II. P. J1PJlz'y('k, R C. Ch~nnel.
tlrl Pidd of C'UII/Oil!laul', ~ummary Technical I'i,~ibilil!l Data 1M;;' Applin til Fy"otf'chr.ics,
Report of Division 16, ~1~tiolJal Defense Re· ('olltl'al'i DAI-:!8-017-50]-OHD-(P)-1294, Dun-
sear('h ('omlllittl'P, Vol. :!. lap and Al'su('iat..s, SI::rnfurd, Connecticut,
.)
1<'. E. ('ady and H. B. Dat(·s, J.'lllmillatin!J En- 1955.
!Jill/ainu. :!.;<i gd., .10hll Wilt·y & Sons, 1'1. Y .. 4. A. Bloudl'l und ./ H<,y, J(HU' dl' Physique,
HI2R. Radilln~, ]911.
4-18
AMCP 706·185
5. n. D. Dwiggins. Fadors AlJeding SigMUing Sources for Night A.erial Reconnaissance PltO-
by Ftliual Md Ii ods, NA VORD 603<;:, Bmea.u tography, Final Report, Contract OA·36-039-
of NavdW~\1il<)u~, Washingtoll, D. C., 1957 SC .. 78333, Denver Research Institute, Univer-
(DDC-AD '16:~
QHJ). sity of Denver, 1960.
6. R. '1'. Eckp.!1fode, .Tht! Spottin:) 1'.fcnniqua. II. 8. Aerosol and War (}ases, Summary Teehnical
EfJeet of A mbit~ni IlluMill(J,hm Sj:ot .:n,:eM;ty Report of Division 10, National Defense Re-
(md Colf}r: Memory Sc'refn l;rl-w'mA~rv;n, r84- rearch Committee.
~020, Frankford Arsenal, !?hiladdpnia, Pa., O. H. T.J. Greene, W. R. Lane, Pa1·ticulate Clouds,
1955. Smokes, and Mists, Van Nostrand Coo, Lon-
7. It. M. Blonnt, G. Francis, Study of Light don, 1957.
AMCP 706-185
CHAPTER 5
PRODUCTION OF HEAT
5-1
AMCP 706·185
readily combustible material such as balloons, It a limited ftmount of research and development
was also very effective against personnel as it pro" was performed on irwendial'Y munitions in the
duced painful burns and hence clJ.w:ed a de- United St.ates, 'l'!w white pl){)i,phorus filling for
moralizing etfe(~t far in excesg of the casualties ealiber ,:~O inecw.linQ' ammunition was rE'placed
produced, Thermit(; and modified thermite mix- with a traecl' eomposition. DewJopment work on
tures wer!' widely employed, especially in COll- irwendiary eompmlitions was actively resumed in
nection with an additional incendiary material the United ~'Hates inlfi36,
such as "solidified oil." Other mixtures contain- O(,l1l:"ral jllt~rest in small arms incendiary am-
ing an inorganic oxidizer such as potassium or munition was renl~wed during tIl .. early years of
barium nitrate, barium ur lead oxide,. or potlll:'- World War TI. The Dp'Wilde-l<wLt'man bullet,
sium chlorate, and a fuel such as earbon, sulfur, designed in Switzerland ,'l,)' 193:), l'(,presented a
magnesiulll, aluminum, 01' organic combustibles, major step forward ill the development of "mall
were used in small arIlll'; incendiary bullets and arms inC('lHiiary ammunition in that it would fune-
with less sueeess in drop bombs, tioll as ,desil'(~d agaillst reali"tie targets. To elim-
Solid oil (oil mixtures solidified with colloidal inate t:1I' SI'.riOllS manufacturing and hal' q;ng
additives) and flame projector liquids consisting probl,'ms; a8sociatl'd w;th this design, it w."s ·Il",di-
of a heavy viseo ll !,! oil or tar and a more fluid and fied b,Y British scientists to use the U,S, .dew!oped
flammable liquid were also developed but saw only IM·] 1 incendiary mix, Modifications of the British
limited use during the war, design WE're IIHtdl' 18tl:'r by til(> lJnit:'d Std;!(S O:.-d-
In spite of the tactical and strategie possibili- l1an(~(~ D(-'pal'tment to improve fundionillg char-
ties associated with the use of aerial incendiary ;wtpl'igties and 1.0 adapt thl' drsigll to IHanufllctlire
bombs, only a limited amount of the development by llW,SS JH",HJUI" ion t('eillliquE's, 'I'h\'~:e modifi(·t·.
work on incendiary munitions was direEted to- tiolll" indndillg S'Hne ehauges in HlP ineendiary
ward design of improV('d munitions of this type, (~Olnpositi()lI, l'psltltL'd ill the n.s, 1\11 Inef~ndiaQ
1'wo general types of aerial incendiary bombs PI'oj('dill' whi('}l playrd lill importlUli: role ill Will-
were developed, The first was the relatively large Uill,'! thp B"ttlt· of Britain by defrating' the Ger.·
bomb filled with all incendiary mixture, often HUI!) ail' attal'ks. 'fhe devf'iopmcnt ofwodifipd in-
thermite and solid oil, designed to penetrate and ('l'lIdiary ammlJllitj.on, inl'llluillg' t!l'lllor.pi(,l'cing
set fire tv buildings and heavy eOllstruetion, 'fhe ill(,l'u<iilu'y Clillnlllliitioll, was stl1rt('(/ ill 194:3; how.
seeolld was tIw scatter typP of illcendiary bomb PVI'/', olll~' a small quantity of tlwst' itt'Jrls had
which ('ollsisted of ilH'cndiary units ill a Ial'gt' hl'f'll protiuI·pd hy tbe "lItl of til(' Wltl',
bomb, or a dustt'r of small bombs (the hi-Her being III it\!' Battll' of Britain, HlP Gt'I'llliins used a
tht, mort' sllcct's"ful of HIP two techniques), to 1··j,ilo mal-('lH'siuIH homb agaim;t British eities with
start fir!'s over Ii n'lati"l·ly largt· ar'ea, g'/'t'at "ft'r·l'tiV(·llt'SS. A \'I'ry ,·f;,,('tiVt· 4-poltlld mlll~
The inert'asillg' uSP of military aircraft resulted IIl'siUIlI bomb had IH'PII dl'v,>\opt'd by thl' British;
all illcreasl~d illtl'rt'st ill slIIall arllls incelldinry howt'Vt'!', the hlitl'd ~tatl"S did not Its ,Y('t have a
1.llIllllunition sill('I' tlip 1'lIIpioYUlt'lIt of illtl'udiary .'.;ati~f;H~t(l\'Y illl:(,lIliiary homb. As a COllst>(l\lt'Jl(~(',
IUlIlllllllitiulI WIIS l'ol!siui·!'I·t! to be o Ill' of tiJ" l)('ttl'j" tilt' British !ilK-II [ 1I111~.(1h·hitllll bomb was reo
ways for dt'Stl'Oyillg ail'l'I'aft. Tht' first sJllali arIllS d.·~~igll(·II
for mass prutiudioll. :\ ·t-pOlllI<1 tht'l'Iliite
I'OlIl\d tit'sig'lll'd 1'01' ail'·I'hlil' I'olllbat was pl'Obably bomh II'IIS dl'Yt'lopl',l a,>; :1 ~Hllistitnlt' for' tht· some·
thl' British POIIU'!'OY [lJ'ojl'I,tilt' with ;i kit's('lgllhl' \\hHt .'illp,'riol' Illag'o\,si\J)l: bomb awl W,IS used in
dYlllllllitl' ti!1t'!' \\'hil'II had both high t'xpio"j\'I' U,'IH'l'nl Doolin\., ',., hi,..;lon' rait! Ull ,lapin. ill April
alit! illl'('/Id iury I'IlIH·t iOIlS, alld \l'Wi Vl'l'Y I' Iff' I"! i v,, l~lr,:~. ,\ slIIlIlI :.l-pnlill<1 lllagll,'~;iUlli bowb was al~u
a~aillst (J,'rlll/ill airships. Tltl' l'arlit'st i!I('('llIiillJ') d,.'vdop,'(l ilwl \IIII'll Ilsl·d ill (,lustpl'" was ,'ollsiilt'CI'd
Flllall anns jll'Ojl'l·till' US\'d by tht· ('lIil.·d t-Hal('s, t() h.· IIlUl'l' I'lr.",tiv,· ill,(Hllist urban (It'l'IllHll 'Iaq~t'ls
adH pI I·d frolll a Bri 1ish d('sigll, ,'mplo.\'t'd phos I Ira II 111" hl'arlt'!' .IlII'l'lItiiari .. ". whil'h had tH'ell dp·
p!ttl.l'll.~ as Tlli' iIH'\'lldial',\' llIat.,,,ial. \ ('Iop,'d !'or ill.i;lsi rIal tllq{I'tS. 'I'll:)' WI·!'I.' a]""
III tht' IJl·riot! hl'twl'i'li th" Iwo W(lrld "'a.rs, uilly .-.,III·,·.'s"fl/! 1I~~giIlSl .Iapalll"';(' imillstrillt largo!'bi LUI
5-2
AMCP 706·185
penetrated too far to be highly efi'ectivp ag'ainst Starters, igniters and first fires, 11.', adjuncts to
.J apanese dwellings: othl:'r pyrotechnic devices, have had a history
'l'he development of a small petroleum iu- ch)sely associated with such devices, Information
(,pneliary bomb was started and led to thp develop- drscribing the development of early Chinese fire-
ment of the 6-pound napalm bomb which was llsed crackers includes Jescriptions of fr!ses containing
with spectacular success in the strategic bombing potassium nitrate (saltpeter), chareoal and sulfur,
of .J ap~m. Other pptl'oleum incendiary mixtures In the 18th c{'ntury mixtures of potassium n~t!'atG,
wrrr dweloped, including tlll' 1M mixture which sulfur, charcoal, and iron filingo were widely used
(~()ntailled finrly divided mag'lH'sium, Against both for pyrotechnic purposes, They were readily ig-
Europp and .Japan, incendiary bombs proved to nited and for this p'lrpose a type of quickmatch
br vrry efi'l'ctiv(' wl'apons, esppeiaily when ap- was employed,
proximately one-fifth of them eontainl'd pxplosivl' The quiekmatch was made from cotton thread
eharg,,;: to diseouragr fire fightprs, or string, moisten~d with vinegar or brandy and
}<'l<trn(> throwl'rs wrrl' first used in thl' Pacifi" eoat{'u with a mixture consisting of 16 parts po-
t heater on Corrrgidor by thf' .J apanese against tassium nitratt>, :{ parts charcoal and 1 part sulfur,
Amf'l'iean troops who were not equipppd with the The mixtur{' wa~ worked iuto the thread by hand,
wpapon, Dth' to its provpn pffeetivelless and the aftl'r which it was dried and cut into ..uitable
dpvplopWdlt of napalm, it was SOOI\ llspd by thp lengths, It was theh connected to the pyrotechnic
Ii II i tpd Atate's for pombaL (J pl'ratiolls in all theaters deviee and llsed as its igniter
of !lflPratioll, ritlwr as a portahlr IlI'It or mounted At thp brginning of the 19th eentul'Y phos-
Oil yphiclps, phorus-tipped sticks, that could he readily ignited
A fkl' 'IVorhl 'Var II, l'psNlr<'f1 and df'vl'lop- by frie1 iOIl, were mad!' available and WeltP the fore-
Il\t'nt directed toward the improvement of small I'Il111Wr of prrsl'nt day matches,
arms incendiary ammunitioll were continued, Em- li'J'i('tioll starters weri' drvelopcd lat!'l' in the
phasis was dircc:tp<i toward developing improved 1!Hh ('('Uhll',v, Tilt's!' employed as II h"ad a !lli)cjure
ammunition with all in~reasl·d efTI-i-,tivl'ness per of i,otassiuHl ehlorale and slIgnr with g'um arabic
I'olllld Ilg'aill~t ,i(>1 plai.\t's at hi;,d}('r altituli,', This a:; il hilldl-r. In til!' form of JIlateli(-s, thl'se wer{'
\\'orl, prov('d valllubll' during the Ko"eall (;ollfiiet ignitl'd hy dl'awing thrm throu/>{h a folded 'piece
whp n sllIall arm inl'(,IHiiaries ":('1'(' lIs;'d in the air of sRlldpapp/',
('ol\tlid, a~Hillst (,IWIll;,' jpj Ilir('raft.. Other in. 'l'ypi,'ul PYl'ot!'ehni,' llIunitions i \! Hit: 19th een-
('PIJ(lial'Y Wt'H\IOIIS, ilH'lu(ling illl'(,lJdiary bombs and tu!'y ('ollsisi.>d of rol'ht;;, flar!'s, and tin>balls whiph
tllllnp throwprs. cd,.;') WN(' \.i~('d \\'in('iy an, i eft'ec- t'mild Ill' i/.!lIikd by a mixtul'I' of potas,'iium llitratt·,
ti',"'I,I' ill thi,; l'\)lltli,'1 hy tIll' ! !.llilt'd N~l1ions forces. sulfllr, Ilwl III'S(,lIi,' s\llfidt" whidl, ill turn, was it~
'l'!;\· "Ir"r! applil'd i:'\ till.' (l,'\'plo)lnlent of in- lIitl'lt by a Ijui('klllat<-h,
I'!'lldial,\' wl'apon,.; has ['t'·;tdt"d ;11 J1t'Ii<'I·.time nses Durill/.! "'oJ'lt! Wal' I, 1I.\'l'ott""'l\i(· lIlunitions
fill' tli('s,' l\'i'a jiOll I;, I'YI'og-.>1 (01' goop), wltil'h con .. \\,,'1'1' ("','('\o)h'd whil'h IISI'I\ "olJlpositioIlS more
taills till<'h tlividpd lilagIH~SlUlll. alld wl:i('i1 VIa;.; t1ifti"u!t to igllitl' than !'urlit'r "(Impositions, In
IIsl"d ill til" 1:\1 pl'lr'o]PlIlIJ illl'PlldillJ'Y mixture, has I h., jWI'i"d hl't W(-PII \\' ol'lll \\' ar I alld \Vorld \Vux
h(,;: t'olllld 10 aid ill tl!" burllilJl! \lilt of forest 11. lillJitt'd 1'Il',,~t W!L"i Dlllell' to prn<iul'(' lIIort' satis-
">liiltlf,!'s. Th,' tlHIJU' til!,(lII't'f is of "allit' ill fighting' l'al'tIlI'Y i:.!lIitioll lllixtlll't'S for P~'I'\ltt't'ill1i.· lIIuni .
I\'r. sj til'I'" '\I\d ill d",,,tr •• ,'>'ill/.! illiwalltpd v{'grtu . tilllls, A (-()lJsidt-l'ahll' pal'l III' t his ('!Tort WIl.S
tl"lI. :--:twli,'" into tli., t'all~p~ (lr ,It'ath hy flame tl i l'l'dl'd t"WHI't! i iI(' dl'\'I'\lIplllt'1J t of satisfadory
I <lIT!".! ,)lIt d\l:'il!~.~ W',rld \\'.\1' II IlilY" din'l,tld ~tal'tt'I' 1:lixlllrl's for' lit' ~l\Iokt' lilil!.tlll'I'S and fot'
att"lilllll, (,If "i,iliall firl'flil'J1 ;'1 IlIlSUSP,,\,t"d hazards tllt'l'I'litt·.tYI"- illl','II(\illl'il'», ])nrillg World War II,
ill Ii!!htln,.,r :Ir,'''- (If Yilriotls l,iIHb. Also, J'1·se.1H'(,h "111phw"io.; \I'll!' Hg-aill dir,'d,'11 maillly, toward Je-
1111 Ihi' dT""lil'I'JiI'SS u1' iIJI·,'wii:U'y ,1I11l:HllIttJIJII I'l'lopirt:.! \'olliposit lOllS wlJidl wOllld IIlpt'! tht' llU-
<lg-lIlw;1 HI' '"l".'I.t"l llits hl"'ll III' 1'1\:111' ill ,'oJ\Il{'l'!iOII nJ"diall' Ill'''<\S (If th,- t!'lUll's A rf'latiwly slilIllI
with ai!""I",!'t fir!'s <l1I1()IIJ\j 1)1' • /fort hit.; hl'l'lI ,'xpt'udt'd Silll'(> \Vorld
5-3
AMCF' 706·185
War II, particularly in connection with the de- until the projectile arrived at or close to the tar-
velopment of new illuminants. get. Similar erude delay traius were developed
In addition to their value as a souree of heat, for incendiary and other projectilt's used in eJlrly
the utility of combustion processes as a means for naval warfare when ships were made of wood.
measuring and controlling time intervais was Their purpose was not only to delay functioning
recognized early in history. The ancient Chinese, until a projectile reached its target, but also
Greeks, and others used open vessels of oil, erode to further delay functioning so as to maximize its
candles, and similar devic!!s, to ignite either ex- effectiveness in damaging tt:e enemy ship,
plosives or flammable matprial at a distance or With the development of improved amllluni~
at some delayed time, In addition to their mili- tion, more complicated fuse systems with imprvved
tary applications, such delaYl:'(l reaction8--Cul· reliability and timing a~curacy were required.
minating in the sudden produdion of fire, smoke, The earliest pyrotechnic delays which Wf'J''2' rela·
or a minor explosive phenomenon-were an im- tively accuratp consisted of carefully produced
portant part of many early religious ceremonies, black powder trains or black powder rings. 'fhe
The introduetion of gunpowder stimulated the delay traiu was used in fuses requiring a set
development of somewhat more sophisticated delay del8Y while the ring delay was most often used in
devices. A string or paper impregnated with an those items requiring setting immediately before
oxidizer and elongated trails of powder wpre some use. In spite of the many pro~lemc assoeiatild with
uf the earliest pyrotef'hnic dplay trains. Present the use of black powder delay compositions, due
Ijuickmat(~h and firecracker fusps are of this type, mainly ~,) their hygroscorjl' nri corrosive nature,
Q
however, they are normally used as transfer media they served as the basis of most pyrotechnif~ delay
rather than timers. Fuses ('onsisting of an in- trains throughout Wodd War l J .
gredient such as black powder, ('(mtained in a Burning black powder liberatrs large amouuts
tubular cover, will bunt relinhly and at reasoll- of gaseous products which, in most fuse designs,
ably reproducible bumin/! ratl' Hai't·ty fuse is of are vented to the atmosiJherp. In the development
thi~ typc. It is a lightly 'Tapped tl'uin of potas- of amnll.nition, psppcially antiaircraft ammunition
sium ni t !'ate all(i blal'k l:owdl'l' bUJ'Iling at a rate during World War 1, it was found that the burn-
of 40 to 120 seconds per yard. 'I'ht tubular cover ing ratt' of black powder was affected considerably
now is oftt'll imprpg'llated t'llbrie, An effort is by the rotational speeds of the projectile as well
usually mllt1p to spal against 1ll0istlll't' by the use as the varying ambiellt pressures. Theref0re, the
of wax uud plastie eoatillgs. Thl' dewlopmellt of dl'veiopml'ltt of a more satisfRetory fuse powder
tht's!' fllst's madt' possiblp lavish Hr,'work displays ('ompositioll WhS sturt('d with a low priority after
by crudely I illlillg thl' st'q 111'11('" of Ht'll ts starting World War I,
with tilt' prll(lagatioll of tilt' display illh thp air 'fhe rirst nongh<leOUS delay powder-col18ist.
followt'd by It ::iPqUt'III'" of hursls IIl1lkillg' lip tIl!' iug of r('d lead, sili('on, and glycerin (84/15/1)-
firt'work displ::y. In ati,litioll. tht'ir liSt' providf't\ \ as developpd in 1931. ~ince this composition
th,' 1lt'('I'ssary rilll" rt''1l1ir,'d i'm' sut'd,\' of rhl' per· L Irned too fast, slower bunlin~; powders contain-
SOli tll'l igllit illg ('x tl'n"j VI' ~I'()llIld displays. ~'ust's ing lead ehl'omate, silicon, and linseed oil (89/10/1)
of t'ss"lltially tht' ';III1H' tn)',' \\1'1''' also lI" .. d III ,'Oil, were dpwloped. Lack of personnel and funds, how-
Wo'd iOIl wiTh tht' .. arly "Oll/fllI'I"'lal •. ~ "Iosi",'" IIs,'d pyer, prpvented 11 comprehensive, systemat.ie study
ill nlillill~ fwd ('OI/SII'IH'liOIl of tht' lIIallY possiblt' inorganie exothernuc reactions
'I'h,· Ii.(' "I' projl'f'! iiI'S "II/lt/Ilf\ ill~~ "X I'losi "''', befor!' the sLnt of World War II. As a relmlt,
WI" st,\:kd .'iOIlIi'tilll!' art,·!' : II.' IlItf'odlidiolt '.I bla('k powlkr was ltg'aill widely used in delay ele·
Ilrldlt'ry ill Illilitdry IIpl'l'at,ol, Ellr'!), i,roj"('lile, 1Ilt'lIts during World War II.
W,'I'.' tillt'd wdh glll:puwt!,'r 1111(' illSt'd with a III l!q~, a ('olll/ll't'hem,ivf' study of possible
""",tIt'lI plug' ("'Iltllillili~ /1';1111111 l"III,·tl'l' holt', l~asl,·s.'I dt'lay mixtul'('!'> was stJ\rted.~~ While this
aLi" lill"d \\'1111 .'lowd,'1' 'l' 'I" I'I'U, flls(' \\ as ig. st lid." WllS ill pl'ug'n''Is. lUI urKent "e('d developed
IIi "'.1 by tIl(' PI'I' ,"'Iill~ ('h'(I'~" III1.i hurrlt"l slowly for elf'lay jluwu('n; to hI' llSt'U ill the bombs used
AMCP 706·185
the products, (4) the method by which the energy dizel's which have been widely u3ed in incendiary
is transferred, and (5) the characteristics of the compositions are the inm:ganic nitrates, perchlo-
material being heated, whether unhurned pyro· rates, and peroxides. The total and aVhilable oxy-
technic mixture or other combustible. gen for some of these oxidizer~ are given in Tllblea
5-2,>! 5-3, and 5-4, Many of the potentially good
oxidi7.,·rs listeJ. in these tables contain laloge quan-
5-3.1 AMOUNT OF ENERGY RELEASEDl
tities of water in their normally occurring crystal-
The energy released by the reaction of a pyro- lille forms. This reduces the available oxygen from
technic mixture can be calculated by the methods a given quantity of oxidizer and can affect burn-
outlined in Chaptl>,r 3 (Paragraph 3-2.2.1) of this ing (as an inert) as well as stability in storage.
handbook or can be Jetermined experimentally by Approximate decomposition temperatures are also
bomb calorimetric measurements.
Certain generalizations can be made frvm the TABLE 5·1
results of thrse calculations involving metals and HEATS EVOLVED FROM REACTIONS OF
oxidizers which might tlr considered for heat pro- ALUMINUM AND VARIOUS
ducing mixtures. For a given fuel, the heat evolved OXIDIZING AGENTS
per unit-volume of the mixture (calculated from
the the01·pticaJ density for the mixture) depends Reaction Callcc Cal/g
on the oxidixer used, as is indicated in Table 5-1
which is a summary of the heat evolved when alum- Al + NaCiG 4 7,000 2,600
inum rracts with various oxidizing agents. In Al + NaClOs 6,300 2,500
general, for a given oxidizer action the heat evolved Al + KClO. 6,100 2,400
dcpPllds on the oxidizer anion in the following de- Al + Pb(NOlih 5,800 1,500
('r!'a;;ing order: Al + KelO a 5,400 2,200
AI-+· PbO:! 4,900 700
('10., >CIO:! > NO:! > l\'n(). > ~04 > Cr207 > Ai + CuSO. 4,700 1,400
Cr04
Al + CuO 4,600 900
As abo slll.Jwll ill 'rable Ii- I for a given oxidizer Al + NaNOs 4,1Of) 1,800
allion, ('oPlwr salts yield mol'l' ht'at than lead COIU- Al + Ba(NOah 4,200 1,400
pounds and t'itlwr of till'S!' yit'lds more than so- Al + PbSO. 4,200 800
diulIl,lotassiulIl, ('all'ium, or barium eompoullJs A' +- KNvs 4,000 1,800
wlh'1J 1'('11<'11'<1 with till' sault' flH'1. While COPlwr Al + CaSO. :l,800 1,300
salts 1:PllI'1I1' best, th!'y HI t' l1(,t ('omll1only u8~d Al + KMllO. 3,600 1,300
brl'Hu'w of tilt' difti('ulty illvolved ill thl'ir ignitioll. Al + Fe20S :i,500 900
'I'hl' n'a(·t iOllS a l'l' Iist!'d ill ord~r of tllt· ilrat (~volved Al + MilO:.! 3,400 1,100
h <11 lorit's lH'r ('ubi,' (·t'lllimpter of mixtur('; the Al + BaSO. 3,400 900
hl'at ('\'e!Vt'd pl'r grllIll of mixturl' is also given, for Al + FeuO. :l,'!OO 800
(·OIllIJlll'isol1. III t'aeh (·II."\t·, tl\t' (·alt·ulat.'d hl'at of re- Al + Na2SO. ;1,:~tlO 1,200
adioJl is has.·d Oll a part it' ilIaI' (most ('omrnoll) Al + PbsO. 3,aOt\ 400
stoit'hiollH't I'Y for I h., rl'lil'/ iOIl; t ht' illdieated val AI + Na2O:. :1,100 1,600
III'S would vary wlwrl' ditT('rl'nt Htoiehiometries are AI + K 2 SO. :1,100 1,200
possiblt'. Hill('(' lilt, oxitiizl'r t'x!'rts tllP grt'atrst Al + NH.NOs :l,OOO 1,600
in flul'll(·t' Oil tIll' hl'a I of /'t'IIl't iOIl. t hI' rppll/eenlt'Jlt AI + Na2('rO. 2,HOO 1,000
of alullIillulII with otlh·r I·t'dllt·illg' ugt·nts would AI f- K l Cr 2 0 1 2,HOO 1,000
rt'sult ill all IIrralll~I'IIH'llt ~iillilltr 10 that showlI Al + BuO:! 2,600 600
ill Table 1i-1 AI + PbO 2,500 300
Tht' HlIlOlwt of oxygell Ii\'ailablt, fr()m It givrn AI + BaCrO. 2,400 600
1l1ll0unt of ()xitiizt'r is tht' ba.-;i(· ('I'itl'rioll UpOIl Al + K~Cr04 2.200 800
whic'll oxidizl·rs are jud/!t'd. Thrf't' l'IliSbl'S of oxi-
5-ti
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 5·2
OXYGEN CONTENT OF VARIOUS NITRATES
--------, ------~--------------.-----------....
A.pprox.
-------....------....---------.....--
Deeomp. Oxygen Oxygen
Dens,/:ty l'emp, Contained A.vaiktble
Nitrate glee 0(1 gig alec g /g glee
----_._---- ------------
Liquid. O2 1.14 1.00 1.14 1.00 1.14
I~iquid 0 3 1.'71 1.00 l.'il 1.00 1.71
Aluminum (+ H 2 0)! laO .77 .32
Ammonium 210 .60 1.04 .35
Barium 600 XI 1.19 .31 .99
BeryBium (+ IhU)1 100 .7i' .3ll
Calcium (+ H 2 0) I 2.36 560 .59 .48 1.11
Chromium (+ IhO)l 100 .71 .32
Cob/l.lt (+- H~O) I 100 .59 .44
COPP~l" (-+ H 2 0) 1 150 .;)1 .42
I ron (F'rrrie) ( -)- H 2 0) I 100 .47 .;)9
LNMi 470 .29 1.31 .24 1.10
(+ H 2 0)!
t,ithiuDl 2.:18 260 .69 1.65 .58 1.3H
Magnesium (+ IbO) I 100 .75 .62
Mallg'alH'Sl' 180 .54 .40
Potll.";sium 2.11 400 .47 1.00 .40 .84
Sodium 2.26 aso .56 1.2H .47 1.06
Strontiulll 2.99 600 .4;, 1.:lH .88 1.18
1 (H"O) indicates that II hydratt, of the nitrate is Il C<ll\lmon form of thp Halt. All dl\ta
I'resellt~ in the tablr, however, arl' for thl' anhydrous salt.
g-in'll ill thl's(' labh's. TIH' thermal dt'I'Olllpositioll ust'd as a IIlt'Il.~lIrt' of the rt·dueing power of thest'
of iIIltlly of th!' possible oxidiz!'rs has b('en studi!'d I'om pounds.
ill d!'tail.:l It should bt' llOtt'cJ that ,'ombustioll of liquid
III 'I'll hi!' ;1-;', rt'llt'tiflllS !In' shown hl,tw~'!'11 var- hydl'Ot'lIrli<lll flll'ls Aueh as gasoliut' and kt'rosene,
iolts III !'tll II i,' awl Ilolllllt'tallie rl'(ilH'iug' ag't'lltA, and whil·h WI','I' with-I:; lISt'l! as ill"elliliarit's during
hariullI lJf'roxid!', Tht' Iwals ('\'olv('ti from rt'al'tiolls hoth World Will' I I HlId tht' Koreall Conflict, rr-
of Ihl's!' lIlatprill)s with otllt'r oxidizing' agents suits ill till' ('\'olutioll of about 10 kil.o('alorit's per
would g'I'I\I'rally nmk ill thl' SIIIIlI' on"'r. gram. 'rhis is l'()J}sitit'rably bt·ttt'r Ull a wright
:";0 II l!' of thl' I'olllbilldtiol\s iJlt,llHlt·d ill Tabll' basis thun for tht' Illt'tal inl'(>ntliar~' matt'rials:
;1-;1, '''\It'lt as IJU1'iuIIl Ih'roxi(lt' with till, dlromiulll, t hprm itt', O.H kil(lt'a!orit':' per gram, lind mag-n/:'-
/lutl Zilll', Ilr!' so insl'lIsiti\'(' that tht' pt'roxidt' WOllitl :o;ium, IHi kilot'a!ol·il·:O; pt'r gnull. HO\\'t'vt'r, th!'
tll'l'OIil POSI' Ilt'fort' i~lIit iOIl tH'('1 rrt'll. ( '0I1\'I'rsl'ly, tt'mpt'raturp rPllI'llI,d by tht· hydrot'lIrboll-oxygen
rt·t! phosptorlls /ll\d :O;\llfllr with pt'roxitll's l'ar. bt' rt'lldioll is \t·ss thall that I'pa('ht'd by illl'Plltliarips
st'llsiti\'I' 10 Iht' poillt of Spolltlllll'OliS dl'I'ompositioli ilh'oqlOrat ill~ Hll'tU! ftwls.
IIlId ('ollstitlltt' a hllzard, 1'hl' t'llIlindt'lIt ht'at vulul'
gi\'t'll ill tit .., lahl!' is til!' ht'at P' .. ol\'l'd for thl' rt'- 5-3.2 HEAT TRA1~SFER
/Idiom;, a>; i'in'll ill tht> t'quatiolls, tli\id!'d by tilt' Tht' dlit'it'llt,y /l1H1 Iwrforlllllllt't' of pyrott,('hni('
1I11l1lbl'l' of' 'q\li\'ltlt'llt wt'ig'ht:o; of redlH'illg' agl'llt tlt'"it'e:o; IIt'I' "I)/lsidprllbly infiuPIIl't'(l by tllt' various
ill thl' t'qtl:!'iOlI. TIlt' I'quiVlllt'ut ht'II1 has bt't'll modI'S lIud ralt's of hpat t rallsft'r prl's('nt through.
5-7
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 5-3
OXYGEN CONTENT OF VARIOUS PERCHLORA'r'ES
Approx.
Decomp. Oxygen Oxygen
Density Temp, Contained Available
Perchlorate glcc °C gig glec gig g/ce
I (H 0) indicates that a i1ydmte of till' percilloratl' iH a common form of the salt. All data
2
presented in the table, however, art' fur thp !lnhy(lrous salt.
TABLE 5-4
OXYGEN CONTENT OF VARIOUS OXIDES AND PEROXIDES
Appro.r.
[Jrcomp. Oxygen Oxyyen
[)rnsify, Temp, (' 011 t ainul A uaila,blc
O.ridl iiI' }'(T().rit/(' !l i 1'1' °C I
(J [J Y! cc g /a 9 Icc
I (lioO) illdirate~ tliat :t ""dral,' of tilt, l'l'rt·,;d,· j,: a "OIl'IllUll fuml "f tlli, lIlaltori:.i. All
dutu pr;sent"d ill this talJh-. I;o""\·l·r. art· fur Ill,' al!llyJruus tUrill of !Ill'S<' 1"·'U-'IJl·'.
,l-H
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 5·5
HEAT OF REA"::::LION OF REDUCING AGENTS
WITH BARIUM PEROXIDE
Ileat of E!JltLvalent
Reaction Ileat
Equation (Kg-cal) (Ko-cal)
Ollt tilt' sys(t·/Il. .\I(hollg-h t'xtrt'IlII'I~' (·olllpli"lIt!·t! t l'Illl'.;ft·rl'l'd hy this Ilwthnd i: uSllally small when
Hlt·,·hi\lIisIIIS t'xi"t in SlIl!lt' t /lSt's. a kllOwlt'dgt' of Olt' t'olllpllrl'd with th .. amoullt t fallsft'rrt'd by other
!'!'tIblt'lIls ill\'lIlvt'd is illlportllllt ttl thl' impro .... ·- IIlt·lIlls. Tilt· rllk "I' ht'llt t rlllIsft'r (I, lit whieh heat
IIlt'lIt of pyrot"t'hllit' t'OllljJtlSitiollS alld hUl'(iwart' flows IItTOSS all 111·,'11 A, is gi\,l'll hy:
d,·sign.
dt
llt'llt is lntllsft'rl't'd by Ollt' or by II t'olllhilllltioll (/ = k,l _.-- ( !l-1 )
dr
:d' til,· thl't't' IJII"it· llH,(·hallisllls: t·Plltitlt'tion. t'OIl-
I,,· .. tillll. alld radiatioll, DlIl'illg' Pl'oplIg'lltin' hurn- wht'/'p k is tht' (h"rllllli t'olltiul'tivity, 1I1It! tlffdI
i'IJ:. "Illy 011,· of th,·,~,· IIltld,'s is ,·tllltl·ollillg. is th .. tt'lllpt'l'atllfi' grlldit'llt lit tht' pnillt of ill-
tt'n'st, Tilt' rilt" t'xl'rt'ssiollS for II gl'llt'rlll thrt't'-
5-3.2.1 Cond uction dilllt'llsiollal "IISt' art' lllOrt' t·olIlpl,·x.
Iii ·("l<ludioll. tit,· !:t'lIt 1'llt'l'g-y i,,, tl'lIl1'ift·lTt·d TIlt' tllt'l'lllal t·ollt!llt·tivity of tilt· pyrott'('hlli('
It." IlIolt·t·u IIII' Illot iOIl alld 1'1',.,. t·lt·l·t rOllS. ~III tt·l·iab Illi~;t ur,· hilS b""11 ShOW!1 ttl illtlllt'IIt·,· tht' hUrtling
likt' tilt' Illt'tllls, whi"1! iiI''' good t·tllldllt'lors of ht'a!, ratt' dllt' to 11 I'r..tIl'lItillg' of th., IIllburrll'ti eompo-
hal't' Il l':dl-lIrdt'('f'd ,·rystllilillt· st l'lli'tlln' alit! art· sitioll (I'aragraph f;-:!.:)). 'I'ht· IIIlHlllllt of preht'at-
rit·1I ill fn·t· (·It·t·trollS, All Illatl'rials t'Olldlld Ilt'lIt illg is IlsUltlly II funt·tioll of th .. lllt'till ('Olltt'llt of
ttl ,~()(II" ,·X(t'lll. III liqllit!_~ alit! gll".·_,. tht' 1I11l0UIlt th,' Illixtun' duo' to it-; hight'r tht'rmat (·()llt\udi\'ity.
5·!1
'rhp dt'g-n'(' or ('on,.mlidntioll also f1tTt'l'ts tilt' rate of the IIr(,1l of Ihl' ('lIlittillg SUI'fll("', alld T the absolute
heat t!'ll!a"f,'I', 'l'lH' IIl'ut ,~ol\(hwtioll ,dollg ~'olid (\'lll(l('l'atlll't'. A gl'aybody, 01' llo11s('lectiv(' radiator,
flares has bp('11 llll'Usllr('IP by imlil'ddillg' thPI'lllO- is Oil,' ill whil'!1 its (,lIIissivity is indep!'ndcnt of the
('0111>1(,,, ill thl' ('(Illlposition at lilt' tilll(' of l'umpae- wa\"('ll'll~th . •\t a gi\'('ll tL'I\lIWratur,', the amoullt
tioll, F'I'OIll thest' (!llta it was possibl(' to ('Ollstruet of Plll'I'le,,- ('mittl'd lwr nait I!I'l'a at any wavelength
a IIHl!h' I for rl'latillg the illstalltHlll'OIiS tempf'ta- ii'i I(,ss thall that fl'OlIl a hllL(·kbod~'. The net heat
tIlre at a poi lit ill th(' flar\' to that of the l'eaetipn ('.«'hallg't' brtwl't'r; two bodi,·s ill y;hil'h both the
zone, hot and ('old hody ,!I'I' graybodies is:
Conductioll heat transfel' as w('ll as radiation
intilWn('\' thl' on-taqrl't ('olllbustioil pfficiency of
(jnrt = 1/1, -- (j,' (5-4)
(~ertain tyP('S of inel'ndiary Illixturt's. The rate of ",hpre thp lid heat ('x('hangp is the difference be-
cnl'l'gy r(·leasf' of tlH' fuel-oxidant l"'iH'tioll, inti- t\\"!'('ll tlIP amount of heat 'I transferred by radia-
macy of ("Jntal't, and <'iH'mi('al-phys;eal propl'rties I ion to t lIP ('001('1' body, II'S)' the amount q trans-
of th(' targl't influPll('(' tlip heat transfer rah', fl'rr('(l frolll tltp ('ooll'l' to th(~ hotter body. Tjlis may
I1pat is trani'iferrNI by conduetion as w~ll as be writtpll also as:
by thr othrl' mo<1ri'i in ignition trains, (klays and
(5.5 )
heat powdel's, and should be takrn into t'Jllsidera-
tiOll in ('stahlishing drsign l'ritpria. or by application of th,' reciprocity theorem:
(jnrt = Eh~cP"-+cAh(l(Th4 - 4
Tc )
5-3,2.2 C, Dvection and Radiation (5-6 )
COllv'~divp and radiatin' modI's of heat trans-
wll('rl' g is thl' pmissivity, cc is the absorptivity, P
fer in pyrot('(,hni('s are more dosl'ly associated
is th!' fraetioll of thl' ,'nrl'lrY l'lllitt..'d by a radiating
with post-('()Illbu:,;tioll plH'1l0IIlrlla. ('ollvedive heat
bo(ly that is absorbe(l by th!' absorbing' body, A is
transfrl' t'ff"ds arl' It'ss impurtan t and will only
thl' arl'a of tit" I'mitting :mrfa(~l', fJ is the Stefan-
he mentioned bri('fiy. Transfer of heat ('uergy by
Boltzmann ('ollstant, and T is the absolute tem-
eonveetioll rpslllts from thl' groi'iS movpment cf thl'
jll'ratllr('. TIll' subseripts It !'l,f!'r to the hotter body,
fluid transfp/, Illpdilllll. Th!' amount (/ of hrat
alJ(l thl' suhs('I'ipts (' rl'f('1' te the eooler body.
transfprrt'd hy ('ollv(,<'tioll l'lUl be t'xpn'ss(,11 by th,'
Hadiation hl'at trallsft'r is important in post.
general ('qllation:
l'Olllbustioll plH'1l01lll'1l1t of pyrotechnic flares since
q = hA(tlT) ( 5-2) it is HII' primary nlPehanislll by which heat is re-
turned to tl\(' I'f'aetioll ZOllr, This fcedbaek is im-
wher,~ h is tllP IH'at transfer ('orfii('i(,llt, whi('h may
porUll1t to thl' maintaining' of propagative burning
be a eomph'x flllldioll of a largot' numb!'r of prop-
alld maximnm possibll' rffiei(,Il('i('s in the;;e type
ertirs inl'llldillg those rplating' to til(' fluid mCltioll;
r('aetions. As Illl'l'ady indicat('d, radiative heat
A is thl' ('ross-s('l'Iiollal art'1l; and ~T is thl' tem-
transf(·r 1Ill','hanisllls also inf\u(,lw!' the efficiency
pcratllrp diff't'r('llee. ('oll\"('('tiv!' I\('at transfer ef-
of "l'l'tain 1."lwS il]('I'IHliary mixtur!''l. In thi:> case,
feds lIiay ;'Xt'I't an infiul'lI('p Oil tht' 11lIninolls out-
it is I'xp('liient to produl'(' radiating" spr(,j"s whieh
put and ('flit'it'll(',\" of tiallll plllllH'S hy moving' oxy-
will 1)(' rl'adily ahsorlwd by tIl(' target.
gell into till' ('ombustioll area 'lIld/or by ('ooling'.
Tht'st' .'tft'd~; Ilrt' Ilsually slight and th,·ir lIIeasul't'-
mPHt l'xtr"nlPl~' t'olllplieatPfl. 5·3.3 HEAT EFFECTS
llt'at transf"l' by rH(liat i,lIl dol'S lIot l('qllirt' a If h,'at is t ransfl'rl'l'd to or from a system, the
transft'r lIll'dilllll. Tht' aH10 1 lJlt of ('lll'I'gy pmitt(,ll tl'lIllH'J'alllrl' of till' systl':l: uSllally ('hanges. The
from a heatt'd SUrra('(' whi('h has hlal'kbolly (~har magll il \Ill" oj' I h(, t"iIljll'wt urI' (·hallg(' dl'pl'nds on
ad,'risti('s is: I he lIIass of a ~,\'i'itl'1II alld its h('at ('apaeity. These
(ilialltitif's art' dis('llss('d ill Paragraph :l-2.1. Trans-
(5-:~ )
fl'!,' of Ill'al llIay also ('ausl' ptJllSl' eilallg'l's su~'h as
whetI' !.'t is thp ~tt'fall-B()ltzmallll l'ollstallt, A is (·rystallillt' Il'allsitioll, Ilh,Jtillg' (or frpt'zing), vap-
5- ,.
I- ----------------------------------------- ~--------------------~ -----~--------------- -- I
Al1CP '11l6.185
I Grization (or sublimation), and (lis'ioeiation, The ('raft structnrl'S, It is important that the bullet or
I'/H'rgy in\'o\wd in tIH'St' ('hallgt's ill st!"tt' may be Pl'oj(,l'ti!p provi(;(' a holl' ill a self-sealing fuel tank
lar!!p in t'omparisoll wit!l thost' inyolvpd in th" ~;o that ~iOlIH' fupl is tlpilled and ignitpd by the
raising or ~owerinl! of til(' temp('ratur,' of d.c huminl" in('endiary material. This pmphasizes the
systPlIl, Challf'es in state brought about by th(' illlp()rtall~f' of widf'!>pread distribution of burning
absorptioll of ht'ut may hI' pxtreniply important in partil'ips and long burst dur'ation, l\lost small arms
initiatillg' ('cmbustion si:J('p til(' fllPI and oxidizer in('('lIdiary ('fllllpos;t ions al'P l'1ixturl:'s of metal, or
must ill SOIlll' ('ases iw ('onYl'rted into thl' ga.s('ons IllPtal ;1i!OYs, alld 1111 oxidizing' ('ompouncl, These
sta«(' for thl' l'Ombll~ti(lll prol't'ss to proept'll. mixtur('s WitI'll initiated, in ('ontrast to some other
il1f'l'ndiarips, Ilsuall~' hurn rapidl:!; often with ex-
5-4 INCENDIARIES plosive violence, Unf'lzed incendiary rounds up to
hll'elldiat'~' devil'('s are used to initiatl' drstnH'- 20 lIllll ~izp", Ilrt' usually initiatpd by thl:' ht'st PYO-
ti\'(' fir!'s in a lar!!e \'ari!'t~, of targets. Whih, air- dUl't'd from Ow ('rushillg' of th t, metal nose oy im-
('1'aft, buildillgs, il~dl\strjal installations, ammuni- l'a<'1 whill' ~() mill dnd lar~l'1' sizps arp providea
tiun, and flwl (ll1l11ps HI'(' arnOllg" tilt' pt'illl'ipal tar- with fuzps whidl are initiated by impa('t.
g'pts for itll'f'ltdial'Y attat'k, itH'l'ndiari('s ila\'(' proved Tht' fundio~lillg of a thin metal nose, nonfuzed,
to bl' plf(,(·tiw against pl'rsonnel, armol'l'(l vphicles, small anllS illl,pndiary bullet ('an be divided into
and tunks, In many ('ast's, the psyehologi('al fear thre\' sf'paratl' <;tages:
of firl' illl'reasl's the f.'tft't'tiwlless of all ill('('IHiiary 1, \pitidifJlI uf in('('l\(lii1r~' ('Ollipositions by bul-
atta('k dS persollnel llla~' ab'mdoll rplati\,ply safe \pt illlpad 011 target.
positions and \'('hides thus I'xposing' thelll!';elws 2. Hapid bUl'Itin,,; awi lrl'atillg' of till' cJmposi-
to thp adioll of oth('r weapons. tioll alJ(l its l'ombustioll produds until a maxi,
!rH'PllIlial'Y ('ornpositiolls and ill(,t'lHf:al'Y dl'- ilium tl'I'Jprratu!'c i,; I'('a('hl'd and the burniug
\·i(,(·s ('all bp f'lassifipd ill many Wllrs depelHlill~ 011 ('Ollt('lItS bUl'st from tl\(' bullet jacket,
tlwir l'ompositiull alhl liSP. ;n this handbook, in- :~, Coolillg' of tll(' PI'O<iucts frolll tht>ir m8J.imum
l'l'llfliaril's al'l' g'l'fJlllwrl into lhrt'P largl' ('Iassps tt'mpP!'at 1t!'t' to t h\· minimulIl ('/ft'etiv(' temper&.-
hased on t Iwir ll~l': till'(" i.l'" th(, minilllulII lPlllperaturl' neces8sry
1, Small arms inl'f'ndiary ammllnitiun IIsf'd pri- for f1lP\ ignition.
marily against air('rlift all(l fuel dumps,
The ehaill I)f reaction with fuzed incehdiary
~, Oth('r illt'('n<iiary mllllitions inein<iing' hombs,
l'OltlHh, sll('h as 20 mill, is simil!!!' to that described
~r(,lwdl's, mortar and artillel'Y projt'etiles; to
t'XCl'pt that t hI' sellsltiv'.' fuze starts ignition upon
initiat!' fin's ill bllildings, i.ndustrial insta\la-
impact,
t iOllS, allllllllllition, fllPI dumps afld other targets
'I'ltl' d('g'l'('p of (ll'lIptrat;on h'foTe initiation of
ill thp ('OInbat WI\(', ill urpus llt'h!nd tIll' ('ombat
t hI' burst is dl·tl'l'milled, jll'imarily, by the sensi-
al'pa, and ill tilt' ZOlll' of illtprior of till' l'lH'my,
tivity of thp bull!'t and its ability to earry through
:L :->p"l'ial ilt('('IIflial'y d,'\'i('f's IIsf'd for eovert
purpusps, ill ('ollllPetioll with gucrrill::. operll- til ['g'!'t ,1l'('IIS to thf it~tl'rior of t hl' aircraft. The
tions, and for ttll' df'struetion ,}f material and physi('al sizto of th!' illepwliary hurst produced also
(IOl'uments, alf!'l,ts its bUl'st Itwatioll in the aireraft, This has
h!'PlI fOlllltl to Ill' I'slwt'ially important in the case
stHrting' lit'strul,tive fires ill aircraft fuels, The FI\I' m:tlly ill('('lIdiary ('omp(witionR, for which
hUl'st prodl:('!'(l "er\'('s, basi('ally, as 1111 ignition tl\(' blll'lJillg" timp is vpry short, tl,,· effective burst
SOUI','I' f,}r till' fliP] l'uI'I'il'<I h,\' th(, ai~('raft sin('(' it dlll'at ion IS till' tilll\' rl'fjllirpd for tIl\' products to
is 'llllikl·ly that a sll.all arms in('('llIli:ll',\' hurst of 1'(lO] to tlrf' minimllm tplIlTH'ratlll'e ['pquired for fuel
..,unit-il'llt illtl'llsit,\' 0[' dUl'atioll would \\'('akl'lI air- ig'lIition, III otlwl' mixtllrps whieh f'oltain relatively
/l·11
A:MCP 706-185
TABLE 5-6
SUMMARY OF UMITS OF FLAMMABILITY OF V AR!OUS GASES
AND VAPORS IN AIR AND IN OXYGEN
Nitrogel! as Carban
.Diluent of dioxide as
Ga. or Vc.por LoU't'r Higher I LoU'Cr Higher Air Diluent of Air
-----.-.------.----. .--.--.--.- -··---1--------- --------- .-----1------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
HYDROCARBONS
Methane.. 5.:~ (5.0) 14 15 5.1 61 1:~.1 14.ti
Ethane.. 3.0 12.5 15 3.0 66 11 0 13.4
Propan~. 2.2 !).5 2.3 55 11.1 14.3
Butane.... 1.9 8.S 1.8 .1' 49 12.1 14.5
lsobutane 1.8 8.4 1.8 48 12.0 14.8
Pentane 1.5 1.4 7.8 12.1 14.4
lsopentane. .. 1.·\ 7.{)
2-2 Dimethyl propane. . 1 .4 7. Ii
Hexane..... 1.2 7.5 11.0 14.5
Dimethyl butane. 1.2 7.0
2-Methyi pentane 1. 2 7.0
Heptane. . . . . 1. 2 1 .1 6.7
2-3 Dimethyl pe::ltane. . 1 .1 (i. 7 .
.....I' ..
'"
Octane. 1.0
lso-octane 1 .1 1.0 6.0 ..... ' "
.8 . .. , ....
Nonane ....
Tetramethyl pentane ..
Diethyl pentane.
.8
.. .7
4.\)
5.7 . .... .... I' .
.
5.4
f
DecaDe .. .8
Ethylene. 3.1 2.7 32 34 3.0 80 10.0 14.7
Prop} lene .. 2.4 2.0 10.3 11 2.1 11.5 14 .1
g.o 53
Butylene. 2.0
Bl>tene-1 1.{j !l.3 1.8 11.6 14.0
Butene-2 1.8 9.7 1.7 58
55 I'.
llK'butylene. 1.8 .... 88
b-n-Amylene . 1..'> 1...1 8.7
Butadiene. 2.0 115 ., . .. . lOA 13.1
Acetylene .. 2.5 81
Benzene. 1.4 7.1 11.2 13.9
Toluene .. 1.4 1.3 6.7
o-Xylene. 1.6 0.0
Ethyl benzene .. 1.0
Styrene. 1.1 6.1
Butyl benzene ... .8 5.8
Naphthalene. .9 5.9
Cyclopropane ... 2.4 10.4 2.5 11.7 13,0
Ethyl cyclobutane. 1.2 7.7
Ethyl cyclopentane .. 1.1 0.7
Cyclohexane .... 1.3 8
Metbyl cyclohexane. 1.2
Ethyl cyciohexline .\1 6.6
MIXTURES
Water gas ....... . 7.0 72
Cllrbureted water gaB. 5.5 36
Pittsburgh natural gas. · 4.8 .' 13.5 12.0 14.4
Other natural gases .. .3.8-6.5. 13-17
Benzine.
Gasoline ...... . ·· 1.).
1.4 I' . 0.8
7.6
5 ......I. 11.6 14.4
Naphtha .... .
Kerosene. .......i .7 5 '" .
Coal gas ....... . 5.3 n 7 70 11.5 14.4
Coke-oven gliS .. 4.4 34
~
Blast furna~e tas. 35
Producer gas .. 17 70-·80
Oil gas .. 4.7 »-35·1 . . . . 1.
;')-12
AMCP 706-185
i
s!ow-burll:ng metal fuels, tht' burning time is an The l'IWl'gy I't'quil'l'd to vaporize a giV!'1l quantity
apprcciabh' part of tht' total burst duration. of kt'l'osI,'ne is sOlllPwhat less than that for gaso-
lint'. Thl' PJlf'rgy must bp availablp, howpver, at
5-4.1.1 Ignition and Combustion of Aircraft Fuels sOIllPwhat high!'r h'llllwratul'l's bN'ause of the lower
It is generally accepted 9 •10 that the combustion volatility of kProspne. The PlH'l'gy mIHI!' available
of a hydrocarbon: (I) occurs in tht' gas phase, for eYClporation of fupl by tht' tianH' of It self-
(2) illvolvcs a chain-reaction mechanism which in- propagatinl! tirt' is roughly the SIUlll' for gasoline
cludes the formation of unstable species such as and kt'rost'lH' inasmlll·h as heat of l'omhustion for
free atoms and free radicals, and (:3) can occur hoth fll!'!;; lit·s in til(' rang!' of 20.000 to 22,000
only when till' concentr~tion of the hydrocarbon BTl' per pound.
yapor in the air falls within certain well-defined It is wf'll <,stablisll(-d I6 that fires ean be initiated
limits, as illustrated in 'fable 5_6. 11 Normal varia- by an incPlldiary bullet pl'netrating self-sealing
tions in atmospheric pressure do not appreciably aviation ftwl ('ells abow the liquid levpl, if the free
affect the limits of flammability; and, for most mix- spa('t' ('ontains air, pprhaps be('ause of a previouf.1
tures, therc is a straight linc rf'lationship betwecn purH'turt' or air leaking into the tank. Rarely, if
the limit of flammability and the initial tempera- pwI', has a firp bpen started insidp tIl(' tank by an
ture of the mixture. 12 illeendiary bullet "triking below the liquid level.
For fuel concentrations within the flammability In faet, during developmf'ntal tests of incendiary
zones, a firt~ or l'xplosion t'an result from contact ammunitioll, care wa..<; always taken to strike the
with an ilH'l'lHhary SLurce wlll'n the temperature of tank below the liquid level with a speond shot if
this souree is sufficiently high. Various methods tlH' first shot failed to ignitl'. All effort was toward
haye bl'en tried to detcrmine tht' minimum igni- drw!oping an illl-,pndiary bullet with one shot ig-
tion temperatures for various liquid fuels. A popu- nition ('apability below liquid level as this was
lar experimellt:il pro('f'durC' for ~;uch determina- most diffil'ult to achieve. Sueeess was achieved
tions involws confinl'IIlent of the fuel vapor and whpn incPlldiarif's of long burst duration and long
air mixturl' in a Buitab!e l'ontainer and a:-,plication parti('If' burning time were developed. These long
of l'xterual IH'at until thl' mixture,ignites. In gen- burning particles ignite the small spurt of fuel
f'ral, the hydro('arbons of a higher molc('ular weight whieh is forced through the bullet hole aftf'r 30 to
tend to ignite at lower temperatures. There ex- flO millisrl'ond~ by the prpssure wave set up inside
ists, h Jwevcr, an ignition lag 1S (Paragraph a-8.6.1) thp tank by the bullet.
whirh is dependent upon several variables. Flaim' will propagat(' in kerosene mist-air mix-
Grades ,TP-I and ,JP-3 aviation fuel have mini- tUl'es for 11 wider range of (~oncentrations than in
mum ignition tl'mppratures bl'twpen 400°F and kerosene vapor-air mixtures. It is impossible to
i'iOO°I<" with an assol'iatl'd ignition lag from 100 to obtain u eoneentration of kerosene mist in air
200 s!'l'onds. A "iation gasolin{'s have minimum too rieh to be ignited if the temperature is be-
ignition temperaturps of 800°}<' to 950°}<' with an ig- low the flash point of kerosene. However, at
Itition lag of 2.0 to 2.fi SPl'ollds. H The ignition lag tempf'ratures high enough to produce a vapor
for all hydrocarbon fuels becomes less with increas- ('onl'f'utratioll in air near thf' upper limit of
ing templ'raturps. At the minimuIll ignition tem- flammability, thp mixturp may be so rieh that it
Iwrature of gasolint', about 900°F, th£' ignition l'lg fails to propagate. The initiation of a mist ex-
fUl' kPrr)sell(' is in the range of 2 to 10 seconds. 11I plosion takl's plaet' after tht' evaporation of mist
Firps, tht'rl'fore, can bl' initiated and propagatpd droplets nf'ar the ignition source from a loeal vapor
in a flammable kl'rosenp vapor and air mixture as l'OIl('elltratioll within th" pxplosive limits. This
rpadily as in It !!:asolillt' vapor and air mixture if vapor ignit('s to form thp initial tianlP front. Propa-
both mixturl's are within ill!' flammability zone. gation of the flame pro(,t'l'ds by I'vaporation of
t 'ollf;l'qu('lItly, factors whieh ('oHtrol th(· formation droplpts whi('h form aI' influmlllubll' ~as mixture
of flld vapor art' of primary importanep in de- in tht' prelwating zonp ill advam'!' of thp flame
tt'rmining igniiion eharaeteristics. front.
5-13
AIlCP 706-185
r-~"-'-"--~~-'-"-'i-'I-'i-'I·-ri-'I~i-'~
depends strongly 011 the ambient pressure and the
:::I!
o 5 ~-_ _ _- - .
_x supply of oxygen from the atmosphere since these
factors are important if a self-sustaining fire is to
~W~~
o 0
3 ;~~- ~-~
-::'':;A 9, Oclonl Gasoline
result from the action of incendiary bullets, In-
formation obtained from tests in partially inert
Z~ I
i
ct atmospheres, both in altitude chambers and in actual
t- en 0 Alis of fUll "11
----~--------
flight tests, indic'ates that damaging fuel tires can-
o~- ~ I I<.ro..nl
~~ ~:::~~!----------1
not be started at very high altitude. Studies with
3 several pure fuels indicate that the relationship be-
~~ ~x----------~~ t.ween spark minimum ignition energy Hand
~ 5 pressure for a fuel-air mixture can be representt'd
x • 25% ... 00% ~ , 70% by:1R
o 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16
k
INC'~ES 11= (5-7)
pro
Figure 5-1. Constant Ignition Probability Regions About C!
Fuel Jet of GaslJline or Kerosene where p is tilt' pressure, k is a constant which de-
pends on th(' nature of the fuel, and n is another
Studies of phenomena associated with the pene-
constant having a value of about 1.82, Even if
tration of liquid fuel tanks show that hydro-
fires arl' initiated at high altitude, the nature
dynamic forces resulting from the impact of a
of the firf's, ('spp('ially at the higher airflows, might
projeetil!' on an aircraft fuel cell product' a pres-
be diffusPd and low in temperature, thus limiting
sure wave in the stored liqnid. A high, positive
thp rlamag!' produced.
pressure is Iwar the point of tank penetration a
few milliseconds aftpr impact by the projectile.
The fuel spray emerg-illg from the hole made by 5-4.1.2 Nature of a Small Arms Incendiary Burst
the projeetile has tIw normal cha.acteristics of As already indicated, the burst produced by
filampnt jets with droplets forming at thp leading tht' functioning of small arms incendiaries is funda-
t'dge of t.he filament. . mentally an ignition source for starting a destruc-
Thf' basic factors whil'h account for the ditTer- tiw fUt'1 firl' in lin aircraft. The amount of
enc!'s in flammability characteristics of aircraft t'nprgy trallsfprred to the fupl dppends on the
,rupls arl' th" rplative volatility and viscosity of the naturl' of thp ('ombustion prot'ess (the temperature
fuels. TiH' relatively low volatility and high vis- rt'IH'I)I'11 alHl t hI' eharat'teristics of the products of
cosity of ker(l!;cne make it considerably more diffi- l'ombnstioll ), ttl!' modf' of {'nergy transfer process,
cult to ignite than gasoline. Results of tests (with and tIlt' I'ffi('it'IH'Y with which thp t'nergy is ab-
fuel jets designed to simulate the fuel spray made sorbed by tht' fupJ.
as a proje(·til,' penetrates a fuel tank) presented 'I'hl' maximum tt'IIIIwrature reached ill an in-
in Figure 5-1 indicate that the probability of a ct'ndiary bUl'st is a mt'liSurp of both its relative
positivt' ignition is greatt'r for gasoline than for intl'lIsity alHI duration, as a rt'sult of chemical
keros('lW at any point. in the volump su-rronnding rt'adions whil'h OC'l'ur within the burst to the end
the axis of tht' jpt. Th~ type of fire oc('urring with of its l'oolil1~ <'yt>if'. A ('onsideration of ttlP hurst
the gasolilH' jet is usually different than that oc- tt'mppratur(" and thp p!fe('ts of the physical and
curring with kProsPllp. Most gasoline fires propa- t ht'rmodynllllli(' propprti('s of in('pndiary mixturp
gat.e r~ ~idly through thp fUl'l spray. I,ittIl', if any, illgrpdiPl1ts alld th"ir rt'ac·tioll prodlH'ts, com prist'
unhurIlt'l! fuel is left in th!' ar~a. In contrast, IIIl important art'a of study ('oncprning an incendi-
nparly all kproselJe ignitions arp localiz!'d, scldom ary bUI'st. Thl' tpnllwraturp produl'cd by an
propagating mor!' than a few ilu'ht's from the point illl't'lldiary burst ,'an bl' t'!>timatt'd hy caltulations
of i~..'IIit.i()ll so that most of tIlt' fut'! is It·ft Ull- IlSillg' thl' ll11'thotis outlillt,d in Paragraph ~-2.5. It
burned. is IIt'I'('ssary to assu III 1', arbitrarily, the amount of
'j'h!' l·tTt,(,tiv('IIt'~; of illl'('l\lliary ammullitiou also II t llIospht'ri(' OX)'/!I'II II "ai lablp for combustion of the
5-14
AIICP 7()6..185
incendiary mixture. 'I'hf' I'xtl't'tlll' ('OIHlitioIlS are [ll'odul'ts from til(' maximum t('mperature reached
either: (1) that till' only OXn~l'lI Il\'ailable for by tit!' ill(~(,ll(iiary hurst to tht' minimum effective
('ombustioll is that containe(l ill til(' mixturr ('om- tl'lllpt'ratlll'!' divided by the temperature differ-
POlH'llts dul' to insufficient tiult' for the difl'usiell of t'1l"('--IlIHI 11\ ·g!e(·ting 7'8 4 siJlc(~ it is very much
atmosphl'ri(' oxyg-cn into thf Ham!'; or (2) that "mallt'l' t hall Til \ integration yields:
till' Slll'rOllIHiiug" air supplieR tlIP additional oxygen
requirNl for ('ompletc combustion of thl' reactants.
0:: = (_1__. _1_)~a .0'8·/- Es -
T} T 1a
EBEB)C
(j}!JSEBA
'rhe actual condition is prohably somewhere be-
(5-9)
tween. Limitl'd I'xperiml'ntal data obtained for
bursts jll (·oJltrolied atmosph('fl's indieatl' that tile If it is assumed that the radiating area A and
surrounding atmospherl' dol'S I;ot ('l1te1' appreciably emissivities Ell and E.~ have average values which
into thl' incendiary rt'action so that condition may lw Ilssumed constants for the various bursts,
(1) is thp bl'ttl'r assumption. The diiferrnce in the th£' terms outside of the parentheseR may be con-
fl'SUItS is small, however, becans(' of ,he necessity
sidered a constant K and:
for hl'atillg t!1P nitrogen Gi th,~ air nndrr assump- 8., = kC(--'!'-- ___1 ) (5-10)
~ion (2). (Sle also Example 4, Paragraph 3-2.5.) - T/' Ttl',
The rate of heat transfer from the burst cloud [f k is assumed to be 108 (A 2:; 2 X 10"cm2 • EB =
to it~ surroullding-s depends also upon the method 0.9, E8 = 0.1 and m:..=:: 1), the curves in Figure
by which the heat is transferred. Heat can be ;:;·2 result where it is assumed that the ll1inimum
transferred by combustion, convection, and radia- effective temperature is 800"K.
tion; however, at temperatures above the ignition If the adiabatic flame temperature can be cal-
temperatu!'e of aircraft fuels, heal' t(an~fer by culated or experimentally obtained and if the heat
radiation is probably the dominant methc,d. Hadi· of reaction is known, Figure 5-3 can be used t.o
ant enrrgy emittrd by thr liquid, solid, and gase<)U& pstimate an averagp specific heat. If Figures 52
species in all incendiary burst is a complicated and 5-3 are eombir..ed, Figure 5-4 results. 1.\s CBI1
function of wavelength, pressure, geometry, and he S('('.I;, the eoolinr' time varies directly with the
chemical composition of the emitting molecular aVl'rage speeifie heat. Thc curves also indicate that
aggrr?atr, as well as of trmperature. However, any in('rrase i,l the burst temperature above 20000K
based on pxper;mental results, it can be assumed results in only II small increase in the cooling time.
that the illcrndiary hurst cloud raiiates as a gray- Changp in cooling times resulting from transfor-
body with a rplatiwly hig-h c.nissivity. mations is diffieult to determine becawse tbe details
The rate of h~at transfer from an incendiary of th£> eooling mechanism are not known.
burst doud, radiating as a gray body may be ex- Experimental cooling curves for incendiary
pressecl by: mixtures arc given in I<'igure 5-5. 111 IM.ll, 50
percent barium nitratp and 50 percent magnesium-
dQ IdO = ElIEs!T(!~~__ Ts4)A (5.8) aluminum alloy, is one of the litandard mixtures
I Ell -1- E.~ _. };IIE8
llsP(l ill incendiary bullets. 1M -2a, 50 percen ~
wherp A is thE' total raaiaGing 8relt of thp eom- potassiullI pt'r!'hlorate and 50 percent marnesiun
ponents ill t hI' burst lloud, d() is quantity of heat alloy, eon tail's no bariUll' nitrate and it.s calcu-
radiatpd by the irwl'ndiar,v hurst eloud during tim I' latl'd temperature is higher than that for IM-ll.
intl'rval d'O, (j is 11)(' Stpfall. Boltzmann eonstr.llt, 11\1-63-50 percent calcium peroxide, 45 percent
E is tiH' ('missi\'ity. and T is till' absolutp temppra- rl'tl pho~pborus, altd fi percent aluminum h~r
tUrt'. 'I'hr subsl'ript 8 refPI'S to the burst and the droxidl~do('s no~ contain either barium nitrate or
subscript 8 l'efl'rs to thl' surroundings. By com- allny, and has a eonsidprahly lower theoretical
bining' this pquation with the equation dr.) = mCdT maximum temperature than IM-ll. It is to be
wlirr<' (' is th., u\'('rall aWl'ag"e specific heRt-i.e., Ilotf,d that IM-to:l, fiO percent red phosphorus and
eqUals till' heat ('\'oln(1 F'r graD!, ind\diq~ that ;-.0 lH'rcent magnesium-aluminum alloy, does not
fr,)IlI phasl' ehang'es, in thl' (~oolillg of the reaction ('ontain 1m oxidizer.
5-15
AMCP 706·185
---,- I
C=2.0
en
. 400
~
0
.. 7000
E
!i::
. oK
W 0
a::: 0
300
~
I- 0
<t CD
ffi 5000
a..
:E
W
- 20J
0
CD C=1.0
I- I.IJ
l!
:E 3000
::>
... C::O.7
~ <!)
Z 100
X '.::=0.4
<t ...J
:E 1000 0 C=0.2
0
U
o
o 1000 3000 5000
HR HEAT Of' REACTION,cal/g MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE ~, OK
0
Figure 5·3, Cnoling Time to 800 K ar a F'indion of
Ten,peratur. and Heat Capacity, C
Figure 5-2. Maximum Temperature, T, al: a Function of
Heat of Reaction and Average Specific keat, C
plosiv{' Illlttl'rial in addition to its incendiary fmer
mate!"ial.
5-4.1.3 Small Arms Incendiary Fillers :\Iag'llf'sinm-alllmillum alloys haw been an es-
Small afllls ilh~l'ntliaI'Y ammunition, which IlOW sl'lItial ill~rl'(lil'lIt ill most of thl' successful incendi.
illellilit's amlllullition through ·W mm, has been ary mixtllrt's, auel haw r{'placed both whitt, phos-
dt'Yl'lopcLi, like otlwl' amlllunition, to meet the par- phorus illl'l'lHliarips and traCf'r compositions,
t il'lIlaI' llPl'ds of tht' using Services. Important Trll.('(·rs, first \18('(} as ilwendiari\.'s, emploYf'd a
1Il0difil'atioJls amI illll,rO\'('IlWlIts wert· mudt, through fillf'r l'onsistillg of two parts magnesium and seven-
thl' Yt'ars ilJ n'spolHw to changes if: Service needs t{,(,11 parts barium lH'roxidl' for inct'ndiary pur-
or aJltil'lpatt·d l'!lall~t's in Sen'ie(' n'quil'l'lllents. poses, I fntil thl' d{'velopment of thl' highly satis-
garly dp\'('lo!lIlH'lIts in small arms incendiary alIl- t'lidory ilH'j'lldiary fiUf'r basf'd on a magnesium-
lllullitiolJ filll'l'-; han' bt'{,ll discus..-;I'd ill the his- aluminum alloy (50/50) fuf'!, with barium nitrate
tot·il'al rp\'il'w of illt'plI(iiarics (Paragraph 5-1), as tht' oxidizf'l', changf's in trae('l' mixturf's used
SPllsit i VI' l'X plosi \'('S-ille!udillg' Illl'r('ury ful- as iw'('ndiarit,s Wl'rt' limit{'d to tJI Jse which would
millatl', lead azidt', and PET!\--wl'r{' employed in improv(' tl.~ Iwrformanl'e of Jlletal-oxidant com-
SOl'It' l'al'ly illl'l'n<iiary fiJI {,I'S, Other t'xplosives- positions, ;\'ullH'rous inc ... ndidry mixtures haY{' been
ineluding- tetryl, MOX, TNT, lIaleite, and EDNA test!'d for \lSI' in small arms ammunitio!l in the
-1'.]0;0 hav(' bet'll t:-ied in smaller nonfuzed in- IJpriod siJl('p th{' beginning of World War II, A
l'{',Hliary ammullitioJl but haY(' not proved satis- detail"d (~lird file listing of the inl'entiiary mixtures
fador,\', IIi~h l'Xp!OSIV(' ilH'('IJ(liary ammunition whieh haVl' bf'en given !ill 11\1 number (approxi-
i. 20 IIIIl1 and !ar~{'r siz('s ('ontains It purf'ly ex- lIIutl'ly 1000) is mllilltained at Frankford Arsenal.
5-16
AMCP 706·185
---e= 2.0 ilnd copling tim:) results with eoar"er and with
en C. col 10 p.tomizd or spherical partich·s. Piring tests con·
E... firm these results. Evaluations of magnesium .
~ aluminum alloys other than 50/50 3how that the
0
50/50 hlloy is superior for a varietr of applica-
0
0 30 tions wheth('I' gro l.lIld or atomized.
Q) In an attpmpt to <i('v('lop improved small arms
! iilc('ndiary mixtur('s, a large numbe ..' of metals and
0
t- alloys Wl'rp evaluated for their effectiveness as in·
Q) e = 1.0 cendiary ftH·ls with several oxidizing agents, as
rcport<,d ill detail in Ref~rence 6. Some of these
llJ 20
:E mixtures producl'd incendiary bursts which have a
l-
e = 0.7 longer duration than those produced by IM-ll.
Thl.'se mixturps also have proved to be more effec-
(!)
tive than IM-l1 in comparative tests against air·
Z
10 ('raft targets.
...J
0
0 e = 0.2 5·4.1.3.2 Oxidizers
()
A wide variety of materials have been used
as oxidiz('rs in inc~ndiary mixtures. An oxidizer,
for ur;e ill maSl>.produced items whi('h are loaded
by automatic mlleh~nes, must meet a variety of
HR HEAT OF REACTION, col/g requirements in addition to being able to supply
tht' n('cessar,); quantity of oxygen.
Figure 5-4. Cooling Time to 800 0 K os 0 Function of Heal The effect;; of oxidiz('r partid(' size 011 in-
of Reaction ond 5rwcific Heat, C cendiary bursts have been stani('d. lilCendiary
mixtures containing oxidizer particle:; of compara-
5-4.1.3.1 Fuels t~vely Iltl'gp sizp (100 to 200 me3h) could not be
Incendiary cOfl'positions containing magnesium- ignited ullless the mixture ('ontained finely divided
aluminum alloy have beell the basis of most of the (less than :125 mesh) alloy f\wl particles. Mix·
standard incendiary (·ompositiom; investigated un· turt's ('ontaining fill!' or medium-sized bhrium
til reeellt years. Studies have indicated tbat an nitrate particles would not burn except when
alloy of 50/50 proportions, prepflred by grinding mixed with coarse alloy. Alloy particle sizes in
with a partiele size rauge from 60 to :325 mesh, tht· range specified fur IM-11 r('acted erratically
is optimum for a wide variety of applications. with either It narrow range coarse or a fine barium
The effects of variation in the granulation of the nitrate powd('r. Specifi(~ation ~~a(~e alloy reacted
magnesium-aluminum alloy were evaluated early bpst with barium nitrate which eonsisterl of both
in the program, Ipading to thp development of fine and coar~e particle sizes. The cooling dura-
IM-ll (eomposed of 50 percent magnesium-alum- tions of the incendiary burst for th(' few mixtur<ls
inum alloy 50/50, and 50 pereent barium nitrate) whieh eould bl' ignitt'd incrpased as the particle
which was tht' basil' ine(·ndir.ry mixture used in size of the barium nitrate was ilH'l'pas('d, but these
World War 11. ~~igure 5-6 shows ti".e cooling ('hang('s wpr(' rplatively small.
eurvei; and burst duratiun (til\' tinlP from ignition Some of the alkali metal and alkaline earth
until burst eioud eooled to 1540 0 K) curves for nitrates have bt'en more widely employed than
mixtures which contain eith('f thl' ~roullil or ether types of oxidizers because they are available
atomizpd alloy in a vari(·ty of mesh sizes with at low CO!;t, contain large quantities of available
some bari nm nitrate. The results pr('s('nted in this oxygen, are saft', and .:!an be bandIed easily.
5-17
-~
,
AJ(CP 7()6.185
2600
2500
2400
~
~ 2300
". 2200
W 2100
0::
...::>~ 2000
ex 1900
0::
W 1800
Q.. 1700
~
W 1600
I- 1500
1400
1300
1200 I I
0 50 100 150
TIME, MILLISECONDS
Barium nitratp has been ineoryorBted in over 200 trat!' but exhibits a lower decomposition tempera-
incendiary mixtures, including the widely used tun'. Mixtures ('ontaining potassium perchlorate
1M-II filler, and has bt'pn utilized in proportions tend to btl mort' 3t'nsitive and to burn faster than
ranging born one percent to 65 percent of the llIixturt's whi(·h ('ontain only barium nitrate as the
total mix. This oxidizer js st.able to approximately oxidizt'r< Ammonium perchlorate has also been
6oo o e, has a high critical humidity, is easily used as an' oxidizer. This material is considered
handled, and is available at moderate cost. Some to be an t'xplosive sincp the hydrogen contained
compositions in whieh barium nitrate is used as in the compound ean be oxidizt'd rapidly as the
the primary oxidizer are improved, from the stand- del'Ompoflition of ammonium perchlol"ate takes
point of incl'ndiary functioning. by thl' addition plact'. 'rhis oxidizer-explosive has been uoed ex-
of a small quantity of a more reactive oxidizer trnsiwly in the l\IOX series of metalized ex-
such as ammonium nitrate or pota."'-'1ium per- plosiv{·s and probably ('ontributes to the explosive
chlorate. Ammonium nitrate has been used in I'ltergy of thest' ('ompositions, as well as providing
sevt'ral ineendiary mixtureg as an oxidizer, how- oxygt'li for th!' burning of the metallic fuel which
pver, it has a relativt'ly low dCf~omposition tempera· providl's thl' major im'('ndiBry effect of MOX-
ture and tends to sensitize incendiary mixtures loadt'd ammunition. Ammonium perchlorate is a
in which it is used. Other nitratt's are pot!'ntially rather sensitive oxidizer and, therefore, is some-
good oxidizl'rs, but art' not widt'ly ust'd bt'eause of what hazardous to handle. Othpr perchlorates have
soml' undt'sirable ('haradt'ristic, such as bt'ing rt'la· het'll used: but, in g'1'1It'ral, tht'y art' hygroscopic
tively hygroseopie nr uneconomical. Ilnd, therl'forr, arl' diffh'ult to handlt> in production
The alkali metal perchlorates are the second lORding t'quipment.
most widPly uSl'd group of oxidizers for inre!1dlary SOIllt' [wroxides and If'sS stahlf' oxides CRn bt>
mixtures.~ PotassiuIll perchlorate has been used in used as oxidizt'rs in ill('ellLliary mixtures. Lead
marly inet'lHliary filll'rs in proportions varying dioxide is probRbly tht' most important member
from 2.5 percent to 75 percent of the total mixture. of this group, all(l it has been us{·d in several
PotassiulIl lH'r(~hloratl' has t'ssl'ntially the saml' i/l('t'ndiRrr fiIll'rs. It tt'llds tu sellsitizp mixtures
total /lnd availao)l' oxygrn ('.ontl'llt aN barium ni- in whi('h it i~ IIsl·d. although by itst·lf it is safe
fj-H~
AMCP 706-185
......
IIsed in small arms ammunition contained only the
metal.fuel and 11 suitable oxidizer. The mass pro-
ducti'JII of small arms incendiary ammunition dur-
~ ~::;,t-··.,., ' .... ing 'World Wal' II created problems concerning
0:: 1800 500/0 Ground~·::---.., ' - . , ..... -l
W Alloy • 325 '-"" • • .... 'a., ....... pellt'ting of incrndiary mixtures, sticking of com-
Q. '" ~ I""'w. ·'e
:JE
W
1600 ',.
,
'- ..., pression punches, lumping of mixtures during
I- 1400 50% Ground Alilly '50% .:lround Alloy
handling, and failure of mixtures to flow properJy
(Standard) -200.325 in the automatic loading equipment. These prob-
1200
o 50 100 150 200 lems were met by adding binders, lubricants and
TIME ,MILLISECONDS flow promotrrs to the then standard ('om positions.
Thc amount of additive present in the composi.
Figure 5·6. Cooling Curves for Mixtures Containing tions was small and did not impair the incendiary
Various Particle Sizes and Shapes of Magnesium Alumi- functioning of the ammunition, and they were es-
num 50/50 Alloy
sential to the successful mass production of in-
eendiary ammunition. Without these additives
and easy to handle. Less oxygen is available from it would havl' bepn impossible to achieve the high
ll'ad dioxide than from many of the nitrate and It'vel of ammunition quality that was maintained
pen'hloratt' oxidizers. Its high density has made during World War II. SineI' then, the require·
kad dioxide useful for appliclltions where an in· ments fo!' ruass produced ammunition have become
('rt'aSl' in bull!'t weight is desirablp. ('vrll more stringent.
A few additional oxidizt'rs that have been eval· The two most frequently used binders in small
uatl·d in incendiary mixtures are worthy of men- arms incendiary mixtures are calcium resinp,te and
tion. These inelude potassium chlorate, which is asphaltum. In iilcendiary filler compositions, cal-
a rPlatiwly good oxidizer except for its sensitivity cium rt'sinatt' is used in amounts varying between
alld illcompatibility with certain fuels, notably red 0[1(> d/ld two percent, and asphaltum is used in
phosphorus; strontium l·hronl8t.l·, potassium di- UIIIOUIl t'l varying between one and five percent. A
('hrolllate, and potassium Iwrmallganatt' have also tllllnbpr of other hindeJ'fl have been tested in sev-
h!'!'lI used. ;...rolle of thl'sl' has bel'I1 found to ht' ('ral t'olJlpositiolls from time to time. These include
full.\' satisfactory as oxidiz!'rs for inc('IHliary mix Acrawax, dpxtrill, starch, nitrocellulose, gum
applil'ations. arabie, polyvinyl alcohol, red gum, vistar.ex (a
One uf the lIIost intriguing applications of rubb!'I' preparation), and AP-2 (a jellied gasoline
oxidizin~ nHllt'rials to th!' (it'struetioll or damagin~ 11.111\ aluminum mixturt').
of ait·(·raft strul'turt's is tht' dil'Pl't real'tion of an Ora ph itt" ill a runge of ilartieie sizes, has been
oxodizillg' agl'lIt with tltt' LIt'I ('ontainrd in the USI'l\ Slll'l't'AAfully as a lubri('ant to prevent the
air(·I'Hi't. Tltt· it jell is Il}lllt'alillg' ht'('IlUs!' of tIlt' stit'king of pl'll!'ting Illld compression pllllch~ duro
I'utt'ntial ('itt'lIIi('ull'lH'rgy ft'Il'llst' situ'!' only oxygen ing tht' loatlillg of inci.·ndiary ammunitioIl. This
01' all oxidizing' Hg'('n! is plat'l'd in tilt· projectilt' lubricant is normally added in amounts ranging
anti no SPII('" is r"quir!'(} f(;r ftlt'l. :\[allr rather from O.:!f> pt>re!'nt to 2.0 ~lt'r(·l'nt. Stearates of zinc
ditlh'ult pl'lIl'1i('al problt'lIIs lilt' ill\,ol\'t'd in adapI· and Hlulllilllllll hav!' bpell I'lIIployt'd in II. number of
illg this Ilrillt'ipl,' to realisti(· targl't conditiolls sll1all arms illl·t·/Itliary l'ompositions to prevent
\lsi ng sf "tHI"".! projt'ttilt' "0111 POIH'lIts lind fuzing IUllips fl'O":' for\llill~ ill th!' rnixtur!'s Illld to im·
IIlt·dtllnisllls. :-;O\ll(' pf tit,· oxidizing' cit!,lIlicals pro',"t' tltt' fkw (·harllett'risti(·s during the automatic
whidl lIIil-!'lit ht' wwful :11 this (·Olllll·(·tioli illclude loadill!! prOl't'S!;('S. TtI!'s!' inl!,Tfdi!'nts are of some
I}\. ('I F:1. Brl<\. II ('II )4. (IF". ()~ l<'~. ():,F~. ;...r( ):11<\ a.'isisfall('" ill forllling pt·llt-ts of ttlt' mix in additioJi
(·I()~F. alit! ':--:1<\. It) t h,·j r flow ·illt!tlt·illg t'haraderisties. Zine st('.arate
5-19
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 5·7
TYPICAL SMALL ARMS INCENDIARY MIXTURES
1M-09 IM·:3H:J
,jOj,. :\Iagllesilllll-Alullliuulll Alloy (;)O/:iO) -l!)j\ )iagnt'siuJIl-AluruillulIl Alloy (;iOj30)
-W'/; Bariulll Xitl'att' . W~I. AmllloniuUl Perehloratt~
lO'i; 1rOil UXitll' (}<\'~03) 2% CalL'iuUI Resillatt'
DI-112 :'.10X-:!B (High gxplosi Vt' Illeendiary "'illers)
,-,:! ?, AlUlIlillUJll Powder
:'.iagllt'siulII.AlulllillulII Alloy (:iO/50)
- (
;, /1
!
Tung-stt'll Powder :It,?, AlIllllUlliuUl Pt'f(·hloratt'
,iW; BariulII Xitl'alt> ti'i, HI>X / Wax (!)7 la)
-! j; '1':-\'1' (Cuatt'd 011 tilt' AmmollillIll Perchlorate)
Dl-1 :W 2'/< ('al\~illlll Stt'uratt>
-!!l',( :'I\agll!'siulII-Alulllilllllll Alloy (;,O/[)() 1'/< Uraphite
III Iht' lll1lOllllts of 1'/ -:!~:; has b"t'l! lIlost widely 5·4.1.4 Typical Small Arms Incendiary Bullets
lh('t! fOl' this pUI'JiOSt>, AlulllillUIII slt'ul'lltt' hilS also 'I'y pi('lIl ill\'t'Jldiliry roullds Urt~ sbowll ill J.'iKUrt'S
ht't'll t"llployt'd fur this "tll'pOSt', ;,-7 through ;,-10. llirlstratt'd art' II. l'ali\H'r .;)tJ
ill('('lldiliry hllllt,:. Fig-urt> :J-7. Illlll Ii ('alib!'r .:,0
5·4,1.3.4 Typical Compositions 1I1'111Or-pit'ft'lIIg' illl'\'lIdiury, }<'if,('llft' ;,-H. A ~O :.lI11l
'I'lI(' ,'oIlI(H,sil inlls of 1-1 sIllall !lrlllS ill('Plltlial'Y 1I1"II1OI, .. pit"rl'ill~ illt't'lldilll'), build. i~ shown ill }<'ig--
Illixtllrt'S, ('ollsitit'I't'd to h,' lypi('III, al't' ~dvt'll ill IIrt' ;,-!! /llld 1\ :!() 111111 high (·xplosivp illt'Plldillry
Tablt' :,-7. projt'd ilt' is showll ill FIgurl> ;)-10.
AMCP 706-185
LEAD-ANTIMONY SLUG
5-4.2 INCENDIARIES FOR GROUND hallds of t'olllbat troops. Littlt', if any. ri'fort was
APPLICA TION dil't'dl'd toward st\ldyin~ thost' fadors eoncerul'd
UrOllllll illl"'IHliarips ilH'itHII' that ('Ias:; of mUlli- with tht, initiatioll of '\rstrudiw fil'PS ill various
tiolls IIsl'd fol' dlllllllg'(', maillly by ('olllhIlStioll, to targt'ts. As a ('OIlSl'qll\'IH'P, !f,ss is known about
gl't,Hlld tllr~,'ts IIlld III'" ('ollsidl'rllhly la'!!t'r thall tilt' tlrt' fal'lors whit'h mif.!'ht illerp/ls\, til<' ei'frctivelH'ss
;';lIlall arms illl'l'lldiari,·s PI'l'\'illllSly dis(,lIs;';,'(l. Ill- of illt't'lldillry Illunitiolls against groulld targets
("'Ildiary bUlIlbs, for "XllIllpll', Ill'" III 0 I'!' I'ffl'(,tiw I hllll is knowll abollt tl\(' I'ffl'(·tivl'lIt'ss of illcendi-
1Ig'lIillst I'itit's thall hi~.dl "xpiosin's, ,·sp.· .. ially wht'll Hri('s Ilgaillst lIir(,l'Iift tllrgt'ts.
IIlltip('I'S()IlIlt'1 1'1'111111'(';'; HI',' illl,/tld('d to dday fir"
figilting' OP'·I'lItioIlS. Tilt, dt'llI,\" ill fir,· fighting' 0Iwra. 5-4,2.1 Ignition and Combustion of Ground Targets
tioll;'; ullows till' sllIallt·1' lin's to grow Ilwl I1l1iu> to 11\('l'lltlial'Y alll\ ot ht'r flalllt·· producing weapons,
fOl'lll It I'Olltial!ratioll w/ridl is allllost illlpo~'liLle to likt' 1Il{)~t Wt'apOllS wwd agllillst ground target .. , are
(·olltrul. III IlIlIll,\" ('I\...,,·S, tllxi(' t'tf,'l'ts l'l'sllitillg' frolll " sOllr('t' of t'Ilt'I·t!Y whi(·h, wht'll IIbsorbt'd by the
th(· liS.' of ill('('lldiari,'" or tlUIII(' W('/lPOllS (high cllt'· largt't. will ('allst' dUlIIltgl'. 'flrl' amollnt of t'ut'rgy
bOil IllOlIllXid,' ('olltt'llt-iow OX)'''''11 ('OIlIl'llt) ,'allSt' IIhsorlwd from tilt' illt't'lltiiary sour('(' by tht' target
mUll,\" ('IISlIIIIti,·s. III ""lilt' ('liSt'S, th" pS,\l'holog'i,'al is llot IIslIlIlIy :mffil'il'llt tll prodlll't' Ilpprt'('iablc
f"ar PI','\"'llts ,'ff,'l'Ii\'" tir,· til!lrtillg' OP('I'llti!>I1S lUll! dlllllllt!" hut s('I'\",S ollly to illitialt' ('ombustioll nf
11111)' ('t'sllIt ill tlr,' loss III' t''1UiPIHt'llt t:ll'lIlWh ahan- tht' tul!!"t ill tht, ()XYt!.'1l (,f til., Ilil'. Small firt's
t\OIlIlIt'llt. stlll't"'1 ill thi~ ; "lllllt'r st'l'\,,· as iJ!;llitioll ;;our('('s
H""HIIS" pl'lIgl't'ss ill lilt' dt'\'"lo!lIl1('llt of jll('\'lidi· for tli;, rt'lllllilldl'r til' tlrl' tal'gd Illlltt>rial. resulting
Ilry !llId t!alllt' W""POllS fllr Uh" 1t~lIillst grolllld tar. ill tht! ,;pl't'lId (If tlll' Iii'". Tit, i~uiti()1l pl'()('ess and
j!t't,.; hilS ht"'1\ 11111.1,· lIluillIy dllrillj! lilll"~ tlf strt's,>;, ,'uI'I,\: j!r()\\lit of th,' lir,' art' tht' t·ritil·1I.1 s~es in
"lllphasis hilS b""ll di/'t'l'It,d toward tilt' .i'·\'t'I()Plllt'llt t h,' o\P\','IIIPlIlt'lIt of II dallllll!"-proc!u('lU!! tirt'.
of Wt'lq)(IIlS whi"1i "()1I1d b,· rapidly put into tlr!' To illiliut" hurnillg of a targl't ill air, thrf'l'
5-21
AIICP 706-185
1'S8('ntilils must be provided, lHillll'ly: (1) Ii source of /lnd a combinlltion of thesp two. Fillings CM .lJ.lso
heat to initilltp tht' firt', (2) combustible material bt' elassitit'd int.o those which owe their incendiary
whir.h servt's as kindling, and (!!) the fueL All effect to a self.supporting exothermic reaction and
in('endiary munitions, except those whic!l art' spon· thuse which dt'pend on atmosphprie oxygen for
taneously combnstible. must ('olltHin all initiator. their combustion.
Th(' ml:ljor part of I:In illcf'ndiary filling serves as
the kindling and HIl' targ?t supplit's tilt' fuel. The 5-4.2.2.1 Metal·Based Ground Incendiaries
t'fficit'll('Y of lUI illt't'lHlillry dt'pt'IIIIs Oll thi~ total Iuct'ndiaries containing metallic components a't'e
heat output and thl' ratt' of tr/lnsft'r of tht' energy of two t:'pes: those which utilize thp oxygen of the
to tht' targ!'t so as to initiat!' 1\ s!'qUf'nc(> of events air in ttll'il" eomhnstioll, and those in which lI,n
which will rt'suIt in thl' hurning of Ow targct, oxidizing agPllt furnishes thp oxygen,
80lid matt'rials. such as wood. must hI' h('ated to a Magnesium-aluminum alloy used both ItS the
suffil'it'nt\y high teJll,wrat urt' ill Iml(,1" to form the l'ast' and ill the composition of Ii four-pound in-
gllSt'<)\)S intl'rllll'diat!'s to rt'ad wit h thp oxygen of cendiary homb is an t'ffectiY(' incendiary and W8S
tht' air. Liquid fuels. as dist"llSSl'd ill detllil in widely used ill World War I I in raids against
Paral~'rl\"h fi·4.:!.:!.:!.1, also IUllst hI' vaporizt'd bt'- German al!d ,JllpalH'st' citips. Reaction with oxygen
fort' 1'llJllbllstion is init iutt,(i. of Iht' air produces more hl'at with all incendiary
me!!tl thall with solid oxidizing compounds. The
5·4.2.2 Incendiary Compositions Ill'll' of thest' ('ompollllds, th('rt'fore, must be justi-
Most of t ht, l't'SI'llfCh Oil ill' ~ ~ltiiarie!l has betH fied by an inl'rt'ase in eil'eetivem'ss due to the high-
('uueel"lH'd wit h qualltity IIlId ty. ,e of combUistibl1' Pr ratt' of ht'at rl'kase.
Ulwd I:IS all illct'IHlial"Y fill(':,. llH,t'lldialY filll'rs I'l:In Thel'mitl'-ty!)e incendiary mixtures are com-
bt' hasil~l!.lIy e1assifi('(1 in to til I"l'(' (,Il: t'gol"it's: IU('tal· post'd of approximat(' oxygt'll-balalll'ed mixtures
ba!iI'd illcf'ntiiuril's, liquid fu,'I·based ilH'l'n(liaries, of red!win~ and oxidizing agents. While there are
5-22
AMCP 706·185
STARTER MIXTURE
STEEL ADAPTER IM-136
ALUMINUM ALLOY
5-23
Al4CP 706·185
SHELL
INCENDIARY CHARGE
(lM- II)
(lM-142)
of aluminum minimizes ttl{' effect of particle shape haw been tried without appreciable success. The
of the hamuH'T scale. cl)mpositions uf some of the incendiary mixtures
The nse of low-purity aluminum (H2.5 per- tried are /liven in Table 5-9.
('ent) requires a higher ratio of aluminum to ham-
mer scale (1 to 2.7 -2.H) to obtain optimum burning
(·haractt'ristics. The ust' of filll'-Illesb granular 5·4.2.2.2 J,iquid Fuel·Based Incendiaries
aluminum results in decreased burning timt's ap- Liquid fuel incendiaries depend entirely upon
proaching a mir.imUl'1 limit with decreas(! in par- the oxygen of the air for their combustion. The
ticle size. If the aluminum is too coarse, poor organie substance with the highest beat of com-
propagation. pOOl' flame, and a longt'r burning time bustion on a volume basis is anthracene with 11,900
I·esult. calories per milliliter. A wide variety of natu • .:: l
During World War I, binders such as sodium oils and waxes fall in the range of 8,500 to 9,200
silicatt', sulfur or celluloid wert' added in order to calories !WI' milliliter. For hydrocarbons, there is
rt'duce segregation of the thermite after loading; a definite relationship between the heats of comhllil-
however, til est' techni(IUeS Wf're only partially suc- tion and the hydrogen-carbon ratio as sht~wn in
ct·ssful. Therllli tt' has not bef'1I lIsed since World Table 5·10. The order of heat on a unit-volume
War [ for illcendiary applications. While the heat basis ill the inverse' of the' order of the hydrogen-
rf'il'ased by a thprmitl' mixture is sufficient to heat ear bon ratios, whilt' the position is rever'3ed on a
t!w products of reaction to arOl!IJd :moo°c, the unit-weight basis. While the hent evolutioli per
incendiary action is confined to a relatively small unit-volumt' of n-octane is comparatively low, its
arpa. In order to improvp tllf' illcC'IHiiary effective- h{'at evolution per unit-weight is wry high (11,-
Iiess, several other incendiary tom positions, in- 500 ealories per gram), being exceedeu only by
eluding sew'ral modifif'd thf'rmitp compositions, boron and bt'rylliura on this basis.
5-24
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 5·S wa»tt', but thi» rnetho(l was only fairly satisfactory.
HEAT OF REACTION OF THERMITE-TYPE llul'illg' World War II thi .. idt'a wa~; revived and,
MIXTURES CONTAINING MAGNESIUM uasl'd on d('vl'lopment work, 14 percent cotton
--------,- -,--- waste Haturated with H6 percent of a [iO/flO mixture
.11 ixtllrf II eat of reaction,
of I!lisolillt' alHi fuel oil wus tried as a por:sible fill-
cally
ing for in!'endiary bombs, but was diseontinued R:'1
Mg + Bb S 2 3 •.••••••••.••..•••••••• 507 nlO1'l' erfedi'\ t' fill('rs lk t~aIlH' a \I/liiable.
;)Mg + Ba(NOah ................. . 1,636
4Mg + BaSU 4 •.•••.•.•..••.••••••• 1,046 5·4.2.2.2.2 Solidified LiqUid Incendiaries
4Mg + CaS04 .................... . 1,529
Bpcaus(' of the high d('g~ee of dispersion and
:UI'Ig + F1'2()a ..................... . 1,O;W
flash burning of liquid ;nc'!udiaries,
COIISt'qlIPllt
4Mg -+- Fe30, ................ ' .... . 956
many substam'es hav!' been propose,l for solidify-
2l\Ig + }<'eS:! ...................... . 764
ing liquid ilwt'}l(iiaries. 'rhf's(' include :~1
Mg -+- PbO ....................... . 378
2Mg -+- PbO:! ..................... . 789 a. }<'atty aeid (h-rivatives
4Mg + Pb 3 0 4 . • . • • • . • • • • • • • . . . . • • • • 736 (1) Aluminum, sodium, zinc, and ammo-
5Mg + PbSl)" .................... . 1,054 nium salts
4Mg-+- MgS04 .................... . 1,661 (2) I ,('ad salts of hydroxy adds
2Mg -+- MIlO:! ..................... . 1,248 (:3) Sulfonated products
;)Mg+ 2KNOa .................... . 798 (-!) AmitIes
4Mg + KeIO" .................... . 2,442 (3) Fatty Reids per se
!)Mg + K2~hOH .................... . 1,870 «(j) Natural waxes
-!~rg -+- K 2 S0 4 . • . . • • . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • 1,916 (a) Nitrated
DIg -+- Na2S04 ................... . 1,060 ( b) Sulfonated
(e) Per s(!
(7) Anilidts
5·4.2.2.2.1 Liquid Incendiaries h. Polyhydroxy d('rivatives
I;iqui<i incendiaries sllch a» petroleum oils, ( 1) Glycol compounds: }<jsters of fatty acids
('arbon disulfide, wood-distillation product», and (2) Ethanolamine compounds
OtlH'f flammable liquids, weI''' tested during World (a) Esters of fatty acids
War I. Tht'sr matt-rial» all had the drawback of (b) ('ompounds of mono-. di-, and trio
('x('('ssi\'(' dispersion; to overeomp this, the liquids ethunolamine
\\'('1'1' absorb('() in SOIllP rnatrrial sueh as cotton (a) Glyerrol compounds
TABLE 5·9
MODIFIED THERMITE COMPOSITIONS
Constituents Composition, Percent
Calcium Sulfate
Therm-& Thl'rlil H-2 Therm 6·j-c Barytcs Thcrmifc Thermitc
._----
Iroll Oxide ~calt' 61 55.2 44 69.2
Aluminulll 22.8 25 25 25.3 40.9
Barium ~itrah' 15 19.5 29
Sulfur 0.90 2 1.0
Castor ()il 0,30 0.30 0.3
Barium Hulfat(' 15.3
Cal('iulll Hulfatl' 57,8
5·25
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 5-10
HEATS OF COMBUSTION AN'D HYDROGEN-CARBON
RA TIOS OF SELECTED FUELS
Hydrogen-
f{ ydrucarbon Carbon CaLories Calm'ies Dl3nsity,
Rati.o per ml per g g/u
,AntlllaCelH' 0.72 11,900 9,500 1.25
~aphthalen{' (J.HO 11,000 9,600 1.15
Toluene 1.14 il,800 10,200 0.866
~Iethy I('y(~ lolwXllllt' 2.00 H,600 11,100 0.769
1I-0dane 2.2:) H,lOO 11,500 0.706
5-26
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 5-11
COMPOSITION OF 1M-TYPE INCENDIARY GELS
Code 1M 1M 1M
Type 1 Type ;] Type 3 F-1416 F-142,9 F-1431 F'-1457
Isobutyl methacrylate
polymer AE (1M) 5,0 5,0 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Ste3rie aeid 3.0 1.0 4.0 3.0 4.5
(Fatty acids) 2.5 3.0
Naphthenia acid 2.5 3.0 3.0 1.0 0.5
Calcium oxiJe 2.0 3.1 4.0 3.5
Caustic soda (40% solution) 3.0 4.5
A.mmonium hydl.'oxide (27% solution) 2.3
Gasoline 88.75 87.0 87.5 87.6 86.5 87.3 89.3
Water 1.25 2.3 2.5 2.2
ranges .from 5.4 to 5.R prrcent and the moisture napalm thickrner which may cause partial or com-
content from 0.4 to 0.8 percent. Varying the eom- plete breakdown of gels formed with gasoline or
position of napalm from the standard to 2 :1 :1 ratio oxidation of thr thickener, include excess water,
of COC0nut to oleic to naphthenic a~id indieated that lime, caustic soda; soaps of sodium, copper, lead,
the viscosity of the gel increased primarily with iron, manganese, and eobalt; powdered or sheet zinc
increm,ed oleic aeids and, to a lesser extent, with and lead; lead nitrate; rust preventatives contain-
increasrd eoconut al'id above normal composition. ing amines, al('ohols, and all acids. Tetraethyllead,
'rhe acid number of the coconut acid was found im- on the other hand, has no injurious effects.
portant. TrOll was an undesirahle impurity when The fundamental reactions may be expressed
found in the alum but not in the acid. Impurities in as follows (IIR denotes the mixture of fatty and
naphthenic acid) :
5-27
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 5-12
COMPOSITION OF PT INCENJHARY MIXTURES
Code PT-l PT-2 PT-3
Iwrylic acid coutent, a high soap (~ontent, a high troops. Becausr wilite phosphorus has a low com-
concentration of gelling agent, a low watf'r con- bustion trmperature, it is relatively ineffective
tent, and tht' liSP of gasoline which has a low ag-ainst any bnt thr most rasily ignitible targets.
aniline point. With a reasonably stable basic 'rhr alkali metals, esprcially sodium, have been
formula, the most important factors appear to be nsrd as ill(,(,lldillries but the results have not been
the nature of the gasoline and the strength and con- satisfactory.
('entl'ation of the gelling agent. High temperature
stability is favored by a high polymer content, a
5-4.2.3 Typical Incendiary Devit:es
high stearic acid content, and the use of con-
l'entrated solutions of the gelling agent, i.e, a low nit' prindpal military eharacteristic of an in-
water content. The presence of oxygenated solv('nts (,t'l\(liary d('vice is its ability to initiate combustion
destroys high temperature stability. of matt' rill I with which it comes in contact, and to
In order to increase the effectiVfmess of the in- provid(' the l'lIergy to maintain th~ (~ombustion
('('ndiary filling in starting fires in targets more pro{'{'SS anti assist in l'nlarging the area over which
difficult to ignite, a (~omplex filling wa.., develop(·d ('ombustioll takrs plaet'. This charaeteristic is
having as its main constituent "goop", a mixtu:~e l'allt'd firt' raising power. Oth('r military character-
of magnesium parti('lcs and asphalt. To this was isti('s covt'fing tat'tical uS(', provision of fire-fight-
addt'd gasoline, thiC'kened with 1M oxidizing agents ing dpterrents, and d('sign drtails are also speci-
and magnesium seraps. PT-1 composition, and the fied.
substitutt's PT-~ and PT-3, used syntheti(' rubber Tht' fOIll'-pound magllrsiulIl alloy bomb, shown
instl'ad of 1M and an alumimllll-lIIagnl'sium alloy in Figure 5-] 1, was tlst'd during World War II in
ill plael' of "goop' '. (Rep Tabll' 5-12.) trt'mt'ndolls quantitil's. Its hrxagonal !lhape adapted
it to ass('mbl, I dusters for shipping and loading
5·4.2.2.3 Other Incendiaries on phUlPS. A1"'r dropping from thl' planes tilt'
Phosphorus and its compounds havr bern lCled bombs wprt' st'parlltt'd from tht' (·lusters and widely
as an incrndiary against personnr) ancl readily- (lispl'rst'd ill ralldom mallllpr. The pxplosivt' charge
ignitible materials. Burning phosphorus produces ill thl' bast' w!.s t'xplodt'd by thr heat, providing It
sprious skill burns and tends to dpmoralize attlieked clt·t!·rrt'nt to fightinl!, th(' fire. Only a portion of
5-28
AlICP 706-185
FIRING PIN
5-5 DELAY COMPOSITIONS AND HEAT
POWDERS
Gasless pyrotechnic mixtures are used for pro-
ducing a controlled amount of heat and for time
delays in a Dumber of military applications. These
eompositions, which arc physical mixtures of cer-
tain metals with olle or more powdered oxidizing
agents, react at a predetermined rate when ignited
FIRST FIRE _ _./
by the application of heat or flame. 'I'heir com- MIXTURE
bustion is charae1erized by high reaction tempera- MAGNESIUM
ALLOY 80DY
tures and the formation of ll}ainly solid products,
Both the burning rate and calorific output can be
varied nver fairly wide ranges by controlling the
'"properties and proportions of the ingredients. THERMA.E
:·Since little gas is produced by the combustion of
these mixtures, atmospheric oxygen is not required
for combustion, and the reaction rate is not greatly
influencl>d by pressure; "gasless" compositions
are particularly valuable for use in armament,
e.g., in short delay bomb fuzes. IRON NOSE
5-29
AHCP 7OO·1SS
IRON NOSE
5-5.1.2 Delay CompoSl'D.ons
The delay componitious, being a critical part
of the delay element, should ideally have certain
Figure 5-12. Four-PoL.nd Thermite Incendiary Bomb charaett'ristics which may be summarized a.."! fol-
lows:
5-5.1.1.1 Obturated Delay Elements a. The ingredients should he &table and non-
An obturated delay element, as shown in Figure hygroscopic; shoultl have the highest purity con-
5-15, is constructed to contain all of the gases pro- sistent with requirements; should be readily avail-
duced by the functioning of the initiator and delay able and inexpensive; and should be rompatible
composition before the functioning of the terminal with each other.
eharge. Delays ill which the gases pruduced are b. Thf' compositions should be capable of being
internally vented into a closed chamber ill the eX- blended, loaded, and assembled into an item with
plosive device arf' considel'ed to bt> obturated. minimum risk from impact, friction, moisture, heat,
Becaust· they are st>alt·d, obturated delays are Bot and pleetrical dis(·harge.
influenced by the effeets of tht' ambient pressure t'. ThpY should be readily ignitible, Ilnd should
Of humidity. Th ... eombustion products art' (~OJl I'hang'r litt 1(' in Jlrrformanee eharactC'risties wit.h
tained which prcvents possible harm to othH com- small l'hallg('f; iu pt'rt'entages of ingrpdients. Their
por mts of the deviee. Short time dplays 11ft' o"ten burning ratp" shoulli be rt'produl'ible within each
obturatt·c IlS obturation tpBds to iucrellse tht' avel'· bateh Ilntl from hatch to blltl'h with It minimum
age burning rate of th!' dl'IIlY ('ompositioll. of variation.
5-30
,--------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------~
AMCP 706·185
d. Tht'y shouid bl' cnmpatibll' with their eOI1- \lted largely to its good dry surveillance character-
tainl'r as wl'll as with other contading composi- istics, its ('ase of ignition, its wide availability in
tions. Performatl{'(' characteristics should not reprocitwible quality and granulation, its e8.&e of
chang(' appr('ciably with long term storage. loading, and its versatility from the standpoint of
P. They should be !"platively insensitivE' to delay times obtair..able.
changes ill pressurt' and t('mperature. As already indicated, black powder produces
f. They should bp l'apabl(' of withstanding thl' gases on burning, and the burning rate is affected
\'ihratioll and shot·k of transportation, setback, ro- by pressure. Hf'nce, the disposition of the gases is
tation, and impad, aud should be r('sistant to a primllry cOllsidrration in design; delay elements
physieul ahus!' illlwrPllt in tht' loadin~. and firing IIsing bla('k powder are g('Il('rally vented. The
of aml!llluitioll. hurnil1~ ratt' of black powner is affected by the ro-
ta tional spped of the projectile and by the ambient
5-5.1.2.1 Black Powder Delays PI'I'SSlirt'. A major shorteoming of black pow de!"
Blaek powder has bpI'1! 101l1{ and widely used has b{,PI1 and still is its marked hygroscopicity.
as Ii delay Ill/ttt'rial in Hpit!' of t hI' fad that it dot·s As has bet'n in<iil'att'd t'arl;t'r, bt>eaust' of these un-
not IIH'l't !lUlU), of tht' idt'al ('haructt'ristil's for a df''iir1tbles, I!llsh>ss ti('lay l'ompositiollS wert' de-
dplay ('om positioll. This pOJlularity may bl' uttrih- ,"!'Iopt'd.
5-31
AMCP 706·185
5-32
- - - - - - - - - - - - --------------
AMCP 706-185
PRIMER
SOLDER
G
'~~r~~~_METAL
~ SPOOL SOLDERED
IN PLACE
OUNTER-
BORE
METHOD A METHOD B
Figure 5-16, Seflling of Vented Delay Element
graph 5-S. 1.2.2). less than three prrcent for many f. Hapid dpterioratioll
df'lay mixturrs, thE' effect of ambient condition;; g. Unavailability of reproducible supply of raw
and llHmufllrturing variation in many casE'S is materials
sOlllrwhat Ips+; than drsirablr. l<"'acto1'S whieh may h. LargE' pressure coefficient of burning rate
infllH'Ill'p thl' al'curacy I)f a gaslE'fls pyrotrchnil' I. Failure at low pressure
5-33
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 5-13
GASLESS DELAY COMPOSITIONS IN CURRENT USE33,34,35,M,Gl
l'hromatp-boroll system as the p!:'rct'utage of boron ;)·1 H,S:l illtlit'atps that t'ompositiOl!" with less than
in the composition was increased to 50 percent is 11 J)!:'rt"~llt boron burn slower than those contain-
summarized in TablE' 5_16.:\3 As indicl',ted by thl' iug lIIort' than 13 perct'nt boron when the amount
,lata prt'M'ntt'd in this tablt" a sharp drop in hurn· of ht'at ('v(I!Vt'd is Ow samt' ,
iug' timt' is nbtained initially as the percentage of
boron is in('rt'as('tl. At approximu tely 1 () percellt 5-5.1.3.2 External Pressure
boron, tllP burning' rat<' It,\'t'ls nff and remains Jj{'ar-
As shown ill }o'igllrt' [i-I!l for a 95.4% barium
Iy ('tlIlstant to a;lproxilllatt'1y 2fi Ilt'J'('t'!It boroll.
l'hrOlllat.'··tu~'{, borun ('olllpositioll, an iIlt'rease in
wht'n it bpg'ills to tit'('rpast' qllite rapidl)', 'l'ht,
tht' "Xlt'I'Jlal Prt'SSIlI't' rt'stlited ill H dt'cl'ellse ill
Iwat of r('a('t iOIl reat' ht's Il lIlax i III UIIl II t ap pruxi,
bllrllillf! tilllt·s (an illl'rt'aSI' in burning ratt·). 'I'hl'
lIlatp\y 13 pt'rl','nt buron, wllieh is a sOlllt'what \owi'r
pl'rt't'lIta~t' thalJ that l'olJlpositioll (In pefl'l'ntl
rt'l,ltiollship is hypt'l'bolil' and ':!l1l ue rt'pl'i'St'ntN!
by Ull t'q Ililt iOIl "I' t)ll' form:
produl'illg' the m!lXilllllU; hurniJl~ rll!t', A plot of
total heat p\'ol\'l'd against bumiu!! timcj;, l"igun' (5.11 )
AKCP 706-185
TABLE 5-14
BURNING RATES OF GASLESS DELAY COMPOSITIONS83-36.Cil.112
\\'it"I"" t is Iii,· bllt'lliut-{ tilllP ill s,·,·ollds. !I is pn's- slig'htly with ill('I'('asitl': pn'sslIrl' abovl' atmosplH'r-
stII·" ill pOllllds ""!" sqUIlI'I' illl·}I. and It /lnd /I urt' i('. H"slt!ts with mixtur,·s whidl ('ontl1illl'd mall-
'·Oll~taills. ':',.0' lIUI/II·t·i"1I1 \'llilh'S of tlI,· t'()lIstllllis g'allt's,·, I.. obalt allt! /I lli"k"I-zir"onillJll lIlixturt' as
an' II O.I:l alit! (/ ~.;I:.! for Ih,' !l;).-I '-I.li bariulll tilt' fllt'l illdit'at!'d that /I ,·hung'!' in ('ompositioll
..iII"Olila t I·-ItO 1"0 II i 'll! Jllltlsi I io II. It!' liJ,· atmosph"!"t· did 1I0t ha\'(' a sig'llifh'lIlIt I'fi'rct
:\iI si),!llitkHIlI dllillt-{'· :1,; fOUlld, s,·,· l<'ig-ure 1111 tilt' bUl"lIinl-! ,.at,·,~~
:'-l~l, ill tilt' hurlling lilllt'" 101" /I !I0I10 Hllil AIIl!1
h/l I'i\l III ,·ht·O!iJllti·-IHII"OIl i'illllposil iOIl for I'r"ssllrt's 5-5.1.3..3 External Temperature
'''~:i thllll IItllw"ph'·l"ii·. .\" slww/I ill Fit-{ul" 'i-:!{), tht' humin!! times for
H,'sld!" "htain!'d with uth"1" d,·III." lJIixtlll",'S IIlso di·lay "ollll'osilioIlS W,'\"i' fOJllld til d",·rt·lIs,· with
illtllt"atl'ti that thi' bUrJlillg 1"111,' wO\lld illi'rt'lIs,' illl'J't"I~illg' t'·llIpi·ratlll',·. !·'Ol' ~'0I10 hariuIlI ,·hro
• 2 rOI,ludK !tot ijCoited. lIIall,-bol"lIn, a 1'101 of hllrnillt-{ I'att· IIgainst thp
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 5·15
HEATS OF REACTION OF INORGANIC MIXTURES
CONSIDERED FOR DELAYS
Mdalo
I Silter (lride Si:", Chromllte Barium Peroride Lead Chromate Cur;ou. O.id. Barium CAl'OIIIGle Iron O:tid.
-t;.H' -t;.W/n -t;.UO -t;.W/n -t;.H" -t;.H'/n -6.H' -t;.I1'/n -t;. , -t;.8"/n -t;.H' -t;.Wh -t;.H' -t;.I1'/
-~-----. -6Fo.5
- - 68.9(1)
.-- ---~~~-.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----
MAG:'>ESIUM 139.1 69.6(1) 126.7 63.4(1) 660.7 56.1(1) 103.6 51.8(~) :192.9 48.81~ 239.8 40.0
AL UMINUM 378.0 6~.0 1869.0 62.3 340.8 56.8(1) 148&.6 49.5 271.5 45.3 253.6 42.3 ) 200.5 33.4
ZIRCONIUM 244.1 61.0 1206.5 60.3 219.7 M.9(1) 950.9 47.5 173.1 43.3 481.5 40.3 377.3 31.4
fITANIUM 211.0 52.S 1(:'41.0 52.1 186.2 46.6(1) 785.4 39.3(5) 140.0 3S.a 384.2 32.0 278.0 23.2
S ILCON 187.0 46.8 921 46.1(N) 164.8 41.2(1) 665.4 33.3 116.0 29.0(N) 312.2 26.0(12) 206.0 17.2(N)
M ANGANESE 89.5 44.S 440.5 44.1 77.1 38.6(4) 312.7 31.3 54.0 21.0(10) lH.1 24.0(23) 91.0 lA.2(N)
C HROMIUM 262 42.0(N) 1239 41.3(N) 214.8 35.8(5) 855.6 28.5 145.5 24.3 63.8 21.3 14.5 12.4
ZINC 76.5 383 374.5 37.5 63.9 ~2.0 247.7 24.S 41.0 20.5 104.6 17.4 52.0 8.7
T IN 124.1 31.0 606.5 30.3 99.3 24.8 350.9 17.5 53.1 13.3 123.6 10.3 17.3 1.4
I RON 177.5 29.6(8) 865.5 28.9(8) 140.3 23.4 483.1 16.1(11) 71.0 11.8(N) 53.1 8.9(N) 0 0
CADMIUM 58.2 29.1 284 28.4 45.8 22.9 1116.2 15.6 22.7 11.4 50.2 8.4 -2.9 -ll.5
T UNGSTEN i74.7 29.1 852.5 .8.4 137.5 22.9 469.1 15.6 68.2 11.4 50.3 8.4
M
.OLYBDENUM 155.5 25.9 759 25.2 118.3 19.7 313.1 12.4(17) 49.0 3.2 31.1 5.2
N ICKEL 50.5 25.3 250.0 25.0 39.0 19.5 122.2 12.2 15.9 8.0 29.d 5.0
COBALT 51.4 25.7 245.5 24.e 38.1 19.1 117.7 11.8 15.0 7.5 27.1 4.5
ANTIMONY 145 2t.2 704.0 23.5(10) 107.8 18.0(6) 320.6 10.7 38.5 6.4 20.6 3.4
8 ISMUTH 116.1 19.4 544.0 18.1 78.9 13.2 176.1 6.9 d.6 1.6 -8.3 -1.4
COPPER 3\.5 15.8 150.5 15.1 10.4 8.2 22.7 2.3 -29.9 -5.0
N ONMETALS
PHOSPHORUS 195 39(1) 192.4 38.5(1) 487 ~ 48.8(1) 128.4 25.7(2) 21a 21.3 552.8 18.4(6) 35.3 ,.1(15)
S ULFUR 142.1 23.7 682.5 22.8(4) 158.2 26.4(4) 101.2 16.9(9) 95.9 4.8 28.5 4.8 -15.1 -ll.5
S ELENIUM 67.9 11.3 311.5 10.4
I
80.6 14.4 31.3 5.2
I -6.2 -ll.3
IOA'arithm of the absolutr tempel'aturp results in a The magnitude of this reduction iTI burning time
straig'ht linf'. For tht' Hii.4 / 4.6 compositions, thi.s for several· barium chromate-boron compositions
is also trur for most of tht' temperature range; is a function of the burning rate of the eomposi-
howeW'l', for SOIllf' 9:),4/4.6 compositions, thert' is tion. (~ee Table 5-17.) As shown in Table 5-18 th~
a departure from this type of relationship at the reduction ill burnmg rate is less for the more
low<:'r temperaturrs. Over the narrower tempera- rapid burning t'omposit:ons. Obt.uration of the
turt' range (_600~' to 160°F), the burning rate is delay column substantially increases the magni-
('s~,~nti&lIy it lin('ar fll11ction of th(' 10glO tempera- tude of the anticiDatory effect. The anticipatory
ture. effed is reduced by barriers, between t.he delay
column and the thermally-sensitive terminal
5·5.1.3.4 Terminal Charge, Anticipatory Effect46 ehargp, which wo,11d reduce the flow of gases. The
The burning eharacteristics of pressed delay importance of gas permeation in the burning of
cOIn positions are different wheH loaded above a pressf'd delay eOJr.positions is indicated.
thermally-sensitive terminal charge. The overall
burning' time and the reprodllcibilit.;}' are buth de- 5-5.1.3.5 Particle Size
erea."ed under these conditions. This anticipatory 'l'he effect of particle size on the inverse burn-
pfl'ect has been observed with a variety of thermal- ing rates of delay compositions follow a nearly
ly-sensitiw terminal ('harge;; fOJ> both gaseous and direet proportionality. In addition to increasing
IlIl11gaSf'OllS cit'lay ('ompositiolls. Th(' ~ft\~ct. has also tht' burning rate, reduction of the particle sizE'
been observrd for typical end item delay ('lp~.lents tE'nds to reduee the effect.s of temper.ature and
hn "ing a Ipad styphnatt'-l('aci azidl' rrlay. pressurE'. This effect is shown to a marked degree
Til(> ('xtellt uf the reduction in bUnJin~ timf' by tungsten dE'lay ('ompositions, as is shown in
that O('('UI'S with dt'lay elements having thermally- Table 5-HI. Although th,> pereentage compositiollA
"ipnsitiw Terminal (.'harges, t'omparerl WIth ·.imilarly art' not idrnti('al. th<,y are close enough that little
IH'esfwd <ida)' eollImlls without a terminal (~harg'e, diffprE'l1l't> ill burning time would bp observed if t.he
&pproa<'llt'!> a l'onS~allt "alue aE the length of tilt' tUJl~st(,1l fUt·1 harl th£' Slunt' surfa/'e area. The
dpiay eolu:illl 'ibov!' th('('l'rminal charge illereases. w('ight, avt'ragE' diamE'tt'r, and thE' surface area
5·36
---------------- ------------------------
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 5·16
EFFECT OF PERCENT COMPOSITION ON BURNING TIME,
HEAT OF REACTION, AND IMPACT VALUES
OF THE BARIUM CHROMATE·BORON SYSTEM
Charge
WI,
Results
Allg and
Range I
Avg
Burning
Tim~,
II Range,
R.....
sec/sec
- - - - - - Total
Volume Cal in
gas Loaded
Impact
Test
PA,
% Boron mg Based on sec
Cal/sec inches 1 sec B.T. Cal/(J ml/g Fuze
----. --------1----1---·- -----1----1----- ---. -.--1---1-----
3.0c;; 2130 5 7.56 0.469 0.620 Incomplete reaction 40+
3.5%
4.0%
2150
2140
4
4
3.04
1. 72
0.070
0.031
0.020
0.018
278
354
5.0
5.0
I· 597
768
161l
446
40+
40+
4.5% 2125 5 1.44 0.040 0.028 400 4.0 850 590 39
5.0%
6.0%
2130
2110 I,
5 1.09
0.767
0.653
0.035
0.021
0.010
0.032
0.027
420
231
8.0
8.4
895
909
821
1186
1387
40+
37
38
7.0% 2000 4 0.016 453 6.4 906
8.0% 2000 4 0.560 0.001 0.002 462 7.9 924 1650 28
9.0% 2000 4 0.539 0.002 0.004 474 7.5 948 1758 29
10.0% 1975 <1 0.465 0.01.') 0.032 515 7.3 1017 2187 21
11.0% 1925 4 0.432 0.020 0.046 536 6.9 1032 2388 18
13.0% 19()Q 4 0.397 0.006 0.015 1)56 8.9 1056 2661 20
15.0% 1875 4 0.382 0.027 0,(171 551 7.0 103a 2704 16
17.0% 1800 4 0.375 1 0.027 0.072 043 11.6 977 2606 13
19.0% 1750 4 0.366 0.021 0.057 535 8.8 936 2558 16
21.0% 1685 4 0.376 0.007 0.019 526 8.6 881) 2363 34
23.0% 1650 4 0.407 0.0?.3 0.057 503 4.2 830 2703 40
25.0% 1625 4 0.433 0.025 0.058 497 10.2 808 1865 40+
30.0% 1611 4 0 . .')7<1 0.025 0.044 473 lOA 762 1328 40+
35.0% 1500 4 0.965 0.115 0.119 446 12.7 669 693 40+
40.0% 1430 4 2 19 0.110 0.050 399 14.1 571 261 40+
'15.0% 1360 3 5.25· 0.210 0.040 364 15.0 495 94 40+
5O.0o/~
I 1290 2 14.5* I 1.000 0.069 Incomplete reaction 40+
were determined on thp micromerograph. Under ehal'ge of an igniter composition on top of the
these experimental conditions, a fuel with about delay column, which is easy to ignite and is cap·
twice the surface area will have a linear bu.-ning ablr, in minimum quantities, of igniting the delay
time of about one-fifth oi the former. column. The ('omplex interactions between initiat-
For the 90/10 barium chromate-boron composi- ing source and igniter and, in turn, igniter and
tion, thr use of boron of 1, 13.5, and 53 micron main (~harge are yet to be determined. For the
average Jlar~i('le size resulted in an increase ill the most part, igniters have been and still are selected
inverse burning rate of 0.45, 6.61 and 9.53 sc-!onds on an arbitrary basis. Compositions of some of
per inch, respectively. Similar rrsuits werp ob· the ignition powders which have proved relatively
served for manganese delays.35 satisfactory are given in Table 5··20. These mix-
In addition to the ave"'I.ge partide size, t.he tures are also gasless
particle sizr distribution and blrnding or deiay
mixturrs is important if rrpt'oducible butl,iug 5·5.1.3.7 Column D~meter
fatrs arp to bp obtaine rl,f7 r'o)' the barium cltro- Radial 10sS€fl of heat can retard or extlllguish
mate-boron eomposition, the-e a)1nears to be little thr reaction in a delay eoluffin. Such losses be-
diift'rcncc [)rtween delay mixture~ produce() by eOllle more serious as thr column diameter, bunl-
wrt and dry blendiHg methodF. Wet ble'lding is ing rate, and flmhient tprnperature are reduced.
prerl'rrl'd for safety reasons. Thrt-Op effpcts com biLe to result in a failure diam·
t'ter associated with a giWll celllY mix for a given
5·5.1.3.6 Ignition Compositions lUllbiellt eonditioll. J<'or mangauesl' delay compo-
ROIIIP gasless ()play eompositions arf' diffit'ult sitions Ht -C!'°F tl. ... fnilm·c diHnH't('r for a three-
til igl•. te. It is th' usual pr ..ctice tc pn'ss a small st'('ond )h'f ilH'h composition if.; less than 0.109 illl'h;
5-37
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 5·17
EXTENT OF ANTICIPATORY EFFECT AS A FUNCTION OF
BURNING RATE OF VARIOUS BARIUM CHROll(ATE-BORON
81·98 squibs were empolycd for initiation of columns. Oomposition loaded in M112 fuze
housings at 36,000 psi.
81·98 Composition:
MoOs-26%
KCl0 4-21%
Zr-53%
'"
N
STARTING CHARG£:
'"
II>
.,; 4.0
2
;:: 3.2
'"iiz 2.4
~ELT WASHERS
'"
:::>
III 1.6
0.8
ILACiC I'OWIlf:R
~,,*~-~t--IOOSTER (LOOSE
LOADED)
1000 900 800 100
CALDRIES
Delay Type Rllt10r T,out; V.nt.d, W"lao\J' BalO•. 5-5.1.3.8 Loading Pressure
Tllrt,: S.'.eI;"•. r 10 21 »C'01l0 •.
Loading'
Upper R,.,,·-1.18S G/O"",
Burtling' ratt'S of delay mixtures will decrease
Low., R,n, - 3.6"0 G,O"'5. as thc ('onsolidation pressure increases. The rather
A-l Blae" Powd.', Lo",rJ.(/ '" Piau ,,, S,n,l. Incr.m.n, of 68.000 pli.
~lIlaIl and systematic (·hanges with loading pres-
Figure 5-1'. Time Delay Ring or Train, Vented sun' for bariulll dlromate-borou composition are
5·38
--- ----- -- -----------------------------~------------
-------------------------
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 5·18
EXTENT OF ANTICIPATORY EFFECT AS A I<'UNCTION OF
COLUMN LENGTH 55/35/10 TUNGSTEN·BARIUM CHROMATE·
POTASSIUM CHROMATE COMPOSITION.
Average B'urn,i,ng
B1trning T~'me Length of
Time,··· RanJe, Percent ~ Burning ~/v Oolumn Oolman
mseo msec Range Time By-passed By-passed, 1:n.
• Sl-98 squibs were employed for initiation of columns. The cOll1poMitioJ\~ was leaded i.n
M1l2 fuze hO'lsings at 36,000 psi.
** Sl·98 terminal charges were used .
•• * Average burning time values have been reduced by 6 Illsce in order to take into ac·
coun~ the burning time of the terminal eharge itself.
5·39
,------------- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
AMCP 706,,185
TABLE 5·19
EFFECT OF SPECIFIC SURFACE ON BURNING
TIME OF TUNGSTEN DELAY COMPOSITIONS
Type oj'
Ta flusten Composition M10 ND 34.99
Surface Area
em2 /g 1377 709
Fuel
( ;haracteristics
f Weight Average
Diametp.r, microlls 2.3 4.9
Burning Time,
see/inch 4.17 21.5
TABLE 5·20
IGNITION POWDERS FOR GASLESS DELAY ELEMENTS
5-40
TABLE 5-21
EFFECT OF FUZE HOUSING MATERIAL AND DIMENSIONS ON BURNING TIME
OF BARIUM CHROMATE-BORON COMPOSITIONS
Parameters Effect
1. Metal H01t5-ings
a. Aluminum. Brass and Stainl~s.<; Step.l a. No effect on burning times over test temperatures, internal
diameter, wall thickness and for either vented or obturated
columns.
b. No interaction between metal and cOfuposition.
'2. Internal Diameter, inch
a. 0.25095/5 ve!lted vs obturated a. Results for vented columns significantly different at 95% con-
fidence level.
b. 0.37:3 95/5 vented vs obturated b. Results for obturated column:. significantly different at 95%
confidence level.
c. 0.250 90/10 vented vs obturated c. No significant difference for either column at this diameter.
d. 0.37(; 90/10 vented vs obturated d. Results foJ:' obturated column significantly different at 95%
confidence level.
3. Temperature, "'C
a. - 54, Room Temperature, and 76 a. The effect of temperature was signifieantly different at the
95% confidence level for all metals, internal diameters, wall
thickness and for vented and obturated columns.
4. Wall Thickness, inch (U.05, 0.15, 0.30, 0.50,
0.75, and 1.00)
a. 95/5 Yfnted and obturated columns a. Rei;ults for different wall thickness were significantly different,
although no apparent trend was observed.
b. 90/10 vented and obturated columns b. No significant differences or trends in results due to wall thick-
ness for either type of column. :..
~
("l
."
~
01 ~
.-
.;..
.... fX
c..' >-
~ II:
(')
~
~
-
~
~
TABLE 5·22
EFFECT OF LOA!>ING PRESSURE ON BARIUM CHROMATE-BORON COMPOSITIONS
95/5 BaCrO.-B
Loading Pressure (loa psi) 36 18 9 S.6 1.3 0.5
Mean BR, sec/inch- 1.69 1.60 1.49 1.39 1.29 1.21
Mean BR, secigram 0.643 0.655 0.645 0.642 0.646 0.693
% Coefficient of Variation 1.2 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8
90/10 BaCrO.-B
n
Mean BR, sec/inch 0.670 0.653 0.619 0,586 0.558 v.~
f!!!AA
• BR = burning ra.te.
,------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
AIICP 706-185
5-43
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 5-23
EFFECT OF STORAGE ON FUZES LOADED WITH
BARIUM CHROMATE-BORON COMPOSITIONS
150°C 4
hours 0.707 1.1
8
hoUl's 0.722 1.0
0.694 2.7 105°C week1 0.723 1.8
50% RH week1 0.720 1.5
Desiccated week1 0.685 1.7
0.647 2.3 150°C 4 hourfl 0.685 2.5
Composition!1 loaded in M1l2 Puze Housings at 36,000 psi.
* B.T. = burning time.
and, apparently, is associated with the manga.nese Por zirconium-nickel delays, four weeks' dry
crystllIJite size aIHl surface oxidatiou. Protective sUl'Vt'illunce illereases burning times up to 16 per-
treatment of tht' manganese fUt>l ug-ainst l'orrOSiuIl I.~ent. \Vet >;ul'veillance f()r four weeks results in
~xjda.tion of surface by dichromat-ioll and coat· llnrpliabl" pf'rformanc(>. Delay composition!1 of
iug with a thill film of stearic acill--tlid not im- !'\liCOl1 and rt'd lead exhibited ilH~reased burning
prOVl' the dry >;urveillallet' properti(>s of llHlTlg-uneSf: tiIll'>S of up to 1() pim.·('Ilt after ~our weeks' dry
dt'lay puwdt>rs but did improvt' tllt> wPt surveil· "u rveijJanee and were unreliable after four weeks'
lanre eharuetcristics. wet Hurveillll.llee.
5··44
A.M:CP 7()6..185
In general, results of tests indicate that gasless compositions are relatively difficult to ignite, an
delays will exhibit changes of up to 15 percent in explosive train similar to that used in "ther ex-
burning times after four weeks of dry surveillance. plosively loaded items is used to produce the ig-
'Vet surveillance appreciably affects performance nition stimulus required to initiate the main pyro-
of most delay mixtures, in some cases sufficiently to technic composition. Sucll a train can be con-
makf' the mixture unreliable. sidered as divided into three parts. The first
part contains a sensitive initil!ting composition
5-5.2 HEAT POWDERS30 that can be initiated by a relatively small, me-
ehanical, electrical, or chemical stimulus. This
The majority of pyrotechnic heat powders have
initiatir.g composition, on burning, produces saffi-
been dewloped for thermal battery applications
cient heat to initiate intermediate explosive or
to melt the solid electrolyte and activate the electro-
pyrotechnic compositilln(s) in the second part
chemical sYfltem. In general, the heat powder-
of tIll' explosive train. The uutput of this second
which ~enerates between 850 and 500 calories per
part will initiate the main charge in the third part
gram-is mixed with inorganic fibers and made
of the explosive train.29.31.32 In many eases, a de-
into heat paper using cOllventional paper making
lay train (see Paragraph 5-5.1) can be included
techniques. 'l'he heat paper can be stamped into
in the second part of an explosive train. Emphasis
r'~quired shapf's and easily assembled with the other
in the f0110wing paragraphs will be on initiator,
battery components. Other uses include warming
first fire, and starter compositions used in pyro-
of battery plect r olytes, melting of soldered joints
technic items.
to activate spring loaded mechanisms, and furnish-
Work on the development of initiators, first
ing heat. for thermal delays. Many gasless heat
fires and starters for military pyrotechnics has in-
powders awl gl'.sless delay compositions can be
dieabd that ignition is a complex phenomenon.
used interehangeably; however, th(, electrical con-
Ignition failurps of pyrotechnic items emphasized
ductivity of the products formed during burning
the need for more research ami the need for more
is important in thf' ability of heat powders to satis-
understanding of the ignition and combustion
factorily perform their function.
processes. The availahle compositions, with de-
'l'he heat entput d a he,lt powder is of prime
seriptions of their applit~atiJns, are discussed in the
significance and the burning rate is important only
paragraphs which follow.
to the extent of its influence on the heat output of
the mixturf'. Other important characteristics in-
clude: 5-6.1 PRIME IGNITIONIIO
a. Heat of reaction. Basically determines the Primc ignition is the starting of a fire without
heat output per unit weight of heat powder. the use of another fire and ineludes methods based
b. Gas e\'olutioll. The gases evolved must be on friction, percussion, coneentratioll of the sun'~
eontroHed bf'cause it is possible they will afIeet ra:'s by mirrors or lenses, and lin electric impulse.
the behavior of thl' heat battery. Many matprial", and mixt.ures of materials
e. Barning raip. Basieully determines the rate have been found which produce heat as a result
of heat releasf' by til!' heat mixture powder. (The of chl'llIical reaetion and which require relatively
burning rah' of hl'at paper has been suggested as litth· physi :,al pifort for initiation. Chemicals, such
a ITlt'llI1S of obtaining II controllpd delay time.) as whit(· phosphorus and phosphorus-eontaining
compounds, burst into flame on exposure to air.
Othpr matprials, induding many metal~ which eODl-
5-6 INITIATORS, FIRST FIRES, AND mOllly will Hot ig-nite iii air, become pyro}Jhoric
STARTERS whplI finely ~roulld; while other matt'riais are acti-
'flit' illitiatiul1 of t'ombuptioll of a pyrotel!hnic \'a,p(} by ('xposurl' to wllt('r or UCi(l, t.o a spark
l'ollJpositioll fequin·s tilat Ii pl)rtiol1 of till' l'OIllIlOsi- with II small {'flI'rgy l'Olltent, (Ir to very slight im·
lioll Ill' l'uis('d tt, its illHitioll teml)('ratnre. (Sl'l' pad. Still llt\wr mixtures requirf' only a small lind
fdso Pnl"lll!mph :J·:l.ti.l', Sill(~p SOllll' pyrotechnic pl't'dit'tablP amount of f'llt'rg-y to ht' initiated. This
5-45
AMCP 706-185
last group, which includes matcheu, is of im- airplane flare contains 14 parts potaBsium chlorate
portance as initiators for ordnance items. and 1.6 parts charcoal ht'l.rdened with 0.3 part
Development of modern matches made fire- dextrin. Ignition is effected by pulling a loop of
making a commonplace act. A safety match head is, braided wire coated with red phosphorus and
essentially, potassium chlorate in a matrix of shellac through a pellet of the l~omposition.tSl Modi.
animal glue. The striking strip is composed of red fied scrat~h sensitive mixtures containing some
phosphorus in Ii similar binder. Use of additives thermite produces very high temperatures and can
and adjustments in the manufacturing process ignite some smoke mixtures without an intermedi-
results in a safety match which ignites easHy when It tt' starter. 8
rubbed on the striking surface. The friction and In addition to matches aud other scratch sensi-
contact of potassium chlorate crystals with red tive materials, prime ignition of pyrotechnic muni-
phosphorus results ill the ignition of the match tions. Jike other munitions, is accomplished with:
head which, in turn, causes the ignition of paraffin a. Pert·usskn (or stab) primer which contains
impregnated in the match "plint. A typical match a mixture that is relatively sensitivf' to impact and
head formula, and that for the ~triker, are given friction, or
ill Tables 5-2;; and 5_26. 50 b. Electrically ignited primer (or squib) in
which the heat produced by the flow of electric
TARLE 5·25 current in a bridgewirc ignites a heat sensitive
COMMERCIAL explosive. For ('ortain applications, especially
SAFETY M~TCH COMPOSITION those involving' initiatiOl of high cxplosives, a
brid~ewire may Iw exploded by application of a
Ingredient Percent-
hi~h current pulse causing direct initiation of some
----------------------------- less-sensitive explosives. 29 ,31,32.52
Animal (Hide) Glue ..... . 9-11
Extpnder (~tarch. Dextrin) ........... . 2-3 C!'rtain chemical reactions have been used for
Sulfur (Hos-in) ....................... . 3-5 ignitioll of explosive trains. As has been indicated
Potassium Chloratt:.................... 45-55 ('arlier, sOllie materials burn when exposed to air.
Ncutralizer (Zinc Oxidc, All example is white phosphorus. It has been used
Calcium Carbonatc) ............... . 45-55 ill burst!'r" for jelled gasoline incendiaries where
Infusorial (Diatomaceous) Earth .... , .. 5-6 it serV<'s the dual purpose of igniting the incendi-
Other Hilie('olls Ii'ill!'r ................. . 15-32 ary. aud the reigniting jelled gasoline which has
bl'E'n extinguished. Diethyl zinc, or triethyl alu-
• lI'ractional percl'utages of It soluble burning rate minum, contained in a glass vial, has bcen used
patalyst, sudl aH potassium dichromate, arp added, also
soluble tly~ ~tuffs. Lpad thiosulfate or zine f('rrocyanidt' to ignitf' a mateh mix in a silent igniter. Some
ean hI' uaed if thp match head is to he white. matrrials, notably the alkali metals, reaet very
vigol'ously with water, liberating hydrogen which
Presfmt "strike-anywherc" (SAW) matchcs
is ignitrd by the hrat of reaction. Bursters fillrd
have a fHnaB, easily ignitibh' tip l'olllposed of
with sodiulIl have bcpn (~ollsidered for igniting oil
tdraphosphorlls t risulfidt' (phosphorus sesquisuI-
"li<'ks 011 watpr.s Th(; vigorous chemical reaction
fide) aflixt'd to a lal'g!'l' bulb \'ompme(l of a rather
rrsultillg' from bringing iron pOWder, potassium
ins('w,it ivp lIlodifit'd, saft'ty mateh lwad \'omposi-
IH',"mflIlganate, and sulfuric acid togethcr is an·
tion. 'I'alll,· 5-:n givps th(' formulation for two sud;
(~OInpositiulls. f.ll
othel" method of prim!' ignition.
Tltt' mat"h mixtures lIse(; in lIlunition>.; are gen·
"rally IIllIl'h )t'SH (·omplieat!·d in eorupositio1J and 5·6.2 CHAR ACTERISTICS OF IDEAL
IllallUfal'tllrt' thun tit" commercial match mixtures IGNITER, FIRST FIRE, AND
whi, h rt'ljllirt' a spt'('ial striking- sllrfa(~t'. Com- STARTER COMPOSITIONS
positions whi('h haw be('n widl'ly ased in friction The !·oltlpo>.;itions llsl'd to ignit(> any burning.
pl'illlt'rs for artill('ry art' g-ivell ill Tahlt' ;1·2R. A tyP(' Jlyrotl'C'hni(' should haw thl' following <'har-
eOlllposit io" us('d ill tht' frietioll prim!': for an adl'risties ;~3
5-46
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 5-26
SAFETY MATCH STRIKER COM~OSITION
* In NC laquer, Dextrin, Casein, Animal Glue, plus hardener of U.S. Pat. 2,722,434 129.
t Formulas 1 and 2 are "one·strike" military or firework strikers. Formula 3 is a
commercial formula. Antimony sulfide and charcoal act as extenders to the phosphorus.
Antimony sulfide also seems to fulfill the role of a neutralizer and preservative for red
phospho?us.
TABLE 5-27
SAW ("STRIKE-ANYWHERE") MATCH COMPOSITION
• Formula 1 repreJl'nts the tip formula whi~h ignites on any hard surface. Pormula 2 is
the match cOlllpositioll'8 bas". lou,led with combustibles for strong billowing flame but Ilf low
frictioll sensitivity.
a. Be igniteu by the prim('r, fuze, or match 'rhe speeifie lIutllr!' of tht' ignition (~()mpositioJl
employ('(l i:l tlll' munition. is primarily determined by the partieular ignition
h. IgTite tll(' main pyrotedlllie ('ompositioll. pl'oblt'HI sille!' it involv(,ll tlw n!ltur(~ of the filling
('. Hl' suml'iently ins("lsitiVt' for safe handling to h(· ig'lIitl'd and th!' lllt'thod by whieh the ignition
III manufaduring and loading operations. l'olllpositiolJ i~ ignited. The wi/it' 'Variety of fillings
d. Be resistant to tbt· effect of moisture. liNN} in burning-type munitions mak('s it impossible
5-47
AMCP 706·185
REFERENCES
1. 'I'llI' l'lIl'rmoclll'lHistry of Tnrclldiaric:;, NDRe Ii. n. II. (~l1stard, G. Praneis, W. Sehnackenberg,
lTIIIlUlllhl'I'<'d, ~ Aug. 1943, Available at Tech- Small Arm,~ /lIC1'ndiary AJlltnunition, A Re-
nieal Library, Edgl'w()od Arsenal, as NDRC I'il'll' of Ihl' lTistory and J)cvclopmc1It, Frank-
Mi:·;('. Puh. :lOH, Hl']wrt of Division 11, Na- fortl Arsl'nal H{'port H-1407-3, DecemberW56.
tiollal I h'f('nSl' Hf'seareh ('olllJnittee, Office of 7. L. Finkl·!stl·ilJ, A. E. Gaul, IrIC('ndiaries, Vol.
Scielltilil' HeSl'HI'l'1I alld l)('vl'lopment, Wash- 18, Pari n of Ilisto"!1 of HfSl'llrch atlli Devel-
ing'toll, D. C. Optlll'lIt of Ihl' Ohemical Wm'/lIrf Service in
,)
"\. T. Wil~oll, J)1'l!e/oplllcllf of MOX Explo- World I\' (II' n, E(lgc\'/ootl ArSl'nal, Maryland.
Sil'IS: VII1'iOIiS ,Oxidants in MOX, NFOC.6, H. :-1, .J. ;\llll~r/llll. Sfltrtas, Vol. 16' of History of
National \'nrtht'r11 Corporation, 'Wcst Hall· Hl'sl'a/"eh and DC1,I'l0Plllfllt of thl' Chemical
OWl', :'IIass., Dt·('l'IIlI.II:'r 1!l:i2. War/an Sl'rl'iCf ill World War n, Edgp.wood
:1. H. W. E\'IIIlS, R.cpl'rim( IIlal /nvt'sti[lat1'o-n of Arsl'llItl, MaryJlllld.
infral"l'd Ha~li{/Iin!l ROIII'Ct'S, TN-9, Dt'llver R(·- !I. \v ..Jost. Rxplosiln' lind ('lImbuslioll Processes
SI':ll'dl Illstituft', Dl"Il\'('I', ('(Jlorado, .July 196] ill OUSI'S, l\1l'Ol'lIw-lIill Book (~o,' 1m., N. Y.,
(DllC-A]) :l:.!-t H07). 1~l-t(J.
4. S. G'lI'dllll, ('. Campilt'll, ., nitrf'reutilll Ther- 10. B. I'I'wis lIud O. VOIl glb!', ('olltbusfioll Plat/lCs
11 lit I Allulysi!' of t IlOIg-uui(' ('ompounds," Au- IIIIt! r:./'p/osi!JlIs IIf (iasls, :!ud Ed., Al'adrmic
alyt Il'al ('hl'mistry 27, llO~ (1955). Prt'SS, 1111'., ~ y" 1961.
f). A. \I. PI'l'lltiss, (,hl'tnicais in lVar, Ml'Grllw- 11. II. V ('oWlll'd Hud (; W ..JIlIlt'i:i, j,imits of
Bill Bllok (~I)., 111('., N. Y., 19:n F/a7lllll(lliilit)l of nasI's (m.i Vupors, Bulletin
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 5·29
SOME FIRST FIRE, STARTER, AND IGNITER COMPOSITIONS
Aluminum 13
Boron 10
Charcoal 4
Magnesium 25
Silicon 20 25 26
Titanium 25
Zirconium 20
Zirconium Hydride 15
Barium Chromate
Barium Nitrate 50 90 75
Iron Oxide (FeIlO,,) 25
Iron Oxide (li'e2 0 a) 25
Iron Oxide (Scale) 22
Lead Oxide (Pb0 2) 80
Lead Oxide (Pb S0 4 ) 35
Potassium Nitrate
Tetranitracarbizole 5
Laminae Binder s· .~
•• •• .... ••
* Laminae hinuer: Laminae 99'/<; Lupl'r~oi l'le.
U Most of thpse compositioJls "1\11 be used as 11 ioos(' powder mixture or with biJl<1er~ Ruch
a~ ('elluloiu, nitrocellulose or NC lacquer.
REFERENCES (cont'd)
;)O:!, BIII't'1t1i of ;\1 illes, Washingtull, D. C., 16. Glillfirl' Tl'sts to Ddl'rminl' thl' Vulnerabilit11
1!15~. of Jd·j't'opelll'd Aircraft Pucis, Repurt F-27-1,
I:!. A. O. Whitt', .. Lilllits fur til(' l'ropllgatioll of Navul 1'1'1IVl!l~ Oroillld, Bureau of Ns;~'aJ
\<'1!1Il11' ill IllllulIllllublt' Limits," .Journal of W,'allol\s, \VashillgtOll, D. ('., Decl'lllber 1.945.
tit,' Alllt'ril'llll Chl'lllil'al Soeiety 127 (19~5). 17. A. Htt'ill, M.•1. Torseh, Efll'ctivl'nfSS of In-
1:1. U. \'Oll Elbl', B. Ll'wis, l'Hpt'r,; prl's£'nted at t'l'udiary Ammunition Ayainst Aircraft Fuel
'J'hird I:-'YIlIJ)()siulll 011 Combustion lIud l<'luult' 'l'unks, BRL Mt'1ll01'llntllllIl Rt'port o4H4, Aber-
IIIltI ~~xpl(lsioll Phl'I10lllt'IlIl, Ilt'ld at Ilnivl'rsity tlp,'11 PI'(lvillt! OrOlllltl, Md., 194H (DDC-ATI
of WiS('IlIlSill, H('pt. 7-11, 19047, with Bureau of ·l~ :IH:l).
~lill('S, Pit tsburgh, i'll. IH. A.• 1. !\1dzlt'r, Jlillimllm ,""park Ignitio1~ E1~ef'
1·1. (: W. ,lollt's, HI smrch 011 Plammahility C'har- !lilS lif 1:: "lIrl' PudlO at Atmosphl'nc and Re-
at:/I'ristics (if Aircraft Pllt'/S, Prof.{ress Report eI'I('ld l'rls.wrl, NACA-HMB5:UI:n, National
~u. f), Burt'ull uf !\lillt':", l'it1sbllr~h, Pa., Advisory ('oll1lllitt"t' for At'rolluuties, Wash-
l\1llrt'h 1%1. il1!!toll, n. C., l!lfi:l.
1:" Selillcr of I'drult'lwI, IV, Uxford 11llvit'rsity 1~1. u. \V BaUSt'l'lll!lIl, J II I1lstrllmt'Tlt fot' Dc-
l'rt,~", 19:1~. ffrlllina::lill of 1',.all~·i/'llt Plaml' 1'(mperatuf'CS,
5-4!J
AMCP 706·185
REFERENCES (cont'd)
Phase Report No.4, Denver Research Insti- :1:3. B. W(lrbe~, S. I.-opatin, Develop'mcnt of J)elay
tute, Denver, Colorado, 1952. Puwders, Picatinny Arsenal Technical Report
20. 'l'hermite, Pluin, Incendiary, CWS l"ormula :H77, Picatinny Ar~enal, Doyer, N. J., 1958.
No. 0-1-1, 19 A;lgust 1944 (CW~ Formulary, a4. M. F. Murphy, A Comparative Study of Five
T('chllical Command, EdgewooJ Arsenai, 1 Pyrotechnic Delay Composit£.ons, NA VaRD-
September 1945). Edgewood Arsenal, Mary- 5671, Naval Ordnance I~aboratory, Bureau of
land. Naval Weapons, Washington, D. C., 1958.
21. A Solidified lhl Incendiary, b"[P-182-1, Massa- :1;,). M. F. Murphy, Current Topics in Gasless Heat
chusctts Institu[(> of Technology, Cambridge, Powder Work at NOL, Spee~h before NOL
Massach usetts. Pyrotrchnie Symposium, Naval Ordmmce Lab-
2:? D. Hart, Gasless Pou,ders for Delay Elements oratory, Bureau of Naval "Weapons, WaShing-
of Fuzes, Picatiliny Arsl'lIal Technical Report ton, D. C., 1959.
1239, PicatinllY Arsellul, Dover, N. J., 1943. :16. R. 11. (~omYIl, Pyrotechnic Research at DOFL.
2:{. s. Sag'e, Manufactllrl' of Bari1tm Chr'Jrnate I'a,rt II. Pyrotechnic Delays, 'rn-10l5, Harry
Delay Powder on a Semi-Flant Scale, Pica- Diamond 'Jaboratories, INashington, D. C.
tinny Arsenul Technical Report 1432, Pica- :17. P. Hochlill, Mass SpectrometriL~ Analysis of
tinny Arsenal, Dover, N..1"., 1944. Gas('olls Combustion Products from Delay
24. D. Hart, Dday Compositi:ms, Research and P(lu'cicrs, Pieatillny Arsenal Technical Report
DeveJoplllt'llt Lecture 27, PicatinllY Arsenal, :'006, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., 1954.
Dover, N. J., 1956. :~8. R. A W. Hill, T. 1.-. Cottrell, "Studies of
2;"). (~. A. PoppcJldieck, Resrarch on Ileal-Pro- Combustion Waves ill eolids," Fourth Sym-
d1lcing ComjJo.~itions, l<~irst Quarterly Report, posium (Intrrnat-ional) o'n Combust·ion, The
('ontra\!t; D~\-:W-039-SC-7fi071, Catalyst Re- Williams and Wilkins Company, Baltimore,
search Corporation, Baltimore, Md., 1958. Md., 1963.
26. 1.-. Apostolos, Powder Plate Development, Cat- :19, .1. R Spi~e, h A. K. Staveley, "'rhe Propaga-
alyst Resear('h Corporation, Baltimore, Md., tion of Exothermie Reactions in Solid Systems,
1953. Part I. Pr'";gnition Reactions. Part II. Hc&.ts
27. Apparatus for Testing Pulp and Paper, Bulle- of Rraetioll and Rates of Burning," J Duena!
till VII, Williams Apparatus Comnltny, Wa- of the Soeiety of Chemical Induiltry 68, 313-
tertown, N. Y. HI, 348-55 (1949).
2B. H. II. ComYll, i'yrotlchll'ic Research at DOFL. .to. s. Nakahara, "Stu.i.es on Delay Powd~rs, I.
Part I. Heat Source MaterWls, Teehnical Re- Measun'lllrnt of Temp{·rature of Combustion
port 8M, 11arry Diamond LaiJoratories, Wash- of Dela~- Powders," {llallstrial Explosives So-
ington, D. C., 1960 (DDC-AD iJ21 045). cil'fJJ .101l7"1!fll, 1958.
2H. AM <'P 7()fj-21O, E'lgilleerillg' Design Hand- 41. S. ~likahara, T. ILki;a, "Studies on Delay
book, /i'I/Zl'S, Gt'n('ral and Mechanical. Powclt l'8, II. The (~olllbustjon Pressure of De-
:w. H. H. ('omyn, The Usc of Gasl('ss Mixtures for lay Pl)wtii'l's," Industrial Explosives Socict!!
Producing Controiled Time Delays in Ord- Journal, 195H.
nance DcviCl'··. DOFIj Rrport 22-576, Harry 42. S. ~akllhara, T. Hikita, "Studies on Delay
Diall"'Jld Ijabol'lltorirs, \Vashillgton, D. ('., PO'A{!t'rs, III. Oa l\frl'hanisllI of Delay Pow-
J 957. dt'rs," hldllstr'ial E.rvlosivl's Society Journal,
:n. Ordnance Erplosive Train D('sigth?rS lIand. 19l1H.
book, R-ll11, Naval Ortillan(,t' Ijaboratory, ·n. S. Xakaham, "Studi"s Oil Dl'lay Powders,
Bureau of Nllval W('apOIlS, Washillgton, D. C., IV. Th('o!'y of t 'ombustioll Propagation Ve
1952. loeity of J)f>!ay Powders," l-ndNslrial Explo-
:12. AM('I' 70fi-17!I, Engillt·t'ring' Dt'sigJl Hand Sil"'S Nor;"d" JOllrl/al, 1958.
book, E.r plosill(, Truins. 44. S. GOldoll, l'~. D. ('!'aile, (.'ompilati'nl m1<1
5-50
AMCP 706-185
REFERENCES (cont'd)
Evaluation or the Ignition 1'ernperature Pa· Sands ~.lrovbg Ground, November 17, 1959,
mmete,-s a,nd Differenf'::1l Thermal, -in('lysis Pie'ltiluy Arsenal, Dover, N. J.
[:Jr Pyrotechn£c Systems. 1. Barium Chromate- -±9. '1'h.~ App!ication of Lead Tubir:.g to tit') Fillin!/
Boron, Picatinny Arsenal rrechnical N"te 24, of Pyrotechnic Delays, Branch Memo X4/3/58,
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, ~. J. Armame~lt Research and Developm;ont. Estab-
45. R. Comyn, R. Skeltor;, Effect of Pressure on lishment, Mini:;try of Sunply, Great Britain.
the Burn 1;ng Rate of Ga..~l!JSS Delays, NAVOHD- 50, H. Ellern. Modern Pyrotechnics, Uhemip.al
1787, Naval Ordn:l>lCeLaboratory, Bureau of Put-~ishing' Co" 1961.
Naval Weapons, Washington D. C. 51. K. L. Davis, Chemistry of Powdp~' and Ex-
-lo. 1\1. Gilford, B. Werbel. G. W,lllgart{,Jl, iI. Key, plos'ives, .loilll \Viley ~;, SO;U', N. Yo, 1943.
The Anticipating Effect. A St1ldy of the Burn- R. ('. Mallinger, Bc.ckgro1l'nd of Exptad1;ng
ing Mcchtwisril 0/ Delay-Relay Coiumns, Pica- BridgcUJirc. and C . Jnventiond Systems, Pre-
tinny ArlSemd Technical Report 3047 T)ica- sented at Amerir'an Ordnance Association
tinny Arsenal, Dover, N, J., 1964. ,Jnint Tecl.ni<?al Meetin~ on Exploding Bridge-
47. R. E. McIntyre, Factors Affecting the Blend- wire Systems, Los Allgeles, Ca:ifornia., Febru-
ing of (iasless 1Il-ixt1U'es, TI1-648, Harry DIa- ary 10-11, 1964.
mond Ijaboratories, \Vashington, D. C., 1959. S. .J. Ma~raIll, A S1;rvey of Stm·ters for Burn-
B. \Verhel, Recent Advances 1:'" PYI'atechnic ing Type iliunitions, TDMR-655, Edgewood
Delny Compositions, Speech presented at White Arsenal, Maryland,
5-5]
AMCP 706·185
CHAPTER 6
PRODUCTION OF LIGHT
6-1 RISTORlCAL SUMMARY prepared in 1786 and first mentioned I!S an in-
Miiitary pyroteehmc items useJ for illumina- gredient in a pyrotechnic composition in 1823.6
tion aud signaling by the military share a com- By 1830 several formulas containing P()ta.'l:JiU\ll
mon origin with the spectarular white and colored chlorate had been developed for firewerk disp!ay,
flames pr<lduced by fireworks. Tracing the de- military ~ignaling and signaling at sea. While
velopr.:J.ent of these compositions is relatively easy most colol's could be produced in a more or less
since there was little progress made ill the develop- satisfactory manner by 1850, it was sever~l years
ment of flame producing compositions untii the later before a s:;.tisfactory blue flame was pro-
introdaci"ion 04' potassium chlor&.te pyrotechnic duced. This was accomplished ty addhg copper
mixtures near the end of the 18th century.1 salts to compositions cont,,'1inin~ pota..~dum '.lhlorate.
The color was enriched by the us~ of calomel,
6-1.1 CONSOLIDATED ILLUMINANTS Hg2 Cl 2 . During this period colored flames pro-
duced by adding color-emitting salts to potas-
6-1.1.1 Fh.res and Signals sium chlorate and sulfur compositions were found
Modern fireworks, with a few exceptions, can to be very satisfactory. In spite of their good color
be divided into two types, those designed to pro- quality, these \.lompositions were abandoned be-
duce force and sparks, and those producing a cause of their sensitivity to imPf.ct and friction.
flame,l·:! Early effort,. were directed toward the Sulfur was replaced first by powdered Ehellae and
developmellt of spark and force producing COlli- later by other gums and resins.
pc..sitions. At that time, there was no known way MagneGium was first produced on a com.mercial
of impal."tir.g color to a flame. As a result, there scale in 1860 ar.d WdS used by European pyroteeh-
was little difference to the twe between a flame nicians several yeart; litter. In the United States,
produced by a pyrotechnic mixture and one result- possibly beca.use of its cost, magnesium was not
ing from the burning of pitch, petroleum, (r used in military PYl"otcchnic mixtures unti! .I.L":,,ocnd
resinous wood. Sparks could be varied in form and 1926.•\lumin 11m was not used appreciably in pyro-
brightness, although not in color, so that spark tellhnic compositions until near the end of the 19th
compositions becam£:, and remained for ceuturic";, century when it bt'cflme commercially available.
the main eon&ideration of the fireworks maker. Illuminating compositions for military appli-
The fe" flame compositions available in the eations were, basically, the same as those used in
17th century usually included a flammable liquid firework disl/lays over two h~n~red years earlier.
in order to ensure combustion of the rest of th'l A primitive type of light producing item- ·whose
mixture consisting of gunpowder, antimony sul- . composition consisteu of saltpeter, sulfur, resin,
fide, and arsenie sulfide. Appier1,2 was far in aud linseed oil--was included in British military
advance of his time when he suggested the use of store<; until at least 1870. ~~ost important of the
acetate of copper to give a green tin~ t(' a flame. few iuventwns i1' military pyrotechnics during the
By the early part of the 19th centu~y, a pyro- latter part of the l!Hh century was the parachute
technist, Claude-~'ortune Ruggieri,3.4,5 sugg~sted light whieh &ppe.)!"s to have originated about 182G
the USe of metal salts and ammoniulll chloride in in Denmark mu(;h in adva~ce of its widespread m;e
the production of a colored flame. in the WO!·~':l Wars of the 20th century. Another
The modern era in pyrotechnics l;egan with the invention, the VelY Pistol which was patented in
introduction of potassium chlorate which was fil'st 1878, originated as It '.livil s;gnaling d~vice. Ini-
6-]
AllCP 706-1M5
tially, the pistol had a one-inch bore; this was ':-he range or the crude gnns ir.troduc!:'u after
later increased to one arId one-half inches during the inwiJtion of r,ulJPowder was sO ~hnrt that the
World War I. Improved illuminating and Rig- point of impact of the pojectile '!ould h~ noted
naling devices were developed in the 1914-1918 by the eye. However, this was no longer possihle
period becau,!ji, they wele requii'ed ir the trench after the .introdlletion of wcapons which firl"d
warfare of World War I to a much greater extent small-cnliber, high-ve~ocity buliets over ranges of
thnu in prior wars. The growing import.ance of more than a thousllnd yards. During World War I,
air warfare ')pcned a wil~le new field. f(lr the use the need for tracers was intensified by the wide us~
of ilIuminants ann signals. Simulators and del~oys of ma('hine guns. The need for tracers berame
were developed for the purpose of mislea,~ing enemy eeute, coincident with t!1C enormous expenditure
(,bservers. of ammunition by infantry anrl air strvice. At
Most of the illuminating and sig'f.aling devices long range. in the air and Oll the grouIld, it was
produced in the l'er~od between W orId IN ars were almos: impo.~siblr to ~stimate range and correct
developed by empirical medlods. Tlw limited
Itim by observing the point of impact of bullets
amount of work perfnrmed in this period necessi.
which did not incorporate tracers.
tated a hurried attempt to put the pyrotechnic
During W orId War I, the air services of both
field on a scientific basis at the start of World War
the Allied and Central Powers urgeD-tty demanqed
II. Thi& attempt "'~s halllprlr~d by the necE'ssity
an efficient, accurate tracer bullet and, as the re-
ot producing itilms fur im!l1ediate use on the baW",-
sult, tracer ammunition was S~0n developed by all
field. Most of the research and devE'lopruent con-
of the be'ligerentr.;. A German tracer cOl.lpositicn
tinued to rely upon empiricism. However, a lim-
-containing a mixture (I! magnes;um, strontium
ited amount of basic and applied research: much
nitrate, calcium hydroxide and rosin·- was 110t
of it directed toward the developr~,ellt of better
very satisfhctory be~ause it was difficult to ignIte
light producing compositions, was started at sev-
and produced. a very d:m and t!dlGtillct~race.
eral nf the Government installations amI cnntinued
The French tried ~everal tl'ac"r mixtures which
after the war. Results of the work done after the
eontaimll a small amount of linseed C'il as a
war were extremely rewarding. At the e:ld of
lJinarr. These tracers were auite brilliant. and de-
'World War II some Opinion was expressed that
pendable but were unstable in storage and became
little improvement could he made in flare and
practically useless soon after manufacture. As a
photoflash eompositions. 7 Contrary to this opinion,
rpsult, ]:<'re,ch tracers were made immediately be-
major improvements were made, some of them in
hind the lines Sf) that the ammunition could be
time to be of great serviee in the Korean Conflict.8
placed in the hands of the troops as promptly as
Current research and developme'lt cffort is
possible. If the ammunition could not be used
being directed toward the development of advf'1ced
within two or thrj'e weeks, it was scrapped and
flare compositions, for both illuminating ane sig.
relJlaced.
naling purpos{'s, to function at altitudes where
After the United States entered the War, a pro-
little or no atmospheric oxygen is available.
gram of drveloping bette!' tra~ci' ammunition for
the American Expeditionary Forces was activrted.
6·1.1.2 Tracers The rtsult of thi£ work was the development of
Before the invention of gunpowder and the use M:1917 tracer ammunition, which consisted of a
of bullets, there was no need for tracers. The jacket pi ('upronie!c('\ surrounding a container of
projectiles used, namely !Spears and arrows, were gilding lIlt'tal Ilnd a It'ad shot. The tracer composi-
large in size, and traveled at a low velocity, so that tioll wa.'; a lllixture of barium tleroxide and mag-
their line of flight eoulrl be readily foI:owed. Ar- nesium in grain alCOhol, which was dried and
rows tipped with burning g'ril'3S roigU be con- prt.'ssi'd into the container at 48,000 pounds pel'
sidered the first trd.Cerf;. ThongI' the prjm~ I eaoon squarr ineh. This tracer was quite satisfactory
for nsing these burning :lrrows was to start fires, and pro<.~ueed a trace-;\'hich was not c[;pecially
the ,,'Oursc of }he arro\V c::mld be followed at night. brilliant-for aLout 500 yards. Another traccr
6·2
AMCP 706-185
was developed in cooperati01l with the British, v('stigated as a means of improving color of the
using Ii mi.<ture of barium nitrate, barium pe"fOX- flame and buring. During this period, calcium
ide, ;IllU magnesium loadpd ill a hollow brass bul- rl'sinate was introduced as an improved composi-
Jpt. All ignitpl' mix of bariulI1 peroxide and mag- tion binder. By 1929, there was concern as to the
nesium was rpquired with thi" tracer mixture. t'ffects of ineorporuting mercury compounds such
The using services werp not satisfied with the as ('alompl in, tracer buHets ~cause, under certain
status of tracer ammunition at the end of the War, conditions, it was observed that the jacke'l:s split
and again studies directed toward the production in storagt', probably due to the liberation of the
of It bl'ttpr tracer Lullet were rel-:un:ed. Many mercnry from the calomel. Investigatian proved
mixtures wpr!' tl"ip<1 during this period and. it was that the ('racking of the jacket was due to the pres-
found that calomel wou)(} increase the brilliance ('nce of fr!'e me:cury, and elimination of tracer
allr} luminosity of ehe trace r,roduecd; this result~d ('ompos~tlons followed..
ill the intl'oduction of tlw M1928 tracer bullet, IE addition to this work, a limited amount of
(~aliber .:m, and tllP design of an Ml924 prototypP. I'l'seareh and dpvelopment effort directed toward
During this ppriod. tnl('ers were dpveloped fo:- thp develoPllll'llt. of red tracer compositions for
caliber .50 ann also f9r ('aliber .45 weapons; thesp ammunition larger than caiiher .50 was iuitiated.
we!'(' llspd primarily as red, green, and white sig- During- this same period, the Navy had de7eloped
lIal rounds. It is also intpresting to note that tht and adoptprl !mtidactory compm:itions for red,
MHl28 tra(~er was evaluatt'd as a small arms in- whitf, grp('\J, and orange tracero.
('elldiary bullpt and found to bi' superior to thp About 19:~4, study of hst records showed that
thpll-availabll' small arms incendiary ammunition; Army tra(~l'rs beeame unsatisfactory after five
for somc tinw thereafter this trl:1cer also served as Yl'ars' st()ra~t', 'fhe tracer composition had been
a RJIlall arIlIR incPlldiary. By Dpecmb('r 1926, mili- wet-pro(:<'ssed to obtain good storage :Jtability; i.e.,
tary requirements brought about Rtandaldization th!' ('alt-inm f('sinllte was dissolveJ in carbon tetra-
of the rl'd traeer as th8 onl~' ont' appro ved for l'hloritip, mixl'(l to a paste with the other ingred-
~('neral military use. 'fhe designation was "Bul- iPllts, bakt'd dry, and pulverized to a powder to
let, Traccr. Calibl'r .ao, 1\11." The tracer composi- r!'nder all ingredientq moisture-repellent. Poor
tion contailled strontium peroxide made by the storage stability was apparently due, not to the
dry process and a highrr-dpl1sity calomel. tracer composition, but rather to the dry-blended
Th(, igniter composition eomained barium per- barium }Y'roxidp-magnesium-red lead igniter com-
oxide and fill(, magnesium. Tracer M1 was 11lso position. Red jpad, although aiding bonding and
!oadl'd with it sHbignitt·r consisting of three parts i(lPlltifieation of the igniter composition, was found
ignitpr and Ollt' part tracPI (:omposition to influre to b(' ehemieally illP.ompatible with barium per-
i~llitioll (,f thl' tracer l'omposition. 'fhese changes oxide and, thereforp, was removed from trle formu-
I'P;.;u\tt'd ill Hll iJl(~n'ased Ipl1gth of trace to 1aOO la. The magn('siuIU was pre-treated with water to
yards for ('aliber '::JO trae('l's, and to 2200 yards fDrm a Pl'otpctivp oxide coating and one percent
for ealibl'!' .:i() trae('rs. Rt'st'Rn'h awl t!t'velopment ZllW Rtparatp was added as a water repellent. This
('oIJe('l'llpd with sma II arms anllJlunition (~olltinued ignitrI' blpnd pro\'Pd to be more stable under high-
at a very limited rare rp~\llting in ehanges such as hnmidity testing and was adopted for use in 1937.
H\(' df'v('lopJl1t'ut of it gilding metal bullet jaeket Durillg' thp period from 1935 to 1941, develop-
to rppla('(' tlH' (:upronickpl jacket. 'rtw bullet de- 1Ilf'llt work 011 delay action and ~.im igniters for
sign of thp caliiwr .:30 Ml tra('PI' Will: st ClnclaI'dizrd smail al'lllS tra(,I'I's was acthe. D• 10 'fwo composi-
il] 1929. bas('d ulwil thp ,'n!)2~ prototype round; tions wl'rp dpwloppd which were st.andardized.
how!'ver, tht· pyrotechnic compositions wer~ 'fhrse ('ompositiolls furm the basis for all delay
changed signifi('antly during the Iwrio0 between al'tioJi and dim ignit.ers used ill small arms am-
World ,YetI' [ and 1929. For f>xarnpl", many IIl1lnitioll. '1'11<' basi{'. composition is designated 1-
stl'OiltiUlll l'ompollllds SHch as strontium pl'l"oxide. 1:lH Dt'lay A('tion and is composed of 90 percent
stl'ontiulll oX.llatp. and stl'olltinlfl nitrlltl' wt're in- strolltil'm IWl'oxide and HI percent ealciUl:1 resi-
6-3
AMCP 706·185
natt>. Dim initial trace is controlled by the quan- metal particlps of H8 percent metal content. Dur-
tity of magnesium addpd to I-l:J6 composition. ing the war, magnesium powder was used whieh
Standard 1-194 Dim Igniter contains 6 percent ranged from dark gray to almost black with a
magnesium. Compositions incorporating "delay metal content as low as 80 percent.
action" fUllction so as to produce no visible trace Another pxample wai'> the immediate change
up to some prescribed distanep along the trajec- from wet-processing of tracer compositiollS to dry-
tory; then thp trarer composition is ignited. This procf'ssing, or simple blending of the dry in-
action is desirable to avoid revealing gun positions. gredipnts. This was a faster and less hazardous
Dim ignition provides a dim h'ace and has the method but it producpd eompositions that were
advantage of providing fire control directly from more difficult to load, less uniform in ignition and
thp gUll muzzle for somf prps('ribed distance, at burning, and more susct'ptibl!' to attack by mois-
which distancp thl' bright trac!'r composition is ture. ~'or several years the te(~hnieal effort ex-
ignitpd. This type of ignition is particulady de- pelld('d in both the Government and industry-
sirl!.ble for firing at planes and other fast-moving when conducting ehemieal, engineering, and func-
otjPcts at night since the dark-adapted eyes of the tional tests-had the purpose of assuring a con-
glib ncr would be seriously affected by the stand- tinuous supply of ammunition which was intended
anI, lJright igniter ('OIJlposition used for daylight for almost immediatp expenditure by the troops.
eondit~ons. To i!lsnre propiOr functioning and As the war proceeded, it became apparent that
storage "tability 0: delay and dim igniters, it was much of this war production would not be used
lI!'eessary to develop a high assay, wet-processpd immediately aud would probably nmain for rela-
(or precipi.tated) strontium peroxide. Unconverted tiwly long ppriods in storage depots.
strolltium hydroxide (always present in this com-
A I'Pview of the overall situation aimed at
pound) had to be reacted with t hp free abietic
improving' quality of pyrotechnic ammunition was
acid of til(> calciulIl resinate which had prpviously
thrn initiated, and research programs for this
b!'('11 dis~olved in carbon tetrachloride. This wet-
purpose rei'>ulted. In addition, the continuous de-
proel'ssill~ techniqll(' provided Ii ('omposition more
wloprnent of many new types of tracer ammuni-
spllsitiv(' to ignition and lpss affret('d by moisture.
tion ('ontinued. These developments ineluded col-
During' tht' ]!)3G-]!Nl period, the Navy again
orpd sllIokp tracers, tracers for caliber .30 Ml;
beeault· interpi'>ted in the devplopment of dim and
('alibt'r .30 cal'binl'; caliber .45; caliber .50; ealiber
dark types of tru('('rs for use with th(· 40 mm gun
bf'ealls(' of th(' self-d!'stI'l1et rl'quil'<'ments for its .()(); ~O mm; and the larger artillery rounds (most
amllluJlitioll. of which ineludpd the combination types, i.e., arm-
Tmllll'diutdy prior t <Ind during \Vorld \Var or-pit'ccing trat'er, and armor-piercing incendiary
II, dt'llumds \\,prt' suddpnly iliadI' on UB. industry tracer) .
to supply hUl!t~ qllf1rltitips of pyrotpchnie chemicals TIlt' surge of effort for improved tracer pyro-
whieh had JlI'E~vionsly be(,11 supplied in very lim- tp('hni('s, hpgull during ·World 'Val' II, included
itl'd q llaJltitics by olily a ft'w manufacturers. These rpsf'al'ch and dt'wlopment programs to investigate
d"mands resu lted ill largf' proeuetion of such higher plll'ity chemicals, effect of chemical im-
thelllieals as the alkalilw (>arth p<'roxitles, per- purities Oil flllH'tioning and stability, critical mois-
l'hloratl's, nitratps, awl magnesi'Im powdpr uy es- ture ('ontpnt p<'rmissible for long term storage, de-
tablishJll('nts with relativf'ly litde l'xperience in yplopnH'nt of Hll'tal and plastic types of base
tlwir manufa<'ture. Bp('ullst' of tll(' urgf'lH'y of ('losllrl' seals to pI'pvent moisturp putry, alld water
Illaintailling ppak produ<'tion sehedules, Spt·eitica- pre-oxidation and dichromat!' trpatmellt of mag··
tinns tl,·fining the quality of raw materials were Il('sium powder for improv(,(j stauility. Tn addi-
oftpll waivptl 10 th!' detriment of overall ammuni- tion, mally IIPW kinds of materials were drveloped
I ion fll!wtion and stability during ~torag(·. A not- for liSP in pyrot('('huit! l'ompositions. These include
ablt· pxample was maglwsiuTlI powder, which had up\\, ~radps of' alkalint'-t'arth peroxides, atomized
hl'pn 1'1'0<111('('<1 during pt'll<'etinlP as ell'an, bright (('ollsistiJlg' of spheril'ul particl!'s) magnesium,
6-4
AJrlCP 706·185
magnesium-aluminum alloys, and titanium and States after World War I, when commercial flash-
boron powders. light powder was exploded in 25-, 60- and 100-
More basic studies have included inv~stiga pound containers with only partially satisfactory
tions of threshold visibility and its relationship to results. In 1925, the Air Corps tested commerClial
background, distance, candlepower, and color val- photoflash powder, carried in towed gliders, as a
ues; the relationship between impact sensitivity light source. About this time, attempts to pro-
of the composition and reliability of tracer igni- duce a suitable photoflash powder followed two
tion, and the effect of cavity geometry and high general lines of investigation. The first was to
speed bullet rotation on the candlepower and burn- develop a fast burning flashlight composition and
ing time; and particle-size measurement and the the second involved the development of illuminat-
effect of particle size on burning characteristics. ing materials which could be detonated. Essen-
Recent studies have been concerned with the de- tially, all photoflash mixtures used during the
termmation of the reaction kinetics of pyrotechnic period through World War II were of the first
compositions by such methods as differential type. Development of an illuminating mixture
thermal analysis and differential gravimetric anal- which could be detonated was not completed until
ysis. Use of pyrotechnics at very high altitudes after World War II.
pres!'nts new problems. 'l'hese problems have re- The hazardous and unsatisfactory system using
sulted in studies of the mechanisms of reaction at the towed glider, which limited a mission to one
low pressure and/or in the absence of an oxygen photograph, was abandoned in favor of a para-
atmosphere and the development of pyrotechnic chute-suspended cylindrical bomb. While other
compositions designed from the data thus obtained. shapes were tried later, this shape, in general,
proved to be most efficient. An important require-
6-1.2 NON CONSOLIDATED ILLUMINANTS
ment was for a flash powder that would produce
Nonconsolidated illuminants are comprised peak light output during the time the camera
mainly of various types of photoflash devices in- shutter was open. This resulted in the develop-
cluding photoflash bombs and cartridges, and spot- ment, by 1930, of a photoflash mixture consisting
ting devices. They consist of loose-loaded pyro-
of 84 percent magnesium, 26 percent aluminum,
technic compositions which react rapidly to pro- and 40 percent potassium perchlorate. This was
duce a brilliant flash of light, when confined, established as the Standard Type I photoflash
similar to that produced by the common photoflash powder.
bulb. In the early part of the 1930 's, two photoflash
bomb designs were in use: one, a rectangular ply-
6-1.2.1 Photoflash Devices
wood box designed to be carried on external racks;
The use of photoflash powder to provide arti-
the other, a paper t'lbe se\"en inches in diameter
ficial illumination for photographic purposes was
and 32 inches long, which coatained about 25
fairly common long before the military use of air-
pounds of flash powder. This latter type became
(,raft for reconnaissance purposes. Toward the end
the first standard photoflash bomb and was later
of W orId War I, when the importance of aerial
known as the Tl or M12 Photoflash BombP It
photographic reconnaissance during the day hai
was rarried within the fuselage of the airplane;
been widely recognized, the military advantages
used a parachute to retard its drop; and was satis-
of night aerial photography also became apparent
faetory for use with aircraft operating at 200
and attempts to provide devices for this purpose
miles per hour at !1ltitudes up to 5000 feet. The
were made by both Allied lind Central Powers.
final modification of this bomb produced a peak
6-1.2.1.1 Photoflash Bombs intensity of 325 million candlepower and an aver-
age total radiation of 22 million candlepower-
6-1.2.1.1.1 Compi)sition TYl',e seconds. The M12 Photoflash Bomb was used for
The study of artificial light sources for night trainiug purposes only.
aerial photography was cvntinued in the United The M23 Photoflash Bomb 12 was devdoped in
6-5
AMCP 706·185
()r<it'r to increast' the number of photographs ob- the "P!Juirrnlpllt that it should be 110 more sPllsitive
tainablt' on a mission. It contained about seven to projretill' fragmrl1ts and bullet impact than a
pounds of flash powder in a cylindrical paper- gPIH'ral Jlurpose bomb.
board case. tJater it was placed in a strt'amlined Work on photoflash compositions continued
steel outer case to improvt' its operational char- with considprabh· rmphasis directed toward the
acteristics. Dt'velopment of the M46 Photoflash deve!opmt'nt of flash mixtures containing calcium,
Bomb was started just bt'fof(' the United States whirh wert' more effective at highf'r altitudes than
enterrd World War I I. This bomb contained up oth,'r photoflash mixtures.
to 25 pounds of photoflash mixture in a stream-
lined metal case and was widely used in 'Vorld
6·1.2.1.1.2 Dust Type 14
War II for photography from intermediate alti-
'}'he need for night illuminant safer than the
tudf's.
standard flash powder bomb (which was easily
In an attempt to increase the intensity of the
uetonatpd by bullpt impact) led to a requirement
light from pyrotechnics, scientists under National
for a Ipss-sPJI<.;itive powder composition. 'fhis ap-
Drf!'lIse Ht'st'areh Committee auspicps at Wesleyan
proach was considered to be preferable to armor-
University and at the California Institute of Tech-
iug th!~ bomb. By 1943, British reports of the de-
nology conducted a more fundamental study of
wlopment of a safe metal dust bomb, using either
photoflash powdpr. Both groups reached the con-
aluminum or magnesium powder detonated hy a
dusion that 110 real improvem('nt in flash output
tetryl burster, had been rpcpiwd. Initial tests
could bt' gained by changing the standard mag-
lI,ad!' in this country of the metal dust type were
IlPsiuJE-aluminllm-potassiulll perchloratr mixture
1I0t ('lIcouragiIl~. It was found that the "safe"
tlWIl in liSP. ('onsidpratioll was then given to pos-
powder produc!'d only about 20 per('ent as much
sibil' methods of obtaining a mort' pffirient dis-
light as the staJldard photoflash bomb. Further
tribution of thr light from thp flash. I<~urther
work r('sulted ill the T8 bomb, which was a cOIn-
study, howpvpr, indicated that a largpr homb was
plete failurp. Instead of dispprsiug" as a dust to
an easipr way to obtain highpr lewis of illumina- ('xplout' in a short bright flash, thp milled mag-
tion. Because of 'IOrtages of aluminum lind mag- IH'Silllll powder used in till' bomh apparently com-
nt'sillln powdprs at tht' starr of \Vorld War II, a pacted into largp adhering mas,~es which burned
mixturp using a magnesium-aluminum alloy as a progrpssively.
fllPI illstrad of Ii mixturp of llIagnpsiulll and Tlw 'rHE1 bomb, containing 70 pounds of flake
aluminuJll, known a..., Typl' I I, ('lass A, photoflash aluminum and wl'ighing over 200 pounds, reaehl'd
powdt'r was dev!'lopP!l. !'atp!" barium nitrate wa." Ii pt'ak illtf'lIsity of one billion candlepower in
adoptt'd as th(' ()xidiz('!'. This mixtUl'p was knowlI about 12 milJist'eonds. This was little more than
as Type 1I, Class B, photoflash powder. I,ater, till' lwak calldlppowpr of tht' 50-poul1d M46 bomb.
it IIt'W staildard photoflash powdpr, Typf' r I I. ('la.'>s A rillg-shappd flash wilh a characteristic n:m-
A, !'om;istill/! of -W IWr(~t'llt alumillum, :W percf'llt IUllIillOIlS ('or!' ,"as prOdUl~p(i, pr!'sumably caused
hariulll lIitnlte, and :30 pP!"('l'nt pota"siulII 1)er- by gaSt'Olls ,lel'ollllJ\)sit;on of till' high explosive
ehlorait' was adoptf'dyl It was found that thp lat- burst!'r. Th!' sa III I' dark rcnter was also noted m
t!'r mixture, whl'lI l'ollfilwd ill II /rt'llvy-wnlIl'd cas .. tht· British dust bombs, Mark 111 and Mark IV.
ing, would pl"OdlH~P lltort' light output from a By th!' ('1\(1 of th(' War, .;;ulal! seal!' tests of a
smallt'r alld safer phototiash bomb. Thl's!' results \'lIril'ty of ltH'tHi dllsts, burst!',..,. and !'asings showed
led to th!' l'!Ull'('lIatioll of fllrthl'l" work Oil thin- (hat a !'o/lil'al burst,'r plimillatt'(} till' dark core.
Intlled plwtojJasit iWlubs 1'01' high altitud!', Hight (·olltiIlUill;.(' n'sl'iln'h on hldal dust bombs
<It'l"illl pltotogmplty. and It'd to till' dl'v,'loPIllt'llt sh()\\,pd that a sat isfal'tory bomb was unattainahle
of the :.;al'l'l" hl'av.\'-wall"d bOlllhs. Tltpsp bombs with Illagllt'sillll1 dust. 'rlw smaJlt r thp bUl'stpr, in
W('!"t' ill produl'fioll in latt' 1!1:;1 ami \\'prl' US( d ill proportioll to \\(·ight of dllst, th!' ,'{realt'r the dli-
tll(' l\.or!';U1 COllflid ill 1!1;)~. Whill' lilliI'll saf('" !'it'Il('Y ill t<'nlls of !'aIHlh'po\\,pr-st'l'0I1ds per grall',
than til!' AI-Hi, this typt' of bomh stiJl did 1I0t 1I1l'\'t but 1}j(' slowt'r thl' Hash. ~ll satisfa!'tory poillt of
6·6
AMCP 706-185
6·7
AMCP 706-185
metal content mixture (70 percent aluminum signals of differing intensities which allowed more
and 30 percent potassium perchlorate) was used flexibility in programing of flashes along the t.ra-
with massive bursters of RDX. This mixture ga.ve jeetcl'Y of the missile. Flash signals also have been
twice the total light of the Type III 30/4.0/30 developed to evaluate the functioning of the mis-
formula and was I elatively insensitive to both fric- sile warhead frequency system.
tion and flame initiation. Since that time, a limited Purther information and references on non-
amount of work has been continued 01'. photoflash con<.;olidated illuminants may be foltnd in compre-
cartridges and associated high rate ejection :.;;ystems hensive reports :wailable.17.18.19
for night aerial photography and other purposes.
6-2 THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOR
6-8
,-------------- - - - - -------- ----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l
AKCP 706-185
Many of the effects of light may be simply sist, ~n the optical region, of colored lines, colored
explained by assuming that light, in a uniform bands, and colored regions on a dark backgr<Jund.
medium, will travel in straight lines at measurable Absorption spectra al'e produced by white light
velocity. This assumption, which is the basis for which has been passed through gases, liquids, or
geometric optics, is very nearly true in most eases other light-absorbing materials on 'I. brightly col-
of interest in pyrotechnics. The direction, or path orrd backg..ound. Both types (>f spectra can be
of light, is often represented by a straight line observed ir: wavelength regions outside the visible
called a ray. Other effects, which canaot be ex- by special techniques.
p:ained by geometric optics, must be diecussed in Depending on the appearance of the spectra
terms of the wave nature of light, while still others produced in a given wavelength interval, bott-
must be expl".ined in terms of the particular nature emission and absorption spectra C'Ul be further
of light. classified "8
discrete or contbuous spectra. The
A knowledge of the properties of light is im- spectral distribution of the light produced by
portant in pyrotechnics due to the need for mea- pyrotel!hnic light Gources for both illumination
surements and instrumentation required for eval- and signb1ing is import!JUt; therefore emphasis in
uation, and to carry out the necessa~y research the following paragraphs will be Oil emission
aimed at improving light and color sources. Some spectra.
of these properties in(llude reflection, transmission,
absorption, ref:raction, and the optical character- 6-2.2.1 Discrete Spectra
istics associated with mirrors and lenses. These Luminous gases and vapors nndf'r moderate or
subjects will not be discussed in detail as standard low pressures J:'eld emission spectra which consist
physics texts cover them and may be consulted of dr finitely placed bright lines or closely placed
when required. 20 One of the most important char- groups of bright lines called bands. "'he energy,
acteristics associated with the electromagnet;c spec- E, associated with Ii. quantum of light having the
trum of radiation is spectral distribution; analysis sam£' frequpncy, '1--i.e., a spectral line--is:
of this distribution provides an excellent tool for
determining the emitting species in flames and E=hv=E2-E. (6-4)
other light sources. For this reason, several of where h is Planck '8 constant. This energy is the
the subsequent paragraphs are devoted to this area. diff~rence betwee!l two liuantized energy level~ in
the atom or molecule, designated above as El and
6-2.2 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION E',!, so that. the wavelengths of the spectral lines
are characteristic of the radiat.ing source. The
If a narrow beam of white light is passed
number of lines ana their relative intensities in
through a prism, each wavelength is deviated in
an emission spectra also depend on the n!ethod of
direction by a dif:'erent amount and the light beam
exeitation.
is spread uut into all array of colors. The array
A line observed in an emission spectrum re-
of colors is ealled the visiLle spectrum, and extends
sults from the transition of the atom or molecule
from about OA-micron to about 0.7 -micron. This
from a higher, E 2 • to lower, El, energy level ;21 i.e.,
visible portioll of the spectrum represents a very
the transfer of quanta of energy is e~'olved. If
small fraction of the pleetromagnetic radiation
the line is observed in an aborptioJl spectrum, the
cl)mmonly t'lUitted by radiatioll sources, and lies
Ittom or molecule is raised from a lower to higher
between tht' longer wavelrngth (infrared) and the
<jllantizpd pI:erf.,'Y level hy the absorption of a light
shorter wavl'lellgth (ultraviolet) port.ions of the
quantum of thp propt'r frequency.
t'le<!irumagnetic radiation spectrum to which the
eye is insensitive.
Rpeetra of two ~~ent'lal types <ire observed, 6·2.2.1.1 Line Spectra22
(·missioll spectra and absorption STK'ctra. Emission Line speetrll-consist.ing of II. series of sharp,
spedra arl' pro(luct'll by light which is emitted brightl,v colored lines on a dark background-are
from IUlllin()lI~ and iUl'Il11Uf'SCent bodies and con- produced by single or chemically uncombined
6-9
AMCP 706-185
!!
.. -
~
n
~N 8of ~ g.: Al constant; and kl and k2 are integers. The Lyman
series found in the ultraviolet, and for ,vhich
tnF:·.--'rnwlllll~!~,_~l~-rll k, = 1 and k2 = 2, 3, 4, ---, is caused by transi-
ij~1 III i
111'11 IIIII
I TIt
I 11111
lIonilGtion!
\ Ilv.1
tions from excited atomic states to the ground state
00 312 •
7
:1111 I '11'
~
c+-
1
~-r
'!III 50G •
i E or lowest atomic energy state, ItS is also illustrated
6 ~
• I
I
I
;
I
i
304 -:.f in Figure 6-1. The Balmer .;;eries found in the vis-
5 :, ~t-- -:~ 300-0 ~
eE
0
3
j : I
I
I
I
1
293
j
"j!
~ . ible spe~tra for which kl = 2 and k2 = 3, 4, 5, ---, is
...
278 li
1I I caused by transitions from excited atomic states
. I
- -
a ..
to the first ex.cited state. Other series-includ-
'T
235
> ';:
• a
~~
... .2
ing the Paschen series, Brackett series, and
L, o Pfund series-are found in the infrared. The
...i~ spectral lines for materials of higher atomic num-
Figure 6-1. Emission Spectrum and Energy (;!vel! of ber rapidly become so complex that they cannot
Hydrogen Atom he reprt'sented by a single simple equation.
6-10
,-----------------------------------------------------------------------
AMCP 706·185
6-11
Al'4CP 706.. 185
""I
0
a:
(,) 300
::E
N
:a
u
II N 100
..... 250 :a
(.)
en .....
l- If)
I- .....
e .....
:.. 2CO ~
>- >
t: C) 10
VI It:
Z 150 UJ
.~
'"0 UJ
)( .....
:::I z
.J 100 ~~T' 3000·K ...t
lAo -.----- T· 2~OO-K 0
<:(
I- /T'2000-K cr:: 1.0
Z
e T' I!!,OO-K
DO
0
e
a:
:(,IIl11~I·atUI'('. 'I'1H'rt't'orl', as showll :11 }<'igil rt' 6.6, rll II g-t' of w!l\'~!t-lIgths.
tht' (-flj('if'llt''\ of ('ull\'l'rsioll of thernllil !'IIt'rgy into
radiatioll ill 1I purtil'lIlllr band varies wilh thl' 6-2,3.1.3 Incandescent Sources
tt- IIl llt-ratllrt' Hilt! .'xhibits Ii maximulU. As th" A.-tllul soli-! I'lIlii'ltllrs ar,' !let "blih'k" IlUJ.
wa\,{'!t'!Igth of tli., hlllld illl'rt'as.·s, thl- tt'IIII)('raturt' thl'il' total (-missioll is It,,;s thau thllt of n bbil'k-
6·12
AUCP '706-185
~
'-' IZOO
dOf)
~ 10QC
IL
<II
W
c! 800·
5
ef.
>-
U
2
IIJ 10
U
r:l
it:
CD
~ 2001
U.
LL.
:;; ~ .~.~- I , - ,--,---,
1800 1;)00 2200 2400 2800 1100 '000
IIJ
!S TEMPERATURE, DEGREES ABSOlUYE
6-13
AMCP 7()6..185
a particula!" light source is not an easy task. Theo- 6-2.5.5 Color Value
retically, this can be accomplished for the Y value A commonly used designation for describing the
by multiplying the ordinate of the Y curve in color of a pyrvtechnic composition is the color
Figure 0-10 at each wavelength by the radiant value. This if defined as the ratio of the apparent.
:flux of the light source at the wavelength and sum- light intensity (through specific filters) to the total
minf;' over the visible spectrum. The X and Z (or unfiltered) intensity. This is usually accom-
values may be found by Ii like process and the plished through the use of two photocells, cae of
chromaticity coordinates tX, y and z can be eal- which is equipped with a glass filter. 'l'he ratio
cuiate,l. In practice, it is difficult to match ex- obtained is a measure of the vieual depth of color
actly the I.C.I. tristimulu9 curves; however, sev- of the flame.
eral methods have bAen suggestedSt which give
fairly good rEolnlts. 'rhe more widely used methods 6-2.6 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS
incorp 'rate barrier layer photocp.Us and oorrection Absorption and scattering can change the en-
filters. ergy distribution of light pasEing through the at-
mospher~. While the absorption in parts of the
6-2.5.4 Munsell Color SystemS! ultraviolet and infrared regions may be very
The Munsell color system specifies a surface large, th(' more important effects in the visible
color by giving, for usual viewing conditions, its region are due to scat.tering. A light beam passing
through a length x of the atmospht!re is attenuated
positio;l on a more or less arbitrary hue (Munsell
from the initial flux Fo, to a flux F', by an amount
hue), lightness (Munsell value), and saturation
which depends mainly on the scattering coefficient
(l\~unsell chroma) scales having nearly percep-
a, even though individual layers may absorb light.
i :<.tPy uniform steps. The Munsell value varies
from zero for an ideal black surface having a (6-13)
hminous reflectance equal to zero, to ten for iI.ll 1"0."p.articles wh(lse radii are less than approxi-
Ideal white diffusing surface having a luminous rlately Yio the w/tve);rlgth of the light A, the
refl(~ctance equal to one. Munsell chroma is ex- scattering coefficient a can be approximated by:
presned in arbi';;l'ary units intended to be percep-
tuall; , of the san' e size t·~gardless of value and hue. (6-14)
The :trongest known pigment colors have chroroas where A is effectively a constant. The theory for
of about 16 neutral grays; black and white have a sphprical partides comparable in size to the wave-
zero chroma value. Munsell hue is expressed on a length of light results in extremrly complicated ex-
scale intended to divide the hue circle (red, yellow, pl'esilions for the scattering coefficient.
grt'en, blue, purple, and black to red) into 100 As discussed in greater detail in Paragraph
perceptually equal steps. 7-2.1.1, smaller droplets preferentially scatter the
The pocket edition of the Munsell Book of Color shorter wavelengths so that the color of the trans-
has been widely used as a color standard. It con- mitted light will ~hift toward the red. The pref-
sists of forty constant hue charts where all color erential sf!attering of the shorter wavelengths de-
Ran/pIes making up a chart have the same hue. The creases with increasing particle size until the
color samples- making up the chart are arranged in particle radii become slightly greater than that
rows and columns, the rows being chroma at con- corresponding to the maximum for red light. At
stant Munsell value and the columns being value this time the t.ransmitted light appears blue or
scales at constant Munsell chroma. Comparison green. Tl ,en~ is little preferential sCI!.tte!"ing for
of an unknown color with these two faffiilies of particles whose radii arp greater than one to t.wo
sClllf'!; gives, by interpolation, the Munsell value microns. Little or no variaticIl in transmission
and Munsell chroma of thp ulJknown color, Inter- with wavelength is observed for fOb>'}; 0;'- thin clouds
polation between the constant hue charts gives the becal'se thl'ir drop size distribution is broad, If
Munsell hue. the scattering particlet are polydispersed but j
6-14
I\MCP 706·185, Cl
by tilt) l:llIlssiUIl of /·adiation. Und'H these circumstances, The radiatiilfi from any system in ~qmplctc
th~ ralliatilHI pru~ucl~d at certain w4velengths may be thermodynamic eqltHibrium wi!! be continuous anJ :.he
IlIll.:h t.\r<:ater than lht: amll~nt expt~cted :tuc tu Hlermal ~ilme as a blackbody ai tha t temperature; however, ,lame
rauiation. Brlla:Jly speaking. luminescence refers to the syst:ms do not fit in thiS category due to thei!
en:iSSllll\ lIf light for : ny rc:..son other than high n onequilibrium nature. In malt sroan flames, the
temperature. emission \.if rl'diation by the em!~ting molecules and
particles :s not balanct;d by the ab~orption of radiadon
1j·2.3.2, t Chemiluminescence resulting ir, a steady deactivation (,f excited molecules
It Ihe cxriTed atom or molecule :s forme(l dll ~ctly as and Tadiation cooling of st)lid particles. This e~ugy loss
the \\':,uitur a ~hemical reacti:)n, the phenomenon is must be made up by collision rl'Ocess('s in the f1clml; and,
kllLlwn as chemiluminescence. The emi~sion of if not efficie·\t enough, the di~j.rjblltior IJf enl rgy
fO[lllaIJL'h~l(h: bands from th,:, "cCj(~1 flame o" of ether between the exclted mole.:ules or solid parhcles may
aldc:hyd..:s and certain hydrocli~l:Ions, at tewpe(atures differ from equilibrium conditions. ill adJition, chemical
h~IW~C:ll 200ll and 400°C, are uue to equilibrium :nay not b~ obtained.
Chc"11ilumincsc..:n~l~. Radia';on frum the reaction lOne of The small particles that are fOimed in many' flalJles,
a [jUIl,"::; burner, tbe inner cone. is shont;l!r than can b( indudir.g most pyrotechnic flames, definitely influ-:;nce
"cCllulllc,l for thermally, and is duc to tile radiati'm produced by these flames. The continuous
t.:hc"liI1l111inesccil~c. The amo,lIlt of radia\it~n prodt.:ced background is empt>asized aId, in mar:j' l;ases, mo..t of
by .1 pyrotechnic flame which is due to the radiai.i:.':: produced is cont.inuous. This continuum
che milulllinesccnce is difficult to determi'l,;! and, under ;:>roduce<l by particles in (l flame cijffer~ from thl\t
I.crl:tin circumstances, the amoutlt may be ~ign;fi(.am. produced by a grayht'ay or blac\(bo~y be~ai.lse:
(I) The -emissiyj,y vf the material which makes up
6·2.L!.2 Phosp!lOrescence and Fluorescence the panicles varies with the wave!ength.
C,:rt~tlil ,ub .;(ances, including the ~F.lfides of calcium (2) The scattering of light by the particles change'S
anrl h;lIiul1I. when exposed to radiati,m, will cuntinue to with wavelength even if the mat"'ri~l making up the
gl nw a Tlef t fit' J adia [io'1 source is removed. This particle is black or gray.
ph'lllIllh'lllllt b known as pho~phorest'el1ce. In oil,cr While most cf the radiation produced by flames IS
11'.<tlc'tials. the !1)ow l)e!sists only for a fraclicll of a thcnr.·11 in origin, some of the radiation is Jue to
~~':()f1J. In the latter case, the phenomenon is known as chemilumint)sl.;fll1ce where the amount of light emhsion
till\! r"st.:~IlCC. I n general, the radia tion crli~ted by a i~ mu~h greater thlln that er.pected from ~ile\[oal
phosplwrcsccnt 01 tluor(;~cent materi..!! is of ,\ IUlIger emissiun. For prc'11!xed flames 0[ the "Bunsen" type,
w:tve!e'lgth ti\an the exciting ladii'tinn. In all these ca~cs. the emissi'JIl from iPtercan,i1 gases is the:Mal in origin.
abwlptlOfI Qr the C)[Cltlllg radiation causes rhe form.:lion FC)\, the reaction zone (the ihner cone) there ::J more
(If all eSi;i«~d molccule or atom. The IOllger w~velcngth mdiation than can be a~counted for thermally.
of the cmil!~ci light is attributed to the 'eturIl of the 'The d:aracteristicll of the radiation produced by all
('xci[,'d panide to the original llonexcitcd st:lte in two flames. whether they co:Jtain small particles or not, will
or rnore stcp~, rathcr than by a single tra'isition. '!lange as the flame size incre:tses. Self-absorption
~~com~s mme im}:-ortant and the radiation will a::,proach
6·2.3.3 Flame S{\urces2~,?6 more nearJy tru.t of a blackbody.
'nil;: dlJ"f distinction between combusuun anft other
chemical n;action~ is the :lppearan:cc of flame and the , ~HOTGMETRY
6,2.{
emission of light. Most flam~!> produce an emission : Photome~ry is the science of measuring light. Since
spectr<l of discrete band;; which may, (;..pecially for the eye if. very II<:nsitivc and nonlinear in its response to
lumillous flames c(lntaining solid particles, be tadiation, an arbitrary unit, the lumen, is used t·)
su~nmp')sed on a continuous baC'kground. e~'aluatc radiant electwmagnetic flux in
6·14 ' W
AM'CP 7()6·185
terms of its visual ~fte(~t. The h:men has the by eollision can bp utilized to inr~rease the nUMber
same dimensions as power. It has been found by of ('l'~ctrons rpllching the anodp for a given amount
t1xperiment thill, for be so-called normal observer, of illeident light. Still more sensitive photocells,
OIl(' lumen is l'quiv.1.1ent to 0.00.161 watt of mono- knowll BC;; photomultipliers, use the phenomenon of
('hromatic rrreen light of a wavelength correspond- secondary ('lectl'on emission to produce an internal
ing to the maximum in thevisibilit.y curve, 555 ampliachtiO!l of the order ()f one million. In all
millimicro~ls. Thc number of lumens produced eases, the reS1'('11se of the photocat.hode surfuec is
by Gne watt of radiant power is (JaIled the lumhous !oltH'ctrh1ly selective llnd is determined by the ba!<ie
efficiency of the source. 1<'01' a monochrvmatic matt-rial [\Ild its prepal'ation. Another t.ype of
source, the lumino~l.s effieieney is obtained l)y mul- lightosensitiv(' cells is the Dhotoc(ll.ld~l.ctive cell, in
tiplying the relati ve visibility for the wavelength :0 which the action ;)f light CSUS?S an increase in the
1!llpstiOJl by 680 lumens/watt. v ('lpetrica! eonductivity of the device. T~e selenium
eell is an t'xample. A third type of detection uti ..
lize:. the photo"oltaic effect in which a voltage is
6·2.4.1 Instrumems for Measuring Light Intensity rroduced across the interfa(Je separating a semi-
Instrllmen~c used tor the measurement of light eondnctor from a conduetor by light incident on
intensity ean be divided int;) two geheral cate- the interfacf". A eommon example of t.his type of
gories: (1) those which usc the heating effect of d('te('tor i~ the copper-cuprous oxide cell. All of
the radiation, :md (2} those which make llse of these deteetors-rhotoemissive, photoconductive, or
quantum pifeds of the radiation. photovoltaic-have a s':1leetive spectral response, as
In the first eategory, the radiation absorbed by do photochemical reactions, including photography.
th\' receiwr raises .its temperatur(1 which is sensed Thp spectral reSpOllf'P of photocnemical rea~~tions is
hy ;;omp appropriate means. The thermocouple selpetive because Clily the light which is absorbed
uses tIl(' tIIPJ';nJeleetric effect while the bolometer will produe(' a photochemical effect. Actiometers
lI;;es thp thange in resistance of a resistan(;c ele- 'lse photochemical reactions in which the quantum
ment, whicil may be a scnlieonductor, to sense this yield, whieh is equal to th.~ number of induced re-
temperature rise. Generally, both of these de- actions divided by che numbe,' of quanta absorbed,
teetors are speetraUy nDnselective in their response h'ls bpen accurately determincd.
to raJiation, i.e., tlu:,y absorb like gray bodies. In
another type of thermal detectur, which may he
sl'lediw in its response, tl \ radiation is absorbed 6-2.1,2 Measuremeht of the Light Output of Flarts
;)y .~ f~as. 'fhe tempet'ature change prounced in the Flare output measurementE' are usually mad~
gas, which is eOllfined to a very small volume, is in a photometric tunnel. This tunnel is a tight-
.~enspd as a prl:'ssllrp l'i<>e. tight structure with a fan to remove smoke and
Thl' secund eategory of (1eicctors are the ppoto- with instrliments to measure tte bright.neps, color,
(leteetol'H whieh, in prinl'ipk, count the number of and burning tim(1 of a flAre. The inside of the
quanta of radiCl.1;ion. A 11 example of a common tunnel is usuaily flat black a!ld hafDed to elimi(l.8.te
detector in tlIP se(~ond catc/~ol'y is the photocell reflections. The tunnel is usua.l1y built in three
whieh is II photopmil'si ve detector. 1t depends f(lr parts: a burning room, which contaim the lJurniiig
its opt'mtioll ell tile pjection of l'leeirons from a table, ignition apw.ratus, and exhaU''1t, fan: a long
specially pl'epared sur~a(~(' by the incident quanta tube section from 50 to 100 feet long which he.llses
of radiati;m. III a Vr:CUUIll photocell the rfsponse the photometric transdu('ers; and un instl'll.ment
tll in(jilent radiatiOll is a linear fmICtion or the room, which house& the recording iflstruL1ents and
light intensity. The dectrons PlIlitted I:lr(~ drawn provides a plaee for the persol'nel to work. More
to the anod., from dlP sensitized eaelOdp by a rela- ('(lIllplete lilcaS~lrement capabiliTY for a tUllllel
tiVt'ly slIlall \'olta~~(~ applipd to ti'e eledt·odes. Gas- WOUld ineluI)e the ability to c.eterwine t.be vi,iblc
filJ(~d j)hottw('Jls are nonlinl'ar in their resllOnsp spectral ontput of flares, ultraviOlet and infrared
to ineidelJt lig-ht intpllsity, but are mort' sensitivp outputs, and flam:' temperatures. 'rhe t'mnel must
than th yaClIl1m type beeause ionization of the gas have .~ulibratinh' lights and color filtc~ for caUbra-
6-15
tion of the :.nstrllnlCnts. Luminoas intensity mea· 'lteradians. A unit point source, emitting light uni-
surem~nts in tenus of eandlepower are often de- formly in all directions, radiates 471' lumens. The
termined by an ilJ~trument which consists vf '\ unit ot' luminous intensity--adopted by the Inter-
barrkr layer photocell, filt~rs, and a microammete::'. national Commission on IllUl.llination in 1948-is
This i.llmuinometer is placed at an accurately the eandda. It is of such a magnitude that a black-
kvown distaAlce from the point at which tile candle body rad,iatvr at the temperature at which pUl"e
or assembly is to h€' burned and is th~n calibrated platinum solidifieh has a luminance of 60 candela
by means of 1'. standa.rd illcandese.ent white light p~r square rentimeter.3o An earlier unit of lumi.
source. During the 'lUrning of the item, lllumi. ~lOUS i.:1tensity, the candlp, is equal tl) 1.02 candela.
rrometer readings ar'.l taken at p:redetennined time An·)ther unit, candle power, also has been widely
int<:rvaJs throl1.ghoat the btl.rning period and the used to expres~ the luminous inteIlsity of a light
average of these readings is calculated. In many source. While the use of these units. should be
cases the output of the detector is ti~splayed :;,n a discomaged, they have been widely used Ly many
graphic r~cor~er. Tn thi.s case, the OUt.Pllt of the pyrotechnic investigators. Therefore, the terms
photocell is feu into the recoreer which has been cannela (preferred), -.:andle, and candlepower will
ealibrat~d so tbat the anti':lipated libht output wiH be used inter'lhangeably iT> this handbook.
produce Ii nearly full scale reading. A graphic
r\;;cord is supL~:;"iJr to readings tal,en with an illumi- 6·2.4.4 Brightne.3S
nOP!0tH because all vari&ti(;ns during burnings are The concept of hrigbtness is required because
recorded and thus are available f01:" iutufP study. most sources are not points and the concept of in·
The area under the Cllrve thus obtained represents tensity is not readily applicable to extended
the candleeecond value of the t(Jst~d. item. An int('- sources. The brightness of an extended source ic
,~ra~o~, which gives the candlesecond value of t.h:l expressed in candela per squa..·e centi:;neter of
t'omposition cl.lrectly, is c!)upled with the photo- emitting surface.
cdI, thus avc,idillg the t.ime con~mmiLg and less
accu~ate method of estimating or planimeteriug 6-2.4.5 IllUMination
the graphic record. The illumination of a surbce is the limount of
-fhe stat:~ of the 8{lipncf: in photometry is not light flux (lumens) incident upon a unit area of
yet l1re~ise, and meast:Nment e"'rors within ± 10% sul"fa(·e. An illumination of a lumen per square
Oil flares :lre as good liS can now be attained. Speci-
fOOT is called a foot-candela. The illumination E
fication .MH~-C-J.8"162 covpr" general requirements of a spherical surface of radit:s r, enveloping a
altl.ough later refinement!'. have brei! made at each
po~nt source of intew.ity I, is given by:
milita7 im;t~llation. Refl"es~ntative facilities for
tbese meaSl;rements- are to be found at Pica tinny E --..!..... - _471'1 _...!..._ lum~~ (6.11)
A:'(l~!ir:d, Dover, Npw Jersey; Naval Ammunition - A - 41Cr'? - r2 una Ul"ea
1'e\.ot, Crane, h'f[hna; Nuv'Ll Ordnance 'l'est Sta-
for a plane surface at a distance x from a point
t;on, Chilla Lakt~, California; and NfI'm] Ord-
source of intensity I:
nante Lahor'lioI'Y, Wbitl~ Oak, SiI-:er Sprh1{~,
!.Idryland. I
E = -x2 cos () ( 6.12)
6-2.4.3 Inte:Uity whpre (J is the angle between the source vector EillU
TI:'e intensity of a point source, in any direc- th;> normal to the surface.
tion, is defilJl:!d af t.hf~ light fl~lX in lumer,s per unit
soiid angle (pel' sterarliall) in that direction, or
6-2.4.6 Ph9tometric Units
. ,11' The units employed ill photometry are a con-
1------ (6.10 )
- dw tinuing source of diffieulty, espec;aUy for the
when, I is 1.11(' inteDsity Hl ealldela and dP is the novice. A strong effort is being made to secure
IU'll,'IlS of flux within u s-nlall solid angle of dw greater ulliformity, rpduce U:e number, and pro-
6-16
AIICP 706-185
TABLE 6-1
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR PHOTOMETRIC UNITS
Inum,natioll
1 lumen/ft2 = J. foot-candle ,== 10.764 lumell/meter2 = 10.764 lux
1 lumen/meter2 = 1 meter-candle = 1 lux - 10-. phot
Brightne88
1 foot-lambert = 1 equivalent foot-candle
1 lambert = 3183 eandle meter- 2 = 296 candie ft- 2 = 2.054 candle inch- 2
Ezpo8'Ure
1 meter·candle-second = 1 lumen·second meter- 2
vide more logic m photometric units. 7 •s Some of tent of white light; only monochromatic color9 are
the more eommon photometric units are sum- completely satnrated. Brightness or lightness is a
marized in Table 6-1. The units of photometry are measure of the amount of light being ero~tted or
often I4pplied, incorrectly, to measu!'ements of in- reflected from the colored light sources OJ colored
frared or ultraviolet radiation, or to describe the object. Brightness applies to luminoru: sources
sensitivity of photographic emulsions to radiation. while the term lightness refers to color seen be-
Such usage should be avoided and radiometric cause of reflected light. These three aspects of
units used for these spectral regiolls. color can be represented on a color solid (Figure
6-7) where hue changes around the circle, light-
6-2.5 COLOR81.82 ness increases upward, and saturation increases
In a physical sense, color is determined by the outward from the axis.
wavelength (s) or spectral energy distribution con-
tained in a light heam. Physiologically, color is the 6-2.5.1 Additive Color
sensation produced as the result of the excitation In principle, it is possible to produce any hue
of the retiml of the eye by these wavea-. Colors by a suitable combination of three primary colors,
are compared in terms of hue, saturation or purity, one from the middle of the visible spectrum, green,
and brightness; all of which influence the color and one from either el'd, blue-violet and red. As
sensation produced. Hue refers to the color, i.e., indicated by the additive color cirdes in Figure
red, g'reen, or blue. Not all hues are observed in (;.8, proper proportiGHs of red and green light will
the spedrum of sunlight. The purples are notably produce yellow. If the proper amount of blue-
absent. The sensation is a measure of the con- purple light is added, white light is produced.
6-17
AMCP 706-185
White
t -..-
I II
C
&.
.r:?
..J
Blue
Purple
....
Red
Block
figure 6-S. Additive Mtxture of Primary Colors
Figure 6-7. Dimensions of the Psychological Color Solid
type. It was found that only the mutual ratios
Colors such as yellow and blue-purple, that pro- of three primary colors are of importancc in de-
duce white light when added together, are caned termining the "color according to the eye" of a
complementary colors. The complementary color given light type. These ratios may be described by
for red is a blue-green (cyan), for green is a red- expressing each primary as a part of the total
purple (magenta), and for blue-purple is, as indi- impressio':l of the light type obtained by the eye.
cated earlier, yellow. 7 Thus, for red, green, and blue, respectively, the
ratios are:
6-2.5.2 Subtractive C610r ,. g b
The light incident on a nonluminous object may
be partly reflected, partly abl'K)rbed, and partly
which necessarily total one, and, as a result, only
transmitted. If the incident light is white, the
two need bp designated to determine the light
transmitted light will be the color which is com-
type. A particular color or .lor point, therefore,
plementat·y to the color which is selectively ab-
may be displayed on an x-y plane, and, due to the
sorbed. For example, the light transmitted will be
mutuality of the components, will fall within an
red if blue-green is selectively absorbed. Opaque
area bounded by a 45-degrce triangle. However,
bodies, which are seen because light is diffusely
the actual area containing color points varies with
reflected from them, also appear colored because of
the particular set of color sensitivities used to
~leetive absorption of light which pelll'trates a
determine the color points of the various light
short distance bene.ith the surfacp before it is re-
typrs. Each set produces a "color triangle" with
tleded.
its own shape.
In order to effect a standardization, the Inter-
6-2.5.3 Chromaticity Coordinates national Commission on Illumination (I.C.I.),· in
The tridimensional color stimulus required by 19:31, re('ommemled that all subsequent color data
the eye has been studied in detail and has led to a
• Now known as C.LE., Commission Internationale de
precise ml,thod for expressing a particular light 1 'Eclairllile.
6-18
AKCP 706·185
I.'
1.11
1.7
1.11
1.5
.?O(.
1.4
...en
::J
1.11 ,100
~60
~ 1.1
.5",,0
Y
VJ
.~oo
::J 600
oJ
::J
:IE .:900-
640
t= 100
en
¢~./'
.200
II:
I-
J-
.100 1'o~\J. \..\
.~Il
380
.000
0,000 .200 ~~OO----'----;~f--660 -.- ~;60-'- .100
x
Figure 6-10. C.I.E. Chromaticity Diagram
6-19
AMCP. 706-185
a particular light source is not an easy task. Theo- 6-2.5.5 Color Value
retically, this can be accomplished for the Y value A commonly used designation for describing the
by mt' ltiplying the ordinate of the Y curve in color of a pyrotechnic composition is the color
Figure 6·10 at each wavelength by the radi&nt value. This is defined as the ratio of the apparent
flux of the light source at the wavelr,ngth and sum- light intensity (through spccific filters) tv the tot.al
ming over the viRible spectrum. 1.'he X and Z (or unfiltered) intensity. This is usually accom-
vaines may be founu by a Eke process and the plished through the use of two photocells, one of
chromaticity coordinates x, y and z can be cal- which is equipped with a glass filtcr. '{'he ratio
culated. In practice, it is difficult to match ex- obtained is a measure of the visual depth of color
actly the I.e.I. trist.imulus curves; however, sev- of the flame.
eral methods have been sllggestt:d81 which give
fairly good result". The more widely used methods 6-2.6 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS
incorporate oar"ier layer photocells and correction Absorption and scattering can change the en-
filters. ergy distribution of light passing through the at-
mosphere. 'Nhile the absorption in parts of the
6-2.5.4 Munsell Cola! SystemS! ultraviolet and infrared regions may be very
The Munssll color system specifies a surface large, the more important effects in the viRible
color by giving, for usual viewing conditions, its region are due to scattering. A light beam passing
through a length x of the atmosphere is attenuat.ed
position or, a more or less arbitrary hue (Munsell
from the initial flux Fo, to a flnx F, by an amount
hue), lightness (MunS€ll value), and saturation
Wllich dept'nds mainly on the scattering coeftbient
(Munsell chroma) scales taving nearly percep-
a, ('ven t.hough individual layers ll~ay absorb light.
tually uniform steps. The Munsell value varies
from zero for an ideal black surface hMing a (0-13 )
luminous reflectance equal to zero, to ten for an 1'-'01' pal.'ticles whose radii are less than approxi-
ideal white diffusing surface having a luminous mately %0 the wavelength of the light )., the
reflect&nce equal to one. :Munsell ~hroma is ex- s(~attering coefficient a can be approximated by:
pressed in arbitrary units. intended to be percep-
tually of the same size regardlesG of value and hue. ( 6-14)
The strongest knuwll pigment colors have cllromas where A is effectively a constant. The theory for
of about 16 neutral grays; black and whitc have a spllPrical particles comparable in size to thc wave-
zero chroma value. Munsell lut\) is expr?,ssed on a lcngth of light results in extremely complicated ex-
seale intended to divide the hue circle (red, yellow, pressi01ls for the scatt(;ring coefficient.
green, blue, purple, and black to red) into 100 A8 discussed in greater detail in Paragraph
perc8ptuaUy equal steps. 7-2.1.1, smaller droplets preferentially scatter the
The pocket edition of the Munsell Book of Color shortpr wavelell~ths so t hat the color of the trans-
has been widely used at; a color standard. It con- mitted li~ht will shift toward the red. The pref-
sists of fort3 COllstant hue charts where all color l'rential scattering of the shoder wavelength~ de
Gamples n.aking up a ('hart ha'"e the same hue. The "reases with i:wreasing partiele size until the
coloI' samp!t·~ making up thl~ ehart arr arrangr,d in particle ra,!ii bpeornp sligHly gl'rater than that
ro\\:; and cclunms, the rt\WS being dlJ·oIll" a I con- ('orrcflpond.ing" tt) the maximum for red light. At
stant MUllseH valup and the C')lul!lns being value this timp tIl,' tra:mmitttd li/.;ht appears blue or
sl'ales at COllstallt Munsell ehroma, Comparisoll gTP!'I!. T "l~r<' is little prefl':·t·ntial scattering for
'If an unknowJI color \\itll these tWf families of paI'tidls WilO:.t' ra(lii arl' ~r"atl'r than one to two
sC'nleR I!ives, by illtC)·I~)latioll, the ',li,lIlsell value microns, Ijittl(· or 110 \'/lria:ioll ill transmbsion
awl l\1uns... ll chroma of the unknown (·olor. Inter- with wa,'ch'ng-th i~ obseI'\'l'(1 for fogs or thin douds
jlolatiOl! lwtw('cn tht· "ons~,ftllt hue charts gives the h('i',LU~l' th('il" drop sizl' di!>tributioll is hroad, If
,Munsdl h~l{" the scattering" pltrticl,:'s are polydispt!rsed, but
AMCP 706·185
6-21
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 6-3
CHA~ACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS ILLUMINATING FLARES
Time
from
~Be I 1
I Max8peed
actuation
to full Burning Candle-
I Max
of airplane
at time of
jv.nction, time, POW1fT', FaU, MaxL, dia, Weight, release,
Item Method oj actuation .~e.c Bec 10' jps in. in. lb mph
-. ~
FLARE, AIRCRAFT.
guide, I min II
T6EI (white) 650
T7EI (red) Electricity 6to7 -15 to 60 700 ....... 5.4 5.46 ....... . . .. ' .....
'f8El (green) 90
:
FLARE, AIRCRAFT:
parachute
I
MBAI (w/o suspellSion
bands) (emergency night
landinFt)
Release from
airplane
3.0 to 5.0 r65 to 195 350 8.0
I 25.42 4.25 17.6 200
MBAI trailling) (w/o
suspension bands)
--- - - - -
M9Al Fired from PIS- 2.5 160 to 70 60 7.0 15.05 2.0 2.11 200
TOL, pyro-
technic, AN-M8
----_. - - - - - _.
M26Al (AN-M26) or 150
M26 (M26)
M26Al (AN-M26) or 5 to 92 195±15 800 11.6 50.0 8.0 52.5 350
M26 (wIblae band) 575 (fuzed) (M26Al)
---------- Released ----- ----
Ml38 (T10E4) from 360 1,500
MI39 (TIOE6) airplane 5 to 92 180 3,000 10 45.6 6.25 6')
., 440
---------- ----- ----- -.--- ---- ----
Mk 5 and Mods variable 180 600 . . . . . . . 27.0 4.75 IS.0 . ... . . . ..
------- ---- ----
Mk 6 Mod 5
. ........
Mk 6 Mod t)
AN-MkS Mlod 1
AN-Mk S Mod 2
variable
90
120
I 180
180
1,000
500
... ... .
S.O
35.75
25.12
5.37
4.75
30.0
18 250
. - - - . _ - - - - - - ------- - - - - ----
3 minute, electrically .. . . . . .. ... . . 1% 181) 200 9.1 28 4.5 22 .........
operated
3 minute, Wiley SA 8 ..... . . . .... ...... . . . . ... , .... . . . .....
... . ....... . ..... , .. . ....... . ........
-====-~-= =.-= =-.;
FLARlIJ, AIRCRAFT:
tow-target, M50 _._- 0 _.
360 65 .. . . .. . 22.S 2.62 7.13 120
=-==--~-.::::.:.:=----===---=== ===
FLARE, AIRCRAFT: towed Tow cable
Red, M77 (TiS) attached to air- 0 360±30 225 ... . . . . . 23.34 4.55 21 200
Amber, M78 (TI9) pbne 70
Green, M79 (T20) 90
=-====:; ~--=:=.--
- = . ::;::==
---------,----I
FLARE, SURFACE:
Airport, M76 Hand or 0 300 to 420 600 to 850 ... .... . 31.33 4.26 27.6
electric ~uib
Parachute, trip, MollS Pr~88urfl or trip .
3 20 110 3 9.75 5.5 5.0
wue
Trip, M4-..l Trip ~ire ---- 0 55 40 ', .. 6.75 3.0 1.5
area for a grellter time interval. Aircraft flares for bombing purposei;, are provided with shades
also haw some forlll (,f delayed ignitiull so that to shield air-erew In{'mlwrs from glart>. Data for
they will dear the aircraft and fuuetiuu at a de- S('\'eral aireraft flu res are prest'ntNI in 'fable 6-3.
sirt>d altitude below it. Certaiu flares designed A typi(~ul uireraft paradlUtt· flure for night bom-
for use below tht' air-emft, sueh as thoSt> intended burrim{'I1t is shnwll ill Figure 6-13, Imti its opera-
t-22
AKCP 706·185
10
2oo2b34 4 5 . 1 •• ~
--12,000,000 C.P.
----·11,000,000 C.P.
C 500~O-=.OO=-.::.:c.:.:..;P.,---_ _ _ _ _ _~
1Hf-----IQ,OOO,ooo C.P
:
I H H - - - - 9,O<lO,oor.C.P.
- - - - B,ooo,OOOC.P.
1I+f/lf------ 7,OOO,OOOC.P.
3GG:.gg0C:: / + H / I f - - - - - B,ooo,oooC.P.
f ~
J.oHJ'I/H------ 5,OOO,OOOC.'\
81 ~oo~0 C.P.
.5
J.+HHI~----- 4,OOO,OOOC.P.
2. ._ _
lo. 2, J.+ffi/IHI-------- 3,ooo,OOOC.P.
H-H~iff------- 2,OOO,OOOC.P.
~I
.'---t--H-ffllllft-- - - - - - - I,OOO,OOOC.P.
I
~'1"
~I
~I
~
1
.
PARACHUTE ILLUMINATING FLARES
BOUNDARIES FOR
0.025 FOOTCANDLES,E
z~
" t"h"
E'~l'
-2.5
1 1.5
':-inglr-star air('raft signals, It lULL··sta.' signals, iug fir!'. In som!' small arms tracers the gilding
cud traet'r double-star signals l"Hltain red, green, Ilwtal or steel build ja,·ket. has, as :.hm n in Figure
, . yellow light-producing ealldlP'l of pyrotechniC' {i-1R, a cavity into whieh tve tra! er,nd its 8890-
eompositioll. ~tars eall be disdnguished at dis- eiated ip-'lliter eompo);itiollS are I08it'd and com-
tam'es up to the mi\(,s at Ili"h and t.wo to three pressed at HO,OOO '0 125,000 psi ... "rroor-piercing
mill's ill daylight. tracpr ammunition eontaills a steel core which is
Data Oil airl'raft si~nals 1ft' prt'st'llted in Table inserted into the bullet jacket, as shown ill }l'igure
6-4(A) . 1i-19. The stpei eore has a cavity into which the
trUCt'r I'ompositions are loaded. Some artillery
6-3.2.2 Ground Illumination Signals proJt'l·tiit's have a cavity in the base into which
Tht'Is!' ,;ignais ('()JIsist of t1~'vices which product' the tracer ami igniter cOlUpot!itiolls are pressed,
a sign.:! I'.'ht'll tired wrti('" i~' into tilt' air. The liS show'l JJ: !<'igure 6-20, at a pressure of over
Iwight of projPl'tioll is f;"oll' {iOO to 700 fet·t. Data 100,000 Jlsi. Other urtilit'ry ..,tojeetiit·s USt' a sepa·
for SOliI!' groulld illlllllipati, II si~~J\als art' giVt'll ill I'att'ly-Ioaded tra('t'r assembly whieh is fitted into
Tabi!' li ..! (B). A typit'al h:.lld·h(·ld dl'vit,(, is shown tilt, bast· of tht· projt·etilt· as iliustrutt·tI in !<'igure
in "'il~Urt' (j·17, Ii-:n. III sOllie allIIn unit iOIl, t ht· t raeer eomposition
illitiult·s a dlarg!' whieh dest!'(lYs tbt, projeetile
6-3.3 TRACERS IIft,,(, a ,\t'iillitt, tilll!' illlt·r\'ui. III specifit~ ('uses,
Tral·t·r 1I111111Ullitioll fOl' both slIIuli l\~Il1S and this Ilia' ht, 1I1t' ollly fuudioll performed by the
artiJlt'ry is llsed for dl'tt'rlllilliHI! rllllK~' al.t! direct- "OlltPllSllioli loatll.·d ill the trltl't'r l'!lvity.
(;-24
AMCP 706·185
E F
50'
,
ASSIM8Ult WITH FUZE AND
ARMING WlitE
Hillel' tral'er ('ompositiolls arl' Tl'luti Vl'ly (lim· prot(·!·t Iht' trUN'I' ('olllpositioll froUl th:o t'ffects of
('llit to ig'nite. u more t·usilY-Ig'lIitiblt· ignition (,OIH- IHoist IJ.1·t'. If tht' hrilliunt light from tllt' igniter
pI'sitioll is loadt·d 011 tOI' of the t ra('l'!' (·ompoRitioll. ('0111 pw.. i t ion dault's tht' g'llllllt'l and bt·t rays the
(~()mpo~itioll, whil'}) llsuully l'ontaills
'1'11t' i!{nitioll h)(,l1< IOn of t 11t' Wt'IIPOII, It so-culled" dim igniter "10
a bindt·r, IIlol\~ with It t.hin Illt'tal s('al, Iwrves to l'owpositiOIl IIIIlY be uSI·d.
6·25
AMCP 706·185
_ _M
, I ... -.~.-"'-
........... -
:~
;Jr::::-Il
A-ARMING WIRE J--?uLL -OUT CORD
a-HmI';WIRE l:-RELEASING C.UP DISK
C-COVER L-THIWST SPACER
D-··fEAR WIRE M-SHADt: RET."'NER SUPPORT
I-SLEEVE N--!»\FETY DISK
F-DETACHABLE COVER LOCK '-SHOCK ABSORBER
G--COVER REL~C;ING CUP Q---FRICTION WIRES OF IGNITER
H-DET,II.CHABLE COVER .-LOWER SPACEK AND RIB RETAINER
Tite pyrote(~hnic be"'ilvior of traeer composi. tior;;~should, iI. general: (1) produce maximum
Lions is sil'lilar to Lhat exhibited by other con- light output IInrl saturatf'd color for maximum
solidate!i eetllposition!< and the same charal.lteris- visibility, (2) burn long enough to permit the
tie,.. are illJportant. Tra(~er pyrotechnic composi. projectile to be followed to the target. and (3)
6-26
AMCP 706·185
T M L K A
~hr;,.1 ~
\
.-
d , -~
,W ::'(! !1----+'7"""'---+----:::Io...:::-l---+---\
/'
~
/
\:.r
/
J
, ~:.'::.J--+-+----+-I---+------++I \--+---+--4--+--+--\-
?-;: :t--\-+--+-~---I----+-H\
, t-i
f---
.:: ::.1---->.,.-+-- -+--->"..-f--+-Y
~·::.:f ---'*"r---..--+---''''=:+-- ~
_1!:.:'.
"'-
....,. F= ...... R
S
A- CA3LE RING G- RETAINER N- IGNITERS
8- PUL L COVE R H- BASE BLOCK p- FIRE CLAY TOP SEA L
C- SLEEVE J- QUICKMATCH Q- FLARE CASE
D- SAFETY DISK K- ILLUMINANT CHARGE R- CLOSING COVER (TOP)
E- SHOCK ABSORBERS L- FiRST-FIRE CH~RGE S- SEALING STRiP
F- FRICTION WIRE PULL WIRES M- PRIMING COHPOSITION T- CLOSING COVER (BOTTOM)
ignite easily frOl1l the igniter composition but re- (2) Binders which include resins, waxes, elas-
sist ignition by any propellant gas which may tomt'rs, plastics, and oils.
pf'lIetrail' to the tracer composition, Most tracers (;l) W tlterproofing agents whieh usually are
ar(' lIIade to pI'od,w(' n'd light lll'('allse red light n'sins, waxes, plasties, oils, and diehromating solu-
is the most visihh' color under daylight conditions; tiOllS, ('rht,y are llsed as proteetive coatings on
howl'''l'!', wid(, lIS(' of white tracers had also been lIH'tals such as magnesiulll to reducp the amount of
.r
madp by the (l1'l'lnanS and apalle:;c_ At times reaction with atm()sphe~i(' moisture,)
thert' llIay hI' l'pqllit'(,llIenti:; for Sl'veral different (4) Retardants which are usually inorganic
('olo!'s to illdi('ah' origin of thl' proj('('tiles, salts, plastics, resins, waxes, and oils, (They are
"'lIlok(' tra('I'I'S (Paraglllph 7-1.:3) have been uspd to dpcrpa:w til(' rate of the reaction between
PI'opos!'d alit! dt'\'eloped to previde a moI'l' visible thl' fill'! and tlw oxidant so as to obtain the desired
ll'1\et' ill (\:Jylight; howcVI'J', til(' advantllges do !H.t overall hUJ'ning rate,) Some retardants behave
justify pl'ovifiillg' two typl'S of allllllunition with merdy as inert diluents while others participate
difl't'I'Pllt 1ral't'l's. in thl' rpadion at mueh slower rates than the main
l'oJlstituents_
6-3.4 TYPICAL COMPOSiTIONS Typieal illuminating, signaling, and tracer
Pyrotedlilie i\lliminatj'lg compositions, like ('ompositiofls are given in Tables 6-5 (A) and
othcr PYI'ot('t'itni(' ('ompositioIls, are basicaay a (i-:> (B),
mixturl' of an o"idi~i!lg ag"('nt aad a mptal fuel.
Ot!H'" lIlillt·rials al'(' aeldl'd to this mixture to 6-3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE
Illodify t itl' bUl'lIing' mt(', l'olo!', alld radiant out- As illdieated in I"igurp (;-2~) threp ZOllPS ar'o
put, as \\'t'll as to inerl'(ls(' halldlillg' safety. Im- ('stablislwd whell 11 ('ollsolidated illuminating com-
portant mkiitiv/'s inl'iutle: po:dioll is ignited :!Ild burns propagativel;v. In
\ 1) ('0101' illH'nsifiers whieh art> llIainly highly ZOIlP A, pssential!y the burning surface both exo-
(,hlorillat!,d orgallic ('OIllPOllllds, e.g., hpxaehloro- t hrl'lIlal alld t'1Il1othel'lllal J'eactillns take place re-
I'thalH' (C~( ali), h('xaehlol'()ht'n~('IH' (C u( '16), Dt'- silltillg ill tIl!' formation of gaseous fuel and oxi-
('hlol'all,' ( ~IOCll~)' and pO!y\'ill,V !('hloridp (Crr~ dizt'l' illterlllt'diatt's. TheSt' iutpl'IllPdiutl's react exo-
('II< 'I), thp.mally ill the flame zOlle. t'snaliy, the py-ro-
6-27
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 6.4(A)
CHARACTERIBT!CS OF V ARIOHS AIRCRAFT S!'\.';!'.·AL FJ.ARES
" TiIM !aPSe
from
aduation
I
tll/uU Burning
I~em Method of ,-ctuatton
funeiion,
aec
time,
sec
IMax·in. ", M in.dia,
Il.Z Weight,
Ib
----=--=-====-'== ==1'=-==-=-!=======~='I==='I=== ---
SIGNAL ILLUMDIATION,
A [,,"WRAFT: Fired I
Dot.ble star: from
Red-red, AN-M37 PIRTOL, 5 1.54
Red-red, AN-M37.\.1 pyrotechnir. ......... 10 ±3 25 (e~ 'lta.) Flee 3.85 1.57 0.35
Hed-reJ, AN-M:37 A2 AN-M8
or
5
-.. -.,-
.. -..-. - - - - - - - 12 (ea
I
8181°1------ 1.1':7
1. 54 - -0-.4-2-
Yellow-ye!loVf, AN-M38 PROJECTOR,
Yellow-yallow, AN-M3~Ai pyrotechnb, hand, ..... .... 1O±3 ZO (ea stl\r) Free 3.85 1.57 0.35
YeliGw-yellow, AN-M38A2 M9 5 ZO (ea star) 1 1.57 0.35
-------- - - -
Grf)vll-green, AN-M~: 1.54 0.35
Green-green, A~-r.1S9Al 10±3 20 (ea fit .. ) Free 3.85 1.57 0.39
Green-green, AN-M39A2 5 1.57 0.39
·1----
Red-yello"" AN-M40 25 (R star) t.54 0.39
12 (Y star)
Red-yel}ow, AN·M40Al Fired 10±~ 25 (:3. star) Flee 3.85 1.57 0.35
from 20 (Y star)
Red-yellow, AN-M4(1A2 PISTo.L, 5 25 (R star) 1.57 0.35
pyrotechnic, 20 (Y star)
AN-M8 - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - 1 - - · - - - - - . - - - - - - - -
Red-graen, AN-l'141 0r 25 (R star) 1.54 0.35
Red-green, AN-M41Al PROJECTOR, 1O±3 :lO (G star) Frep 3.85 1.57 0.39
Red-green. AN-M41A2 pyrotechnic, 5 1.57 0.39
hand, 1----- --------1--------- - - - - - - - . - - -
Single star: M9
Hed, AN-M43
Red, AN-M43Al
I· ........ 1O±3 25 Free 3.85
1.54
1.57 0.27
Rd, AN-M43A2 5 1.57
------ _._----- - - - - - - - - ---- ----
Yellow, AN··M44 o 15 1.54
Yellow, AN-M44Al 1O±3 25 Free 3.85 1.57 0.26
Yellow, AN-M44A2 5 25 1.57
- - - - --------- - - - - - - - - ----1----1 ----
Greeo, AN-M45
Grt:en, AN-M45Al
I: ...... lO±3
30
25 Free 3.i:S5
1.54
1.57 0.32
Green, AN-M45A2 5 25 1.57
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - ----- ----.
Tracer, double star:
Yellow tracer, \'ed-yellow star,
AN-M&3 . . . . . . .. . i .. ... . .....
Yellow tracer, red-yellow star, 0 T,2.5to4 T, 30 ·1
AN-M53Al Star, 3 to 4.5 R star,
Y fltar,
48
36
1 Free 3.85 I 1.57 0.40
y ~llow tracer, red-yellow star, 5 3t{)4.5 R atar, 48
AN-M53A2 Y star, 36
Green tracer, rcd-r~d star, I ..... . ...
T,2.5to4
. ... ....
T,
.. . . ...
25 I
AN-M5·!
Grecr. trucer, red-red star, 0 Star,3 to 4.5 Star, ea 48 Free 1.57 0.38
AN-l\l54Al
Green tracer, red-red sIal',
I 5
5
3 tv
3 tG 4.5
8t4r, ea 48
________~______________~______~________~I~R~s~ta=r~,~4~8~____~____~______~_____
I
ti-28
AUCP 706-185
--I' --'-I
TABL:i: 6-4(A) «(;out'd:'.
----~~'t-·me-laP-8-:'e- -
from
actuation
Item
to fuil
function,
Bee
Burmng
time, I' (;ancllepowe1',
'J _ _ _3_~_C_ _ _ _ ~_J_JP_t_
F.1Jl!, I
,
M ~ L, Ma1: dia, Wlli{lltt,
in. in. lb
Red tracer, green-green star,
AK-Mfi6
R6d tracer, green-gre-an star,
AN-M5nAl
Red tracer, gr<len-green star,
Fired
from
PISTOL,
"t'" ·t~~;i ~i{~'
3 to 4,5
t~r,'~~3~" ~n
Star, ea W
3.S5 l.Si I' 0.38
AN-M56A2 pyrotechnic,
AN-US --1----- - - - - - - --'- ---- ----
Red traeer, red-red star, or
AN-M57 PROmCTOR,
Red tracer, red..red Btar, pyroteclmie,
AN-M57J\.l hand, St.a::, 'U 48 Free 3.85 1.57 1./.39
Red tracer, red-red star, MI}
AN-MS'IA2
, - - - - - - - - - - - i - - - - - - - - - - - - ____1. ,__ _
Red tracer, green-red star, I
AN-M58
L
Red tra';llr, green-red swr,
.AN-M58Al 0 3.& 1.57 0.39
Red~~~~
AN-M58A2
'I, 3 to 4.:i I r:.G ;ita
star, 2S
. . , 48
5
--------------~-------~---.----~~--~--~-- ------
technic composition is fn"l rich hnd the ZXCfl'lS by .hese emitting species. The rate at whil~h a
fuel· reacts with vxyge'l fl"')m th\~ a~mosphe",e. pYl'otechnic mixture burns depends on t.1J,~ amount
30me of the energy requir~d to L'rn. tl',"se gaseous ,)lid r.'\te at which heat is 6yolved. Sufficient heat
intermediates results from the energy re] ~ased in mllst (,,> prrlduced to raise ihe temperature of the
exothermic r~actions on the turning surfact (Z"lie h\gred!ents to a point pt, whid', an eJ;.othermal
A) and some from the dame r.Qile. Energy fn,m reaction will be initiated, and the reaction rait:
Zone A is also transf,erred t,t) Zone B which may must ~e sufficient to more than comp;msate for heat
be eonsiderr(~ the prl'-igr, ition ZJne. D;rce~ly b~low losses in order for tVe comp'lsition to burn propa-
Zone f~ is thr remainder of the unrracted pyr0- gat.ivcly. As are comhlon t(l all comhustion pro-
te\,lmil~ cOll'}),)sition, or Zone ('
cesses, the rate of curning" the products l'ormed,
l"J/lul'e H-2a shows a typk:tl isothermal dja- and the flame temperature are affected markedly
~ram of the lewperaturr distribution of a pyro- by the composition of the mixture, as wen as by
technie flamp.~ The tcmpe.'atilre it'! not C(lnstant the t;hvsical condition of the materials and the
thro1lghoht the flam " , the hottest poction occurring aml:Jient c('nditions under whidl it is bmned. Some
approxiJ lately two il1(~h('s above ke hurning sur- of the more important fa~tors which affect the per-
facr in the middle of ~he ilame. formance pf light-producing pyroteehnie items
The flanlt' produced \J~' mO'3t pyrotechnic COIll .. ~1lI'lude: (]) heat of reaction, (2) composition,
positions is heterogeneous ;n nature, conta.:ning (:3) emitters, (4) color imensifiers, (5) binnel"l.J,
solid, liquid, and ga.<;eous product<\ of combustion. (f) particle size and distribution, (7) eon,':iOlida,·
As most of tIll' radiation produl'ed is of th8rm1:LI tiou, (8) flare dia:neter, (H) ca\ile materiall~ and
origin,S thl' dis~rihution of radiat.ion in any Si>ec- (oating, (10) temperature and pres~mre, (11) ro-
tral regioll is uetrrmjllt'J, baBil'l:Llly, oy the chemical tational spin, and (1~) moisture, In addition to
nature ~nd physical fltatt> of th? products which tht above factors, t:'w igniter 01' first ti~e used may
emit in that region and thr temlwrst,ure reached also iufhwT\l~p t~e output of a py,,;)t.e{~hn:(! de,ice.
• See ex'll'.ple J 'a.ragraph 3 ·:!.5, AllY ehanges in the pyroteehn;c composition, the
6-29
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 6.4(B)
CHARACTERIS~ICS OF VARIOUS GROTJND SIGNAL FLARES
--.-.- -
I Tifr..tlaPlIe/
from
actuation
Item
I
I .">1etlwd of actuatwn
to full
fU"I.cI:ion,
Bee
Burning
time,
Bee
Cllrnilepower,
loa
Fall,
Ip8
MaxL, Max dia, Weight,
in. lb in.
- .- -'- - - - - - -
SIGNAL, ILLUMINATION,
GROUND:
White IItar, c~uster, :"f!8'11 18 (lor ea
White etar, "luster, M18A2 5.5 4 t.,) Iv of 5 stars) }t'l'OO 10.14 I 1.88 1.09
---, -----
GreIS:! sta~, duster, M20Al Fired from
I 7 (for ea of
---
Green Ilt.ar, clwt.er, M20A2 LAUNCHER, 5.5 4 to 10 5 stars) Free 10.14 1.88 1.09
---- ------ grelUldt!, - - - ------
Amber star, ~luster, M22Al M7 series 2 (for ea of
Amber star, cluster, M22A2 5,L 4 to 10 5 stars) Free 10,1'1 1.88 1.06
- ___ 0_-. --
Red star, cluster, M52Al
5.1l 4 to 10 35 (for ea Free 10.14 1.88 1.09
Red star, cluster,M52A2 ......... of 5 stars)
------------ -.-~.
ignitCl', the I!ontainer, ete.-- -which might be caused (:ombustion should be high and products formed
by storltge conditions--may also markectly affect must be stable at the high temperatures necessary
the output of light-pl."Oducing pyroteebnics. to pr'Jduce the luminous intensity reqllired for il-
luminating aud signaling purp~·ses.
6-3.5.1 Heat of Reaetion The heats of reaction fl)r the stoichiometric
One of Ow imp()I'tant fuet.ors in. determining rNletion between several oxidizers, and aluminum
the luminous intensity of a. 1ight·produ~·ing pyro- or magllt~sium as the fu?l, are summarized in Tables
teehui(! de viet> is the ~.eIll'perature rea"hed by the (i-f; and (i·7. In generfLI, for both fuels, the per-
emit.ting sppl'ies ill the flame and produced by the ehlorate oxidizers are t.he best. solid energy pro-
bur'ling of t.he pYl'otedmic mi:tt.ure. 'fhe tempera· ducers on either a weight or volume basis; how-
ture reaehpd (iepe'uis, ill t.urn, on t.he amount and ever, SOUlI' of HII' nitrl.tes are almost 118 good.
rate at. w})ieh ener(.,"Y is released hy till' rea.ction. PhYl:'ieal data and burning' (·haracterist.ics of
In genrraJ, tJH'r(d'ore, the t!lJerr~y rdt'RSl'd during stoiehiometri~: mixtures or the alkali and alkaline-
(;·30
AMCP 706·185
PRESSURE CAP_
PARACHUTE
PULL RINC
SUSPENSION
CABl£
ILt UMINAI\fl
COMPOUI\fO
~ERCUSSION
CAP
lAMINATEO
PAPER CASE
'",-
,G"-UTIOIIj
(' H 1\ ~(.[
'" IGNITER
FE'T ....\f1
PROPlll'""C
(' ~I ,\ IH;l.
O£lA'Y , lJlf
. PROPHlING CHARG(
6-31
AMCP 706-185
OJ.
100 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
90
80
PERCENT ~
OF 50 _______ _
FUNCTIONING ~
20
I
('arth nitrates alld putassiulIl perchlorate are SUIll- IOWl'l' lIIolecular ',\'t~ight oxidant", ill each group
marized ill Tahlt' ti-M (A). 'rlH' Ilitmtl''i have been should be preferrt'd over t.hose of higlwr lllolecular
1l1'J'1I1l:,!('d ill at'('ol'dHlH't' wit h theil' molecular \I'pig'hL UllfortUl.ately, the 10\\'t'r wt'ight uxidants
\\'t'ighl. alld tilt' pt'l'iotii(' g'I'OIlJl of tht, llIdalli(' Il'wi to be extreult'ly h;'gros(~o]Ji(', whieh cOlllplicates
t'1('IIIt'1l1. Jt is {'vitiI'll! 1'1'0111 this arl'II11g'('lla'llt that, t1lf'il' liSt' ill pyrott'('llllil' l'OIll]HJsitiolls, and the
ill (',1('1t g'l'UllP, as tht' mult'('ulaI' \\'t'ig'ht of the oxi- slll'lf-lifl' or thl' stability of mixtul't,s t'ontaining
dallt illl'l't'aSl's, till' pl'oportiol1 of flll'l ill tIlt' l/ll'lll is lllarkt'(i1y l't·dlWl'U in the jll't'St'IIC(' of traces
st oidl iOllld I'i" mixt lIrt' !it'('rt'm;!'s, (;ollseljllt'ntly, of atlllOsphl'ri(' lIloisturt', (;l'ealt'r l'art' is tht'rd'ort~
tilt, twat of ('{'/tt'tioll det'I'('ll.'il'S, This is rt'fleett'd ill l'('qllirt',j ill sl'alillg' Iht' t'olltailll'!' alld it higher
it dpl'l'l'asillg' IUIllillOlIS illtcllsity, hUI'IlIl:,! I'atl', alld p!'obability t'xist,s for illad('qllatl' IH'rfol'ltllllll'e aftt'r
Pt1i('iPIH~,I', ()11 this basis. it \\'oltld appt'ar that tlll' j()ll~ storage.
AMCP 706-185
TRACER COMPOSITION
"----IGNITER COMPOSITION
'<tI." PROJECTILE
.< " ,
~",'G DISC-----
to mpasllrrm"Jlt ,'rr " as llltcl' mpaslll'('m,'nt:; of diat(,mie, awl p',ssihly triatOll1ic emitters whieh
flares witi) (,SSt'lltia: " th!' "IiJllP l'omposition fel ('an ('XiSl at tlH hig-h tpmperatures in It pyro-
dos!' to ':1" strati' line, Foil' tilt' ff>(; Illire IIn,i t.'chllit· tlaJlH',;l~ Net'IJIHlary t'mittt'rs, including
grr, II tian', hoC) I wh ieh "tllltaiu i1 SOUl'e,' (II jlurtiellllltt· matt!'l', will il1fiuen('t' the dominant
,·hll/,·in,·, tilt' dOli! 'tallt wav('lt'ngths are :lpproxi- 11'1l V('I"J1~~ '., Ill(> ('o)uriIll2trie purity, tht' saturation,
"a't'l .... (;·lO n,ill!: .iel'o);!, dnd ; 'proxim;,l;'iy 5~4 and tilt' (',[livp ilttl'lIKity of th(' light produced,
.ljl iUllt("l)lJS, }"I'.-'P l·tively. 'rypit'. 'fhlvtra .ailled 'l'hl'" -;pt·(" lUs('opil' Ktudies illdil'uted that the red
,'or It n~l, ,\it'll, 'II illil g-re!'11 ~igllaJ flart· are given lig-ht 1II'/IlIH'ell by flar!'s ('()lItaining strontium and
ill !<'il!,url' (i-~': Ii S(),If('1 /)1' ehlol'ille i,; du(' tu thp diatomic mole-
Sp(,('jrosl'oj>It' ,tuJi('1S ill(jil'ill'P~ tint mOISt of (·,i1i' 8r( 'I whil'h t'mits stt'(lIl!!ly Ilpar 640 milli-
til<' lig-ht I,ro, \lI,".! I Y illu'llillati(lll alJ(l sigud III "'I'OJJf'. }"or Hurt's wldeh did not l'onwin ehlorine,
tlart·,; is dilP 1 , " !ill!It.('d !lUlllber of 1lI 01: at: (I 1111 l', bl! t prod W'" It rN1 ligLt, i, \\ IS ('onduded that
AMCP 706-185
;
t:r
~". \,
it;ctOStNG"WASHER-
. , .. " '~',
t.o measm'emellt error as later meallurem<"nts ,,1' 'liatnwic, alll1· p.'1'.... lh1)' triatowi,' "ulitters which
flares with esst>ntially' the same '. compositic.n leU' ';'!i, ,·xist Ht !II' hlgb ti'l\1pl>'l'atmes in 11 pyro-
close to tbe' straight line. For the red flare .:.nJ. ;:,'chnie fhuu~.;:> Secondal'.\· t·mittlr~. including
green flare, both of which ('ontain a sonrceof pa1'ticulat~ l!lntter. wHl illtluence thf' dominant
chlorine, the dominaut, wa"elE:ngt.hs are approxi- "a':"l;~llgth, the «oiorimf'tri(' plI!'ity, t hI' saturation,
Ilwt.ely 640 milllmicrons and approximately 524 a1Hl the 1'('!atiyf' illlf·nsih' of t]l!~ ji'!ht prouuced,
, millimicrons, respectively. 'l'ypicaillpe(lt.ra ohtainp.it Till's!' speetrnscopie studit:'~ illdicati:'1..l t.hat the red,
for a red, yenow. and greellsignal fl~rl?are give~ Jigllt' protlllce~l by lia1'Ni eontaining o;;r1'oHtmm and
in Figure 6-27. ' a S(lUl',~<,~ of ,i'hJ('l<jD~ i~ liu.? to the Jintmllie mllle-
Spectroscopic :o;tu·,\ies indicate that most of "1111' !-irClwhirh f'mits >:t!".!:):!"ly 11('1t1' 640 miIli.
the lightprod\]eed by' illumination and signal llllf'I,ons.For Ra1't->; which dit~ notcol1taul chlorine,
flares i!1l (illeto a limit.ed number of monatomic, hnt producf' a red light. it Wi\!! cOHcluded _,that
AMCP 706·185
TRACER
BAND
WINDSHIELD
CORE
the red light was, most likely, due to strontium p-mission of cuprous chloride (Cur-I), 1'1U13h of
oxide (SrC). which is radi&ted in the 420· to 460·miUimicroD
Green flames are produced by the band system region of the E'rectfum. The blue-green (md green
of barium chloride (BaCI) in the 505- to 535- systems which afe also produced are usually much
millimicron region of the spectrum. Most green w~pJ:er.
flames show, in arld~tion to the hand emission h'om Y cHow light is priJ. ,arily du~ to the D lines of
bariulll ehloride, ('mission in th" orange and red sod:llm and aSbociaten. \~ontinuum. At high sodium
region, band emission fNm calcium ch1c,ride (CaCl) concentrations, there is strong continuous emission
and s~rontium chloride (SrOl) formed from stron· in II region whHl t'Xt"nds from 500 to 700 milli·
tium and calcium impul'itie"l in the bariulli, In mic!'Ons.
addition, there are contributions from an ".v:tenslve As shown in It'igur(' 6-28, which is tb~ !'pectral
barium oxidp (Rall) band system (400 to 800 (li~triblltioll of energy fron: 8 green fiare,811 the
millimicrons) . specifie emissiull. al~pr()ximately 52;j millimicrons,
OHI{'r stud it's iudil'lIt/' tllat the triatomie mole·· is sllJwrimposed 011 a coutinuolls haekground.· o
('ule ~r (011) (strong f'mi:lsion near ;140 milli- ThiH rt'snlts ill It IPHS saturated greel~. An increase
mil'Nlls) mur ('ontribnte to tllP pru<1netiol1 of red in llIa~llt't.imn ('f)ntenL as shown ia Fig-urt' 6 .. 29 for
light and that bariulI, hydroxidl' Ba(OlI) (strong H ypllo\l" til1rt',:17 !'1'SUitS ill n decreased saturation
emission frolll 4H7 10 527 millimicrons) way con- of thf ("oIOl"pd light p"odu(>ed. The continuous
tribulp t(, tht' pro<lw,tion of grt;'{'n h~ht. There is IHI(·!q.;roul1.1 1Ilily bt- dill', ;1\ part, to incandescent
SOIll(' ('"i<1t'I\('(' thnt part of the radiatioll from the ('arl'l)l\ (from hindpl') as a binary mixtUl'c d mag-
I'lIli11('!' Illay lit"' dill' 10 (,J,I"'lIlilllTllin('seence. 22 I!\',.\'lm al~ti an (lxi,lizl'j' show ~onH'what less ('on-
Blut' flllllH'>: are Il ')rn.ally P"('l;nt'Ni hy t.he tiliuol\s iJa('k:,:"ol.llHl. It is also (l11e, in part. in
6-35
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 6--5
TYPICAL ILLUMINATING, SIGNALING, AND TRACER COMPOSITIONS
SOURCE
- - - - - - - ---
COLOR
Mag-
ne&ium
FUEL
Alumi-
num
,--- :.fisc.
---'
Barium Sodium
Nitrate Oxalate
--- ---- ----
OXIDIZERS
Sndium
Nitrate
----
Stron-
tium
Nitrate Misc.
Oil
Linseed
Binder
,--- - -
Wax
leastor Paraffin Misc.
---- - - -
A White 26.9 38.3 25.2(d) 2.9 6.7
A White 28.5 6.5 57.0 8.0
A White 36 4 43 12.5 1 2.5
1
A White 48 21 5 21 1 3
1
(; YeUow 52 35 13~j)
C Yellow 58 37 5 k)
0.5(1)
C Green 23 53 2(m)
2O(n)
2}0)
C Red 40 18 22(e) 6t)
7o)
C 21 68 5 2 4~p)
D 58 .I> 37.5 /1.5 8)
(29)(k)
,
B Red 26.7 33.3 26.7(f) /6.7(Q)
5(g) 1.Il(Q)
B Red 28 55 17
B Red 26 52 1 16(r)
(')
D 90 (a)
D Dark
11)(a)
34(b) 28(h)
38 (i)
I
D Dark 2O(c) 50 15~t)
I) ul
I
.- I
A. Na','al Ammunition Depot, Crane, India~1I
B. Frankfu.d Arsenal
n. Pica tinny Arsr,m.i
D. NOL WhitH Oak, Marylana
u. Pyrotechnic compositions
~. Manganese
c. Silicon
d. Potassiun. Nitrate
e. Potassium Perchlorate
f. Strontium Peroxide
g. Strontium Cxalate
h. Bariulll Chromate
i. Lead Chromate
j. Thiokol
k. Laminae
l. Plul"Onic
m. Copper Powder
n. llexacblofoben~ene
o. Asphaltum
p. Sulphur
q. C'\\ciuDl Hesinaw
r. Polyvinyl Chloride
8. Binder COlllpogition
t. ZirccllilHlI Hydride
\J. Tetmnilrocal'bazole
N ott': De.tails of preparatioll and llla(.cri ..1 Hpecificatioll~ sboulrl be obtained from IfiOUrc6 illDtallatiOllll.
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 6-6
HEATS OF REACTION OF ALUMINUM WITH
STOICHIOMETRIC QUANTITIES OF VARIOUS OXIDANTS
Heat of Reaction
Composition Products
Oxidant Density, g / cc ll /(c(l.l, Total Callo Comp Cal/cc Comp· Assumed
---_.-
Al (C10 4 )a 2.70 est 1,603 est 2,96& est 7,990 est AbOa- A1C1 a
Mg(CI0 4 )!! 2.64 3,230 2,930 7,750 A120a-Mg C1 2
LiClO 4 2.53 1,590 2,97G 7,520 AbOa-LiCI
Be(C10 4 h 2.38 est 3,200 est :3,030 est 7,220 est A1 2O a·BeC12
KCI0 4 ~.[j8 1,598 2,530 6,540 A1 2 Oa-KC1
Be(NOah 2.51 est 1,880 est 2,810 est 7,070 est A1 2 Oa-BeO-N 2
Pb(NOah 3.90 691 1,585 6,190 A1 2 O a-Pb-N2
NaNO a 2.39 1,624 2,080 4,980 AbOa-Na 2 O-N2
}i'20 (liq) 1.95 1,038 3,850 7,510 A120s-AIFs
02(liq) 1.64 798 3,910 6,430 Al 20 s
F!!(liq) 1.37 622 3,700 5,070 AIFa
CuO 5.11 288 984 5,030 Al!!Oa- Cu
MeOa 3.81 219 1,105 4,210 A1 20 s Me
FczOa 4.18 203 948 3,960 AhOa-Fe
WO:1 5.46 198 6!):1 :3,780 Al:;;Os-W
V 2 Or. 3.19 876 1,075 3,340 Al!!Os-V
H 2 O(liq) 1.46 194 1,800 2,620 A1 2 Os·H 2
the visiblr, to thl' volume emission resulting from ('hloridt', 01' Dechlorane are generally uscd as color
seattpring by tht' solid partidt's of MgO whieh arc intellsifi('rs beeaust' thcy arc a ready source of
l'ssputially transpan'lIt ill that l'lIvironnlem. (·hlorilH'. As shown in Figure f).30, the addition
White Jig-ht eall be produced by: (1) devrloping of iUl'rt'lIsing am,)Ullts of polyvinylchloridc reduccs
all l'xtpllsivp ('ontillunm, (2) pX('itiJlg an cxtcnsive t ht' ('alldh'pow('r of a magllesium· strontiulll nit.rate
diserl'tt' balJ(1 systl'Ul, IUHI pn ('x(·itiIlK two nearly Hart' j how('\'('r, its ('olor value (see Paragraph
('omplt'llIpntary hand systt'Ill:'l. 'l'I1t' light produeed 1i-2.fi.5) 11:-> H r('d Hare increases as showH in Figur('
by ill(,lllldt'sc('lIt ('arbon pllrtid('s, (II' the ('xtl~nsive (j··;H. Re(} (Oolol' values of grt'llter than 0.40 are
sodiuJll ('ontinuuIII produ('''d by tlIP JIlllgnesium- impossihlt' to ob~ain llllll's~ th!' ('(liar illtt'llsifier or
su<1:UIIl lIitratl' illuminatillg' fill!'!', al'(' g'ood ex- bindp!, is a <'hlorine eoutaining eompOllild. As aI-
Illllpll's of IIIt,thud (1). 'l'IH' ('xtpnsive band system
rt'IHly illdieatt,d, ill the HbsPJH'(' of Ii ehlorine eOlll-
of hariulH oxi.!(' (RIl()) (400 til ROO III illilllil'l'ol1s )
;lOlIlld, tll!' rt·(1 ('(jIm lIlay bt' due to strontium oxide
is an ,'xlllllpl(' of Illt'th()(\ (~). Suitahll' hl('l1(iinK of
whil· I t.Ilf' prt'st'II('P of ehlorill(', strontium ehlo·
t hI' ('mission froll! st !'ont i II III d.lorid(' (81'( 'I) (r('(\) ,
rid .. ajl)lt'll.r~ to bt, tht' t·mittillg SI)('('i!'s.s~
,'ltI('illlll I'hlOl'itip ( 'IlCI~) (Yl'lIow), and bariuIlI
Tlip pro<illdioll of a saturated J,{r(,('11 light b)
(,hlol'idt' (Ha( 'I,,) (/!I't'('n) is 11I1 I'xauplt' of lUeth'.ld
( :l) . pyrott'l'illlil' 1IH'llllS is lIl()r(' d iffh'ult. than pro(Il1('-
lioll of II rt'ti lig-ht of rt'latiVl'iy hig'h ~lItuI'ati(ln.
6-3.5.4 Color Intensifiers III HlPst pyrot('('h)"i(' it-PillS, til!' protlu,'tioll of ~r'.'t'll
lIigldy t'lliorillat('d organi(' ('ompol!,,,ls slI('11 liS lil!ht apI't'IlI'S to dt'JlPlld Oil fhp gTt'f'll emittl'r,
hpxl\(,lllt II'opt 1IIIIlt', hi' XUI'll lu!'oht'IlZt' lit'. polyvillY I- 1,lll'illlll I'iliuridl', form('(l from tilt' dt·eolllpnsitioll
6-37
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 6·7
HEATS OF REACTION OF MAGNESIUM WITH
STOICHIOMETRIC QUANTITIES OF VARIOUS OXIDANTS
Heat of Reaction
C()mposition Products
Oxidant Density, gice'" L0al, Total Cally Comp Callc" Comp'" Assumed
Al(ClO,)s 2.14 est 1,732 est ~,810 est I ')10 est MgO·AlCls
Mg(CI0 4 h 2.11 1,163 2,785 5,380 MgO-MgC12
LiClO, 2.04 573 2,810 v 740 MgO-LiCI
NaClO, 2.10 est 581 2,650 5,560 est MgO-NaCl
I(C10 4 2.13 576 2,440 5,200 MgO-KCI
Be(NOsh 2.04 est 681 est 2,675 e8t 5,420 est MgO-BeO-N2
AgNO a 3.00 804 1,656 4,970 MgO-Ag-N2
14iNO a 2.03 631 2,430 4940 MgO-Li2O-N2
Pb(NOl.lh 3.03 '156 1,584 4,800 MgO-Pb-N2
Ca(N0 a)2 2.0!t 647 2,265 4,620 MgO-CaO-N2
Sr(NOah 2.38 627 1,880 4,480 MgO-SrO-N2
NaNOs 2.00 594 2,035 4,070 MgO-N~O-N2
Ba(NOah 2.54 616 1,610 4,080 MgO-BaO-N2
KNO a 1.95 570 1,760 3,430 MgO-K 2 O-N2
F2(liq) 1.29 264 4,230 5,460 MgF2
O;)(liq) 1.44 288 8,570 5,140 MgO
Pb0 2 5.37 222 770 4,140 ~gO-Pb
Ba02 3.53 137 680 2,220 MgO-Ba
products of barium nitratel:nd IiU or/.;u,li,(, chlorine provpd the green color, but to a lesser degr€~,
eontaiuiug l"omponnd. Ethylcellulose, th!' oue nonehlorinated organic ad-
Maglll'siulll also eornbiues readily witt: chlorine ditiv!' trsted, irnprovPL the color of the flare slight-
dud, therf'fort" wilI cGmpete whh tilt' barium for ly liS a larger percentage of it was used. This
tht' aVl'ilable (·hlorillt'. There is also eompetition slight improVPIllPllt ill ('olor is believed to be due
h!'tw('Pu ('hloriup and oxy.gcn for tht' bariulll. To to tht' dpereast' in luminous intensity. The im-
sel('ct tht' bt'st ('hloriup litmor (( ~b is ideal but tDO prOYl'mPllt in ('oJor of the compositions containing
difficult to hand I!' ), fiPv('ruI ('umpo!;itiulls were l'hlorillated orgllnic additives resulted from an
tt'sted ,,,hidl ('ontaillrd org'llnie ('hlflridt's having illl'reas!' in th!' amount of barium chloride formed
di/fer('llt }H'ft·t'Uhlg't·:, ;li' ehlol'ine. 'I'}wse compounds liS Wl'1I as from dp('rrRSed lur!linous output.
Iowt'l'ptl tht' (·IlIH11epow.·r, with g'pnt'I'IlIly improved It has also b('l'n sllggrsted that the addition of
1'0\01', aud ill(·rtll~,!'d tht' IIlllollnt of barium ('hloride II ('hlorin{' ('ontaining compoUllll to a flare mix-
fornwd. Tht' tl!'st resuItH w('rt' ohtailwd with a tUrt· III liy , by shift of t'quilibriulIl, result in the
eOlu posi t ion ('OIl t II i IIi Ilg' ·to 1)('1'('(' It t IlHtl(lH'si nm, 4fi forllllltioll (If bariulll hydroxi.lto whieh ('mits strong-
llt'r('('llt bariu", ('hloratt', 10 Ill'rt,'nt polyvillyIidiJ}t'- ly ill tht' !!rt'en.1~
t'hloridt', alltl ;; {l('rI'I'1l1 LUlIlina\'. 'l'h(· diloriue·to-
iJariUIIl ratio was :IA~ to 1.0; th,· Ill/l;.!'/l{'fOi1l'n-to- 6·3.5.5 Binders
bariUIlI rill lfI wu., 11.~ If) 1.0, Hlld tilt' ddoriut,- Binding Ilgt'lIts-illl'lutiinK <,rrtain r"sins,
(!ivuiJabl.· ttl bariullI Ho-oariulll ratio was O.27~! to WlI XI'S,plast i(·Ii. /llld oils-,s('rn' Illultip I,' purposes
l.O. All otllt'r ('hlorillt, ('Ulltllilltllg' atlditiv('" illl- ill !'yrot,·l·hll;(· l'Olllpositiuns 'l'ht'Y an' added to
6·38
AMCP 706-185
pla""nlt'1I1 of ]illst','d oil by Lamilllll', Il polyt'stt'1' ill/-!' rnl(', ,(,hi" is ill lIg-rt"'IIH'lIt wilh tilt' tlipory pre·
l'psill: 1 g'rl'atl ... · l'l'o!lI,·,'d Ihis pruhlt'Ill," It was S,'lIt"" ill I'UI'IIg'I'<lph :1.:1.11.
I'olllld that s,·II'·hal'li.-lIillg' poIY"s!t'l' rt'sins tt'lItll'd '['h(, aho\',· I o'~lIlb W,'I'(' ohtained for ,'omposi·
to Illillil11iz,' !11t' 11\'0·d 1'01' hig-II "ulIsolitlatioll prt's, ()U!J.~ ill whi('1I t h., Illagllt'siulIl was "SSt'lltilllly 8
Stll"·S. ,\ltl~! "I' !h,· I'oly,'s!,'!' r('sins tlSt'" 111',' ('S' ~ph,·l"·. allY utll,')' 1'(1)'1 id,' ~IIHI'" will )"('sult ill II
"·lllialt.\" ,'S!"I's !l1l1lll1fadlll"'d frulII g-l)'('uls IIlld 1I11· larg't')' ~I",,'ili(' slIrfa(',· thllll that of II ('OIlIJlllI'able
~atllral,·d a"ids '11101 IlltlIlOllllt'ri,' '·I'uss.linkiIW adeli· "ph","'. I II 'I'ahl,' ,i· II. t hI' hlll'pillg- ,'ll1u'IIl'\('risti('s
Ii",·" ~Il,·h a~ "tYl't'II" alld diallyl phthllllllo' whii'li of "ilJJdlll' l'(olilp(lsiti,ql~; PJ"'}JI.l'l'd with I!l'oUlld and
II!'" IItiliz"d til "Ill'" th,' )',·~ilJ. \\·lit'll lh,' ro''iill~ an' witl; iltollliz(·d IlIag'IIt'silllll having' tht' salll!' Hieve
AMCP 706-185
21
11 1.
26 !
6 7 8 9 10 11 1~
I.S l'
ti-40
AMCP 706-185
7~,000 1
%:
0
Z
700,000
650,000 .
600,000
Loading Pr...ure 10,000 Poun:b per Square Inch
\
\
350,000
'"D::
c(
500,000
;:)
450,000
a
U)
400,000
0::
l&J
Q. 350,000
f/)
300,000
'"
..J
0 250,COO
Z
c(
0 200,000
100,000
50,000
--,-~~~:==~~~J
eo
10 20 30 40 10 70 80 80
MAGNESIUM, PERCENT
Figure 6-24. Luminous Intensify as a Function of Magnesium Content of Binory Mixture. ContoininW Various Oxidizing
Agent.
6-41
Allep 706-185
45
:L~_~_~I__20 30
L-_-4I_ _ ''--'-L_''--_.L.1
40 50 60
_-. L_~_- -'_-.JI,- - I. .- .J
70 80 90
MAGNESIUM, PERCENT
rigvre 6·25. Burning Ratll a. a Function of Mo~nesium Content of .8inary Mixture. Containing Variou. Oxidizing Agent.
ti·42
r----------------- --- ----
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 6·8(A)
PHYSICA.~ DATA AND BTJRNINU CHARACTERISTICS FOR STOICHIOMETRIC
MIXT'O'RE3 OF VARIOUS OXIDANTS WITH ATOMIZED MAGNESIUM
iI10US intensity show !til in':reasing trend. These other cases the resuits have varied considerably.
daLa huve been found consistent w~th the trends With certain compositions, investigators have ob·
observed in most pyrotechnic compositions con- served an apparent maximum in linear burning
taining magnesium althongh they are not as con- rate associated with a particular flare diameter.411
sisttmt '.'or eompositions containing aluminum. Investi 6ations of typical yello'v, green, and red
InsufficiPIlt consolidation of tracer composition flart' compositions with diameters varying between
in the tracer cavity may result in the tracer mal- 0.6 inch to 1.1 inches indicated that the luminous
fl111ction known as "blowout," whe::-e the pyro- intensity could be expressed mathematically by an
t.echnic compositioll is ejected frore its cavity. This t'quation of th(' form :46
mmally happens shortly after the ;>rojectile leaves =11 ax" (6-15)
~he gun. In &mmunition depending on tracer func-
(for diameters less than approximately 4 in.)
tiouing for self-destruction, this usualiy results where y is the luminous intensity (candela), a
in a prt'mature projectile functioning. is II constant, x is the flare diameter in inche&, and
The requirt'd loading pressure or extent of n is a ('011 stant. The value of n, which was ob-
cOllsolidation dept'llds Oil the st'tbllck forces and tained when the results were plotted on log· log
amount of rough handling to which th:, item i .. rapel', indieated that n is slightly greater than 2.0
to be subjected. Ot'IIt'rally, the greater the setback which may be due to some change in the flame
for('Pk, ~ll(> greah'r th,' required loading pressure. geomf'try, Ot· to an increase in the flame tempera.
ture The flame area tended to exhibit a direct
6·3.5.8 Flue Diameter proportionality with the square of the flare diam.
TIl(' illflUt'IIeI' of tlar(' t1iamt'ter on thl> linear t>tt'r. Yellow and green flares showed an ivcresse
and mass bU/'lIillg' ratt', luminous illtellsi~y, tem- in luminoUis effi~iency with increased luminous in-
peraturt' tlistr;butioll, ('010, va hit', luminous effi- tensity; however, (heir flames appeared to become
,.jAUt'Y, allll flllmp g'1'O II ll't I')' 1II11~' vary ('OlHyid!'rably Ipss "atllratpd with increa8ing flare diameter. Red
dppt'lldillg' ou gt'lIprlll ('OIlfi~llratioll of tilt' systt'm fillrt's l'xhibitl'd maximum luminous efficiencies for
ii/hI t h(, pyro!<'('hll il' ('omposit iOIl. A bllsi(~ end, illlt'rlllt'<iiate \'81tH'S of luminous intensity and the
hl"lIillg' flllrl'. fr('p frOll1 th!' illfllH'IJ.·('s of CIlS(, ('olo/' l'illlra(·tpristies did lIot appear to change with
g'('ollwtry Ilud ('olllpositioll lIud 'lsslwiutl'd mate- all jllt'I'past' ill flart' diameter.
rials, should l'OSSf'SS a lillPar burlliug' i'att' I'SS(,Il·
tally illl\I'Pl'!Idt'llt of tht' flllrl' dinlllt'tpl'. This lIas 6-3.5.9 Cas.: Materials and Coating
h '('11 th(, ('IISt' ill 1Illlily iJl\'t'stig'atioIIS ('olltlu('tt,d Both tlw physie8l and chelllied eharacteri"tics
m'('r rathi'r Iilllit,'d diamt'tl'r rallgt's; howl'ver, ill of pyrote('hllil' ('ase matl'rial lind associated coat-
6-43
AMCP 706·185
IT
O.eoo ~-
I
-- -- ~+-------+------_1-~---l
---~-~
-------- -----+----+--t-----
. '00' -1--;'--4-
I
-+---
i
.100 -~ -_..
o
-
.• ?O
X
.400
500
.too
( ---
100 J
j I
000 ..;-.--------+---+-........
0.000 •~
I I
!fIII'f--..--.-.--r+---~-----+~---f--.~~r~
400
I • I ... Ioo.!.ao
.SOO .
\'
x
Figure 6.26. ChrOnKf;city Data for Ilt>d, Yellow, and Green Flare.
1)-4.4
45001
J
5000
, a5CO
.I
lOOQi
I
Il00'''
. " I .
"
;
"
•
\ "
1$:;4""
,>,
"
•
.
• •
•
.
• • • •
'
-
',' , ~ --
..
•
.
•
' , ,'"
"
"
,
",':
~
'
~
'"
..
• >
'7
'.
i,'
"
ing may affect the burning characteristics and the steel case may more than compensate for the
luminous output of flares. Steel cases with high increase observed with red and yellow flare com..
thermal conductivities, as compared to those con- positions. 8<>me compositions also have been ob-
structed of paper or other materials, may preheat served to burn more rapidly and produce a greater
the com1Josition and thus tend to decrease the time luminous intpnsity in laminated plastic C8ses than
to ignition and increase the burning rate. In addi- when loaded into paver eases. In this casu, the
tion, thl! increased wall temperature may aifeet character of the adherence of the eompooition to
the ('oatng material and promote side burning. the waH may be important; however, a completely
Both of these eonditions tend to increase the lumi- satisfactory explanation is difficult.
nous intensity; however, they ean cause unpredict-
able performance. 6·3.5.10 Temperature and Pressure
In studies of colored flare illuminating compo- Ambient pressure and temperature have been
sitions,47 it was found that red and yellow flares found to have varying effects on the operating
had higher burning rates and luminous intensities eharacteristics of illuminating flares, depending
when using steel cases as opposed to paper cases. on the composition. In a studr8 made on yellow,
Wben paper-lined steel cases w('re used, lun.inous red, and green compositions it wars found that at
intem.ity val ups were mIdway between those for a reduced temperature, - 65°F, the candlepower
steel and thosp for paper, although burning rates and burninr, time of the flares, except. for gl"el~n,
wl're comparable to thosp obtained for paper cases. deereased. The color value was found to he affected
I II l'onti'llst, HI(' rt'\atively eooler-burning green differently, depending on the eomposit'o;1 at this
composition gave lower luminous intensity values tempt l'ature. (See Tables 6-13, 6-14, and 6-15.)
in the steel ease than in the paper case (for which At high simulated altitudes, the burning time in-
intfMlwdiatl' values wert' obtained) even though l'reasell I"hilt' the calldlepowcr deereased for most
the bumin;.\' rates rellUl:ned essentially the same. Hares test!'d ill this study_ Color values were in-
In this casp, the heat lobS tt, the surroundillgs from ereast'd at tll!' higher simulated altitudes with the
6-45
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 6·8(lt)
CHARA.CTER.ISTICS O.F BINARY MIXTURES CONTAINING OXIDIZING AGENTS
AND ATOMIZED M.AGnESIUM, GRADE A
---_..__._-_._.,---_.
p~:~~~
_ _ "_ _ _ _
HoritJ>ntal
LumiMU' 1.''{1(Id
p.ndulum Frirtio"
Ted Rtaclwn .lIiIh II IBO'C
V_um El!idC1lCII,
~ ....;.._,__
,__ ~ ..\...~~:5J
___ .1..1.._-47:~.~ ~~E
_ _..:...._-
____ 7_00 _1_...__I. _._.!·,:.t .._~~J'_
___. .~_ _8·~aJ
._.z
,_'__,_U.~
.....~~_~~.:.~.,,_
1.64
0Loldiac ~wre 10.000 pair ill I." SqIlAlll Inch C.~dIo COOl.
t Bureau ill MiD. ApparatUL
6·46
,----- - ---- - - - - ------ -- - - - - - - ------------ ------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 6-9
CHARACTERISTICS OF PYROTECHNIC COMPOSITIONS
CONTAINING VARIOUS POLYESTER RESIN BINDERS
t'XCI'ptiOIl of gn't'11 which relllairwd essent:.aUy con- resistanre off~rt'd by die air molecules. lliter-
:-;taltt. mediate reaetiPJls oceur further away froIn the
Thl' rangl' of Hliitudt's at whieh flyroteehnie fiart· surflll'l' alld. in many cases, a. "dark ~~lmlO"
it,·tlU; may Iw used is frOlll UfO to approximately t:HlI be obi·wryer! just Ilbovt> the flare surfacb ".lId
:~;)()_Oll() fp"t. Thc dl't'ds prod IH'I~d \lndt~r reduced initl il reaction zones. If the presI>ure lJecomes low
!,l'('N,.;lirt':, ",tll Ill-' attributl,d to both thl' reduction ('!lough. a poillt will be reached wht're tll!' read.ion
ill OX.r!,(t'!i and H!llbil,,·t pressUl·p. Tltl' effects of will Hut be sf>lf-sustaining.
tlxygr'Jl rpducti,)11 lIlay IH' grl'atl>r whl'll fW'l-rieh The inversl' rt>l!\tionship lwtwc-en candlepower
mixt.III·('S 111'(' burrlt"!. ["or stoil'ilifJlIlt'trie )r nell.r- /Iud 1'0101' vutUI' is attribut!,d to the inl~re!j&ing im ..
-,tuil'hioll\t'tr',· ('(lmpositioIlS, tlH' piT(",t is main,y portullcl' of tlt(, ('0101' litl(' and hand emissi,H.\ from
Ihal of Pl'l'SSIl rt'. It has lW'.'1\ sllOwn t !>at by main- c)('itl'd atoms and molt'cules at the hig'her uHitudes
Li( inillg' H prt''>snrt' ow'r th,> tlul'P imr'fl\('{' througb
Jlar: iii! (·O/dlnt'mPllt by lise ,If' Ii Ilozzlt" till' burning
"1.' I,' at high simH!."-': alt.itlld •. · (,('\tld br rllis('d tu ( 3.5.11 Rotational Spin
tli.· sam(' It'vd a, dlht at sea 1.-\e .. 411 'rhl' efft'l't uf rotational :;pln 011 the bllnlill(~'
Lar,"!'i' nalll,·· phllll'" lirt- Pl'oJw.'I'd as thr am- (,ltaral'tl'risti(':' of ('ompo"itiollS has bi-.en invNlt!-
bit'lIt l'n'.~S\lrt' i)l rt'dlll':·d ,~\lI' to tht' dperpR.'w ill g-ated. It has been found that th(" rotil.tionaJ "ipin
6-47
AIrICP 7()6.185
110
gO
ACTUAL. EMISSION-,
70
(f)
~
z 50
::::>
)-
cr.
«
D::
.... 30 _.
co
D::
«
SELECTIVE EMISSION
10 -
I
450 500 550 600 6~0 700
WAVFLENG ..... H. MILLIMICRONS
Figure 6-2B. SP«fral Energy D;atribution of G,..,.., Flar~
of a 105 lI11n illumiuatinJ.{ projectile canister con- sted by the fact that flares which are rotated at
siderably silOrtellt'd th~' bl:rning tiLle of the il- the slow('st speeds (which have the longest burning
lllmi.nant. 'l'h!' e/fp\'t \,f rotational Kl,m on flar(>JI times) show much less slag residue than thuse ro-
/uad.,d in I.;'-llwh O. D.. steel flare ':!lI>CS was also tated at higher speeds. }<'lares tested at speeds
stud i(·d. EX8milillt iGll "f burllt'd out flare cases of a,ooo to 5,000 rpm, however, all contain ap-
indielited that dll' f"l·niltHlg et'lltrifugal forces pre- proximately the same amount of slag.
Yellts tll(, ,'xpulsioll ot Hllt';\ of the slag. The slag [n anotht'r study, tht' trace duration of a tracer
huills Ill' and \·/fcl'tl·dy deereases UP internal WI1S found to br shortened, as shown in Figure
di';lltldt't of th,· 1~1USt'. This deCrt'IUli.' in int 'rnal \!,\&t' ti.:14,~o by rotational spin. Burr.iug rates fo!' tracer
<li'li'ilet!'\" pr(".'t·nts thl' t'ffi,~ient ...xPIIIsion of gages \ ompositiolls increastd with an inereast' in diam·
for'lIf'd and thus (,Hllses an incre"sf' in the internal der. or lellgth of tracer column and this increase
pri'!,SUrf' As II rNllilt of the prl'SSllrt> increase, the was more pronounced as angular speed was in-
illllmillulits hurn mor,' ral··ldly. This is substanti- \·rea.'il'd. In geiH'ral, for Clwh eompositioll the per-
,-------------------------------------- ----------------
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 6-10
EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON BURNING RATE
AND CANDLE POWER FOR MAGNE3IUM-SODIUM NITRATE-
por.. YVINYLCn~ORIDE-LAMIN AC MIXTURE
A'I.'erage ParUcle
Ingredients Size, microns Percentages
Time-Intensity Data
Candlepower, 103 candles 130 154 293 285
Burning Rate, in./min 2.62 3.v1 5.66 5.84
~ 40
:J
in
....
Z
, 315 400,000
C)
"'
~
30
.... 2iS
Z
IU :i 10'),000
U
0
•o
~:r
IX
w IL
0.. 101
I I I I I I I I I ..J
Q
66 68 70 72 74 76 18 eo 82 84 Z
PERCENT PURITY ~ 200,000
10 20 30 40 0.0 10 '10 10 10
6-3.5.12 Moisture and Stability
MAGN£SIUM. PARTS
\ hlP t)f tilt' illlPortant factorfl in detprmining Figure 6-30. Effect of Polyvinylchlorid. on the Candle-
tllp stability and shelf life of a pyrou>chl'ie item power of Mixtur•• Contai,,;ng Stron;ium Nitrat. and
is th{' s{,ll"itivity of' the pyrott'ehnie eomposlf,on Ground Magnesium, Grado A
to lltU\o~phi'Tie moisturl'. III the presenee of
mwsturt', tht' oxidallt will react with t.ht' metal ltydl'Oxid£', or both. This lIonreactiw layer (~hanges
particles to form a lay"r of metal oxide, metal tilt, ilo{uitioll Ilud propag-atiV(' charae!eristics of the
6-49
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 6·U
EFE'ECTS OF CHANGE IN SPECIFIC
SURFACE OF MAGNESIUM PARTICLES
0.110
Ground Atomized
Magnesium Magnesium
--------------_.. _--._----
COMPOSITION, %
0.40
Ground magnesium 66.6 a.J
:)
Atomized magnesium 66.6 ...l
CHARACTERISTICS
~
Candlefl per sq in. 200,000 178,000
Burning rate, in./roin 9.4 .57 I
Density 1.56 1.65 0.20
Candle-seconds/ gram 50,000 69,200
I
pyrotechnic mixture so that reduced luminous
intensity or nonigni tion may result. 0.1 0 '-----;I~O--;;20~--;:lI:;.0--:40~-!.1I0=--~IO=--~10=--~.0=--~1O
The critical relatiw> humidity is a measure of MAGNESIUM, PARTS
the sensitivity of .xidanb; to moisture. It is deter-
Figure 6-3J. Effect of Polyvinylchloride on the Color Value
mined by t'xposing samples of the oxidizcr~ to at~ of Mi:ftures Containing Strontium Nitrate and Ground
mospheres of knowll relative humidities and deter- Magnesium, Grade A
mining the change in weight of the oxidizer. The
l'ritieal relative humidity is that at which, with re- In ~me eases, it has been found f'xpeditmt to
spect to JIloiflture (~ontent, the oxidizer is in equi- ''''mpromi!>e 'hH' to an oxidizer's excellent oxidizing
librium with its surroundings. Roughly, t!le ltigutlI' ability. Thif; has hren thf' case with sodium nitrate
the ('riti('lIl relatiw humidity, tht' lesfl soluble tht~ t hat formerly had a critical humidity of 50 percent
oxidant. Small t rlll'ps of impuritit>!,; may lowel the for the specifieatioll gradf'. 'rhe use of U.S.P.
I'riti(':.1 r(>lativl' humidity of a ('()mpoulld. tloubll'-refilled sodium nitrate with a critical
TABLE 6-12
EFFECTS OF LOADING PRESSURE ON BURNING CHAR.ACTERISTICS
OF MAGNESIUM·SODIUM NITRATE FLARES
6-50
,--------- ------ - - - - ----- ---------------- ---- ----------- --------------------~
AMCP 706·185
TABLE «:·13
EFFECT OF SIMULATED ALT.l:Tl.)DE AND TEMPERATURE
ON ILLUMINATION CHARACTERISTICS OF YELLOW SIGNALS
TABLE 6·14
EFFECT OF SIMULATED ALTITUDE AND TEMPERATURE
ON ILLUMINATION CHARACTERISTICS OF RED SIGNALS
Average Average
Simulated i,uminolts Bunting Red" Luminolls Burning Red"
Altitude,· l' empcrat II rc, Iniemity, TinH', Color Intensity, Time, Color
.Peet OF C(tndles Seconds Value Candles Seconds Value
humidity of 7fi IlPn'l'lI! partly alleviated this mosplwres of nitrogen and oxygen exerted only a
problell1. 43 slight influem'{' on the corrosion rat~ whereas hy-
Thl' t'ift,,,t of lIl11isturt, 011 /I filll'ly powdere(l drogen al\fl ('arbon diOXide were observed to have
lIlt'tal ('all hI' dptprlllillt'd by ph!t'illg a sltn.plp ill rt·tur!llllg and accelerating ('tfeets, respectively.
distill!'cl watl'r Hlld mailltaillil,g till' system at a }<'urtl\t'r, thl' ralt· of (·orrosion increa&ed with an
Sllt'('ifit'd ('ollsIHllt tl'llIlH'raturt·, By (·ollecting thp iUert'ast' ia sp('{~ifi(' surface.
gu:o. ('v(Jlvt'd III ('Ollstallt prt'ssurp, tht' ratt, of cor- Om' way that the deleterious t·{fect of moisture
r,)sioll of tht' IIlt'!!ll c'all bt, t'stahlished. For Oil maglH'siullI or other mf'tal ('an bf' avoided is
atOllliz('d lJIagl\,'siulII,~) it was. found that thp ratt' to ('oat tilt' metal with a thin l'hromate film. Pro-
of t'orrosioll inrrl'ased with time hut only slightly It,!'tioll of tht' atomized magll('sium i:1 consolidated
bl'tWt't'll th,' tt'ml'l'ratures of :Wo(' and 65°(" At- illuJllillatillg Hlld signal (·ompositions may also be
6-51
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 6-15
EFFECT OF SIMULATED ALTITUDE AND TEMPERATURE
ON ILLUMINATION CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEN SIGNALS
Average Average
Simulated Luminous Burning Green·· Luminous Burning Green"
AlNtude,· Tempera,ture, Intensity, Time, Color Intensity, Time, Color
}I'tlet oF' Candles Seconds Value Onndles Sec01l,ds Value
400
.
t'
~4
~
! ------
r I.
o
'AI/leu SIU (MIClONsl
Figure 6-32.1. Bur~i"g Rate vs Particle Size of Mag".';um Figure 6-32.2. Ccmd/epowe, va Particle Size of Magnesium
ll!'eolllplisill'd Ity tilt' IISI' of bill(lt'I'S Illld water- luill/nlts bPI'HIIM' tlw,\' do 1I0t (·ontain billders and
pr()otill~ a g-I' II ts, IIslIltlly all oil. wax. or plastic ill'l' loosl'-loutl!'d whil'lI t'hllllW'S till' IIlHl1ner in
I','sill. ('ontaill('I'S /lilt I lIoll;lYg'rOS('opi(' first-fire \l'hi,'" thl',\' rl'al'! to Pl'otlll('!' lig-ht. COllsolidated
,'olllposit iOlls 111'(' 1l~.',1 to k('PJl moistllrl' from th,' ('(llIll'osir ions "lIrll ('mnpllntti\,ply slowly while m.ll-
maill illlllllill/lt in:.! '·()lIIpositioll". "ollslliitiat!'tl III i" til n's, 1II111!'r ('olriiu!'lIlent, reset
rupitlly prod\ll'ill~ a hright ib~h of light.
6-4 NONCONSOLIDATED ILLUMINANT Th .. Illajol' 11 .... ·' for lIolleollsoii<illtl'd illuminant
CHARGES dlll!':.!'·s III''' ill I'''ototlll~h hombs Hud "artrid!!!'!; for
As P,\'l'ot",'hlli,' rl'll('tioIlS, ill :.!('lIernl, It 1'(' baspd lIight Il'Tilll pliotU/!l'1li,hy, IIlld ill spottillg eharges
011 tht' ..!It'llli,'ni r('lletioll of a flH'1 with 1111 oxillizer. 1'01' tru,·kill:.! alld 1I('qllisitioll plirpoSl,'s. NOfll'onsoli-
tl ... 1II1111111'!' ill whi,·h th,'s,' two basil' illJ,{!'('dif'llts dut,·" till .. rs I II'" l/IlI' : l I \ intllllllt(' mixturl' of a
:tl'l' IIl!'orp"l'at('d illto 11 flY rott't'hlli" dp\'i('" will pOII'fi('r!'d 1II(·tal Itlld po\\'d,'!' oXirlllllt, (21 II pow-
~r('lItl,\' illtlll('III'" its 1If,d'O!'IIl1l1l'·'·. \'(>lII·tilt ...ul;· .I,!',d IIld.d, ~lIdl 01)0, II IiIl{l lI'si 11111, or
,dIUl.illlllll,
<latrd illlll!.illllllts difT('!' frulII ('Ollsl,litillt,'(1 ilh~ t IH·ir alloy.;, /llld (:1) II pow(krl'l\ lIletal IUld II
ti-fi:!
AXCP 706-185
~
::>
z
... 14
...
i 4.7
.,.. 4.6 12
~
...J:
u 4.5
~
~
~~
~
10
~ 8""6"-
'. Pit
..; 4.4
~ "i"3.?~~
.. ~~~ t--
I-
.,z'"
4.3
:g
li'r'i" . . r--..~ __ R-284
8
r----:.;
....
Z
::>
4.'! -
0
Z
4.0
0 5,000
I
10,000
I
15,000 20,000 25,000
R-~ r-- I---
4
LOADING PRESSURE, PSI
6-53
AKCP 706-185
6-54
AM.'CP 706-185
TARLE 6-16
DESIGNATION AND DESCRIPTION OF PHOTOFLASH CATRIDGES
- ,-
Powd"
-------- I '0
T,m.
I nJoqraJ Uglol,
10" c•• &utu,
TlO
Carjridg. D.,ignation
Silt, in.
Lx Dia
7.7IXl.56
Tolal
Woi~lol,
Ib
-----" - - -
- 5.25
0'
-_.---
Typ<
--~-
/<ormuf,a
l)
(Ion
-B-
P""k
'""""~t!
10 6 Can
2(
IPm",u_
••,
5
----- 0'Duration
CPS
-0.77
a""
Telal CPS ••
- -- -
FIIl,A,
mile C""pU FlU.
flt.ad ..d M11 Time delay
Signal cue 1 to hec
1'12
-0.72- -5.75
- - _.- . - - - 5 0 - - 1-,-5- - -- -- - - - ---
7.73X1.57 II D I 30 Modified Mil Tim. deb.y ,2. or 4 j
8.37;~2.9
:-1,:):;~I:--------1---
: : ,. :- 1.(
-.-----
5
-.
4.8
30
40
Modified MI;
Al
Tiru. delay
1.2. oc 4 sec
Obtun.tod delay hllle.
2.~. or 6 sec
1'90 About same - About - -..-- - ' Eac~
as MI12 same as
I:-r
- - 'stat:
_ -(b)-
1
aNO .• /atom·
X.6
---~.---
2 b '.,' 600 Outer .....
.imilar to
Obturated delay rUle.
10r2_
-
(li'iadvullt.agt's whil'h essentially nullified any gain as well as thl' u:,:e of small arn projectiles as- spot-
ill output. ting' rounds for majOl' ('aliber weapOIlS, Jed to Ii
Otht>I' PYl'otp('/lllic li~ht sourl'(,S have been tried rt>q lIiremPllt for mort> efi'cctivr spotting charges.
which "'1'1'(' design(,<1 to produce illumination on a
eontillllons hasis rath('l' than ill short bursts fl)r 6·4.2.1 Small Arm Spotting Rounds
IISP with strip-typ(' ('ampras which do not contain Small l'illilwr spotting rounds ('an be used to
a shutter. Tht' film is moved contillUOll.<;ly I'eross a aim It m;.jor ('aJibei' weapoll. III operation, the
slit at a speed whi('h matches that ot the image smail ealihf'r spotting' rifle, which is rigidly at·
motioll. 011(' of thp early at:('mpts was the use of tal'lled to thl' mail! weapon, is fixed and the point
the T90 photoHarl' ('artridf{e. This eOllsisted of the of impact is indieated by a flash of lir,ht ana a puff
sam I' ('a<;ing a.~ thp ~\I11~ with a (hargp of fivn stars of !oiJlIOkl' fOl'lned by the fun(ltioning of the small
whi(·h wer(' wadt' of 1l. high i!ltensity consolidated (·;tlilwr sppttillg' pro,j(·dill'. As thl' trajectory of
illuminating (·onlposition. The light output was the small arm spotting' projectile :mo that of the
not. t;deqlIate as 110 yisihlc imagp wa~ obtained on maiu round ar!' Iwar:y identical at the critical
th(' lIPgati\'('s ('xpost'd ill flight test. at 1000 fe~t..M range', tit(' burst provides information for 'tdjl'st-
Another aHem;)t \\'as a blll'lwr fOI' ma;,\"nesium el l .1st IIlt'lit of ainl. A hit with the spotting' round rr,eans
which was <1c\'('lopprl fot· use on a.ircraft. 55.00 that Ul(' main projedil!' will a1/l0 strike dose to the
t arget. 5•1.:iS
6-4.2 SPOTTING CHARGES A typi(;&i 20 mm spotting round is shown in
~potti!lg' (·hargops ai'e used for locating point of Figure 6-~H!. This round contains about 6.5 cubie
impad, for targ'f't acquisitioll, for tra.cking, and fOl' ('(,lltiUJ('ters of a fla,,}) mixture and ('an produce a
illdi('utioll of item or ('ompollent functioning. For flash of 1.5 millioll ('andl!'powoer with a Iluration of
maJlY ypars, spottiug' chargf's of bla('k powder wert' 700 III illis(,(·onds.
used ill pra<~ti(·t' bombs· and projectiles to locate
poiJlt of illlpad. Bl'eause the observation distances 6-4.2.2 Tracking
\1'('1'(' rplatiwly short alui becaw;p a rl~latively 11 ig/!ly .wI'urate trajectory information is re-
largp \,Ollllllt· was l!\'uilabl<' for the spotting' charge, (jllJr!'d ill till' dpwlopment of a missilt' system.
all adl'(juat.> flash (·ould be prod\1('('d with bla('k ()I!(' method of obtaining' this information for a
[lowder. TIlt' d('vplopllH'nt of long rangp missii')s, missill' at high altitude·s is to photog'raph the tiash
6-5fl
A)lCP 706·t85
------T- T-'- /
/
./
~LSHOlJLDER
,,.-
2 ----+-_._--+----_.- // l
I--::;".c.j
I /1
/~~--L--_+--__:I'~....:e. I.~- ____ •
O.b3
1--- -------------~~~----~~--_r---
£2 ;; 0.002
S2 = 500
1
ASA EXPOSURE INDEX = 125
produ('t'(l by it photoflash cartridge ejected a dis .. ean be accurately determined. 66 •8 ! A typical flash
tall('(' sufficiput to prtven~ (lalliage to the missile ('har,!?e for this purpose is shown in l<'igure ().41.
in flight. }<'lash ('artririg!'s of the type silOwn in
F'igllrp fl··iO (whi,'h are of the same general type 6-4.3 TYPICAL COMPOSITIONS
discnsspd ill Paragraph 6·4.1.1) were dpveloped Typical nonconsolidated illuminating composi.
for thi~ purpose. Modifi('ations to reduce weight tions USI'<l as photoflash and spotting charges are
and simplify nh>unting problems resulted in a flash ~umma I d in Table 6-21.
dl'vicp whi'~h produces a series of fla"qhes with a
known timt· ilJtt'rvfll bptw('en th!'m.IIO 5·4.4 Light Production
As has been indicated, nonconsolidated illu.
6·4.2.3 Indication of Functioning rninants differ from consolidated illuminants in
F'lash ('hargf'... art' llS£·t! also to provide !l. visiNe the manner in whieh lhcy rElict to }.iforluce light.
indi(,dtioll of tllP functioning of lin item or com. Com;olidated compositions propagatively hl~rn in
pOIlPnt such as a warhead fuze. The fll'sh signal II rrlativply slow manner while noneonsolidated
provid!'s II brilliant light !lash and can b(> photo. ('om positions react rapidly produeing a bright
graphil'alIy re('ord!'d I,y r!'IIlotl' camprHS, providing' fla:lh of light. B!'ellusP of the rapidity (If the reac.
oata so that til(' tilllP and locatioll of fUllctioning tion, functioning of d!'vices containing noncon.
6-56
-------
Alt'CP 706-185
TABLE ti~17
CHARACTERISTIC':; OF TYPE HI PHOTOFLASH C'OMPOSITIOII
soiidatcd illuminants can caust> disruptive effects ration of the !lash (milliseconds). The total amount
in their surrolmdin~ similar to thl' I'tti'cts pro- or light p!'oduced lletermines th,~ maximum ex-
dnl'ttl by high \'xplosiYt'~. posur~ which (an be obtained at any a.ltitude,
using open shutter techni<:ues whl')fp the duration
6-4.4.1 Light Output Charactf..-istics of the flash determines the exposure t.ime. Unless
The light produced hy the functioning of & image movement compenAAtion techniques are used,
devic,) containing 3. non~onrolidated illuminant i~ the speed of the aircraft must be low enough that
characterized by its relative high peak intensity imagr relative movement win not result in uoac-
anil the relatively short flash duration. eeptablr photographic definition. DnW the devekp-
ment of image motion compensation techniques,
6-4.4.1.1 Time Intensity62·83 many night aerial photographs Were made with
A typiC'll time-intensity curve for the Hght an exposure time of %~ second (40 milliseconds).
p:,oduced by the ft.J;ctioning of 11 photoflash device In this lase, the exposure obtained depended on the
containing- 1\ fillsh jJowder (intimate mixture of amount of light produced in 40 milliseconds, and
powdered metal and oxidant) ~!Jarge is shown the maximum photographic exposure was obtained
in I<'igure 6-12. The curve for most spott:ng with the shutter open for the best 40 milliseconds.
charf!'es wouid be similar. As indicated in this (See Fig-ure 6-43.) Peak candlepower is important
figurp, the important (:haructeristics of the light as it greatiy influences thp amount of light pro-
output of a photoflash device are: (1) t(ltl1l amount duced in the be>1t 40 milliseconds. The time-to-peak,
of light produced (candlespconds), (2) amount of llnd the variation in the time-to-pt>ak are important
light prod'ed in t.he be"t 40 milliseconds, CPS 40 for sYlleip'oniz8tioll of the shutter oven time and
(cand1eseconds\ (3) peak intensi'.:' (candles), (4) the bt'st 40 miJIic;ctonds of the light flilsh.
time to peP.l{ m tensi ty (Jr.illisecoll ds), and (5) du- Dust-type rlwtoflash devices produce flashes
3-57
I..MCP 10(;..185
M59 PRIMER
8.41 MAX
whieh have lower peak intensities and longer dura- 6-4.4.2 Nature of the Photoflash Burst61 ,68
tions than those produced by devices containing 'rhe light-prodUl:ing characteri(Jtics of a flash
flash powders, as shown in Figure 6-44. Image itf'1ll depend pril1l'ipally (as discussed in greater
(·ompensat.ion tl'rhniques are normally required delail in Para!!raph (j-4.5) on thf' composition, the
when (lust-type photoflash bombs. are used in order amouut and shape of the explosive which is used
to efficientlY utilize the light produced. to initiate the eomposition, and the case. Flash
radiographie studics show that when a relatively
6-4.4.1.2 Spectral Distribution small amount of high explosive-crntrally located
As shown in Figure 6-45, the spectral distri- ill Ii (~ase containing photoflash powder or metal
bution eurve of tltl' light produced by a photoflash dust--fUlwtions, a bubblr of explosion products
de vier (~()nsists of all intense continuous back- is formed in the fir!>t few microseconds of the
ground 011 which a discretf' spectra is superim- initiation of tht' explosiv('. Thf' shape of this
posed. IH The speetral di&tribution of the radiation bubble and the rat!' at which it expands are de-
produ('ed by a (!lIst-type photoflash bomb is similar. pendf'nt on the properties of t.he material sur-
While the mort' l·ffi(·ient photoflash t'ompositlOnf> rounding it, as well as that of the explosive initio
at low altitudes produce light whi('h is mainly ator. I<-'or t'xamplt', the shape of the bubble pro-
(,(JIItiIlUOUS, the more /·fficient {'om positions at high <111('('<1 by a small quantit.y of explosive in flake
altitudps (100,000 feet) Ilre thosc whieh produe(' aluminum which has a low density tends to be in-
an t'xtewm'e diserete &peetra in the visihle.65.6~ (Ree fhlt'lll'ed mort' by the nature of tht' (>xplosive and
also Paragraph 6-4.5.) its eonfinemf'llt than the bubble produced in an-
6-58
AilCP 706·185
TABLE 6·18
DESIGNATIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF FLASH POWDER PHOTOFLASH BOMBS
1 .- 326
------
10
----
-
---- ----
- 250(0) PaPf!r tube divided inlo 2 comr.!Im",,"';
pGwder filled 4/6 of Yo/UIM; ywcod S
~itiOll; 2 gronade lUi ... &II parachute
In 1/5
----- 25X4.25 -- -10- ----- -- --- ---- ---
M23 (T2) 7 [ 100 10 300 - 13.5 - I - Fiber cylinder; Iat..,r filted "ilh aleel ou"'r
_ r~ improved baI1ialics
---- - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - _._-- ----- - - - - - - - -
M46 (Ta) 48X8 50 25 11 A.ll 7;0 18 50 26 140 :ero~~:~Ji container; aula o\eol
' -_.- - - - - - - - - ---- - - - ----- ------
n Enlarged 1>146 50 II Il 970 20 65 36.4(0) - Light wei«hl aheet meW ..... po"der in
fiber cootainer
T5 Enlo.rged M46 --
- -
100
- -- -- ---- -'--
1670 20 132
----
71.5(c)
----
--
~-.--
_I_II~_
31.72X4.92 25 10 1I 15.4 8«) O.023l1-in. wall. Thin met.al CallI'
T6El - - - - -- O.026-in. "all
~- 500 - - - .- O.04S-in. "all
---- -----.- ------
~DRC
Tyl*'8
80
58Xl0.75 200 to Varioua
\leat
17oo lb ) 15 1b ) 118(b)
Ileat
6O.5Ib .• ) - 250-lb TI cuing
141
T9
TO!>I 36X8
-- ----
U5
115
88
70
35
-nTs-
II B
----
8&J
- '-
2 99
-
30
--
-----
270
- :2f>-lb demol.itioo bomb. <:Me, O,I~ in.
--
-163-- -
TY!>4-6
_._--- - VarioWl - - - wall
T9ES 35X8 70
-!II- -A - -----
-~---
2100
- - - - ----
5 140 65 163 M70; 0.19·in. ,,&II
---- ---
----~-~-
-III- -A - - -3490- - - -6 - - - - . ---_.
-~-- , .--
M120 52.25><.8 150 70 75.6 1631~5 Modified M70 chemical bomb body. bol
tyPf! 60. 0 .1SS-in. wall
----- ~--~-.~
- - - - - . - - --- - - - - ----- - - - - ----- ---
MI20 IH B 52.25X8 165 85 III A 6 4~90
223 96.9 188 Same ... M120
------ -- --_.---.-- - - ._-- - - .- . - . - - ----- ----
T92 39Xll 280 138 III B 5840 6 290 140.5 226 Optimum design to fit in RB-4 aireralt:
sballow. "ide fin
----- -----
T93
---
S9.16X!4.18 496 224
- - - - - - - - - ----- ----- - - - _ .
-~--~
III A
- - 5600 M
--'--
66e
- -
163
- - ----
I()()()"lb G.P. bomb r.aaing AN·M65
T94 29\l
----.- - - - - - - ' - - - ---
---~
'---' - - - - - -
Tyg 4.250r 13 95 70 -- - - - . - 42. - Tbin eoPPf!f caein&. at ~ 0.0626 to
to 160 O.II-in. "all
---- ---"-- - - - - 64
- ---
III B (Eod 00)
- - -
Tl04
or 104 2900 4 IS\) 82 163 Modified M30A1 1000Ib G.P. bomb body;
(thin 3570 ~ thin ..... model. modified M47A3
cue) (thin oaae) 6 284 88 228(.) oh.mical bomb body
odized alumi!lulll. The subsequPllt sha.pe of the indel' of metal dust. In all cases initiation and
uubblp in tbl' metal dust depends 011 th!' resistance burnnng of the dust takes place in the air after case
PJIl'ountprrd in ditl'prent directiollS>. If the con- breakup.
fining' ('as\' ,l\,fol'1lls ... lowly without nlptlJre, the If the surrounding material can react rapidly,
shapl' of t lH' pxp!OSiuil produets will tend toward gases resulting from the vaporization of the reac-
tIl(' shap" of til\' ddoI'lllt'd easr. If the ('ase rup- tive material at the outer surface of the expanding
tUft'S quiC'kly at OIl(' point, th,' (lust may be forced bubble of explosive products will increase the
t hJ'OIl~h this oppning whil{' HOIllP of th!' dust will rate at which the bubble expands. The amount of
J'('maill in tIl(> (·ase. 1-'01' small quantities of ex- this contribution depends on the reactivity of the
plosi ve, tIl\' ,:,hap{' of tllt' explosive is of little im- mixture. The piston action of the expanding bub-
portallce. For larg!'r quantities of {·xplosive, the ble forms a spherical shell of compressed flash
shap,> alld Its Illethod of iuitiation must be con- composition, Rapid chemical reaction starts at
sidered. Au extreme \'xamplp is an end·illitiah,d the shock front when it reaches the case and the
lillt' eharg!' axially loeatcd in a surroulldiPls cy1- increase in pressure results in case rupture, After
6-59
C'>
en
o
>
fiC
TABLE 6·19
o
~
CHARACTERISTICS OF DUST PHOTOFLASH BOMBS .....
Bomb
I
I Su<o In.
To/ai
Wt. In. I
I
I Peak
i'a","cr
r---- ----- --- ---I
I lnt".iJv.
T,me (0
P<lJk.
I Inl<tJ1aJ
CPS B,,(
L,~hJ
L_I_06_C_andl_u_fC_'-
I
.4!tltud.
II t~~~e II~Fa;;~h.
and m..c to
-
~
00
(Jt
__
Candlu __rn." _ To/aJ CPS," .
T,
_ _ _ _ _ _ , 46. 72X8
I __
65_(r_) I_~ M_g_._u_,a_de _1_1_ _ _ _ _ _-_-_ _ _ _- _ _ _ _-_ _ _ _-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1\ _ _ _ _ _ 1 - ~~,~h!~46 caae WIth
T9E2 - - - - I36XS.--103
150 1 35
-1--,-
Flake AI. G ....de...
Flake Al
1100
42
10 49A I 35.1
- -:;;;--I-=----- -I----I--.=--
I
",aU
125-lh demohtion bomb
case. 0 .19·m. wall
!TritonaI5Ib---
~:: I:::~-- ~II---~--- ~;;;ent AliS, 75/25 38 __ -_J4-fi-_-II=---_I_--~~=_-_I=-----r----== s:ru-e-""-T-9-E-2---II~n. diameter each:
, =55. - ------=-------------
.-- 60
21
21
I ... . =I=--=
..,
Atomized Mg-AI alloy
Flake A!
=I
I.12\-,. AI
750
~r;,!lO
15
13
14
23
2(\
I
~ I
SodatoIS.J-Ib
Tritonal 5. 8-lb
Soda!.ol 6. \-Ib
D:~~lliati~_
T O. 2-m case thickness
MX8 -/IOO(!)
T S6EI-4 35x8
3~XIO
I ~5
Vamus metal dust. ',&noo: Varied:
:l~-
Vatie<!: I Varied' 25,000- 5,000- 11\1--
~12
M 47 chemical bomb
---------
Vatious
70 UOO-- 164.a- 50-94. 35,000 15,000 case; 0.()6 in. wall
I
N1122 (TB6G,
2~Xll
i 24XI2
5-IX8 11Q -15"- Atomued fi
U5'l
-CC·-I'"
I
1_ - ·'.""'1....'· --=-1-
20,000 30· trall
1-----
M2~, I-in. diam.
cylin<lrical; 2-lh caot
70/30 triton&l;
Ml47El fuze
--·--1---- - II
1_ _ angle best
T B6E5 13 diam. - - I Atomued Al - - Thin AI or steel TST and booster
~9
()..6' 27 .aX. ~ ~I AJ dust and KC\Q, 672 --Z-S--I-·---'lo.2 B2 , Coneentric burster. QU- Hand packed TNT;
otgreg..ted I I dant, meW dust tube! Tetryl booster; Mli6
fuze
------ 4"8-:6X8 96 ~ S';:-mt as 0-6Y- - - - ~ - '42- - - Best, I-T-Q--(A~ - - - I Mi6 caae adJ,pt<.! to
0-
3490 I I 130 30,000 13.000; ! coneentrlc loadmg
Il"ud packed TNT;
Tetryl booIter;
x - - - - 39-.;00---
I J7:; 114.2 ~me as ()..69
I Best, - !
angle best
Concentric casing~ I
I 4890: ,
y
_ _ _ _ !B!"'ciall designed
Hand tamped err.-
I tallill. 2-in. TN .
!
\227g--\-----SO- '34.:l\ ~--'I----I--~=-I--'---
t-Ib; Tail fuse
I ..
XS3 AI ..ith 3':< SiO. gel.
, KCIO.
- -----
I '
--
I
I Con~enUlc cas~.
"peciaUy design
1.7-lb hand tamped
TNT. Tellyl
.: I I 1 I . l>oosW; Tail fuo.
I
lolDuriDl 0--60 mote
AKCP 706-185
TABLE 6-20
SEGREGATED OXIDANT PHOTOFLASH BOMBS
- Integral Ligh8
Total Powder Peale 1O'Candte3ecl!,
Bomb Size in. Weight, - - - - - -- Cenb'al I nUmity, Best 4Oms.
De.ffignation LxDia. lb Outer Shell 1 T<11eT Shell Hw'stm- JOI Candles Period
--- - - ------- ----- -----~~--
-----
(k)() 4x27.5 18 8Alb a.IIb TNT burswr 672 20.2
Al dust RClO.
------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------- -------
()'70 M46 casing 95 Al dust 70 It> KCIO. TNT 3490 130
total chg.
.
--------~~ ---' -------- -----
1'115 M47A3 110 Al dust KCIO, TNT 1470 48.9
Chemical 84lb
bomb case total chg.
------~---- - - - - -- ----~ ------ -.
X52 10 x 3(i 175 Atomized 361b TNT 4890 130
A1781b KCIO,
-~--~ -- - - - - - -
X53 8x22 50 Atomized 121b TNT 2200 74
AI251b-3% KClO, (expected) (expeoted)
silica gel
ARMING
WI
~------------------~-----------4lm .A.----~--~~~------,-------------~
.,I
I~ase rupture thr cloud t'xpHnds against the at- Soml' of the more important of these facwrs are:
lIlospherie pressun" resultill~ in tooling of the (1) charge weight, (2) l'()mpositioll, (3) particle
cloud. Thl' doud Illus-t eontain fairly large sized size, (4) hurst diameter and shapC', (5) igniters
partic'Ie aggrrgates (approximately 2[>0 mierons)18 aIHI hursters, (6) confhwment, and (7) ambient
so as to reach the size ohs,-rved experimentaliy. pressure.
Thl' light output rl~aches a peak value and then
~owly decreases, 6-4.5.1 Charge Weight
Generally, flash powder in itC'ms which produce
6-4.5 FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE a burst approaching a spherieal shape (see also
Thl' light outpnt of bright flash-producing de- Paragraph 6-4.fi.4) develop a total light output
viees is dep.>nticnt upon many interrelated factors. which is proportional to the eharge weight (as is
6-61
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------ --- ------
I---~--
I
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 6·21
TYPICAL COMPOSITIONS FOR PHOTOFLASH AND SPOTTING CHARGES
PHOTOJ;'EA.SIl POWDERS
I :14% Magnesium Used at start of World War II
26% Aluminum in 1\146 Photoflash Bomb
-!O% Potassium Perchlorate
II A 60% 50/50 Magnesium- Dev~loped bt'cause of shortages
Aluminum Alloy at start of W orld War II of
·10% Potassium Perchlorate Aluminum and Magnesium Powder
B 4fi.fj% !i0/50 Magnesium- Later devt'lopmcnt It'd to
Aluminum Alloy substitution of Barium Nitrate
54.5% Barium Nitrate for Potassium Perchlorate
III A 40% Aluminum, Class C
:10% Potassium Perchloratt.
:~O% Barium Nitrate
SPOTTING CHARGES
:W% Atomized Aluminum Dt'veloped to givt' short time to
J 0% Flake Aluminum peak but wit.h less brisancr than
60% Barium Nitrate photoflash powderR
the light product'd ill the best 40 milliseconds, gives bettel results in noneonsolidated illuminat-
CPS. o). The duration of the flash increlJ.S('s as the ing compositions.
eube root of th" {'hargt' wt'ight, while the peak in- Thermodynamic data for stoichiometric mix-
tensity inercases as the two-thirds power of the tures of aluminum and various oxidizing agents
(~hatge wcight. 6P •7 ().ll The efficiency and light out- Ilr~ giv('1l in Table 6_23. 73 The trend is similar to
put for a ~vf'n wright of charge, thcrefot'"e, decrease that for consolidated illuminants. (See Paragraph
with charge weight. 6-3.5.1.) As the molecular weight of the oxidant
increases, the aluminum content of the stoichio-
6-4.5.2 CompoEiti()ll mrtri(~ mix turf deerrasrs so that the heat of reac-
As indieated in Table 6_22,66 aluminum and tion also decreast's. Of the oxidizers listed in this
magnesium are th£' best fuels for use in photoflash tahl(', potassium p('rchlorate produees the highes;t
mixtures at low altitudes. 18 •72 \Vhile atomized mag- hefit of reaction with atomizt'!l Illuminum. Lumi-
nesium gives higher luminuus iutenSoities than Ilosity vahws for varions lIitrates with atomized
other fuels in consolidated illuminating composi- aluminum and atomized magnpsium art' given in
tions, it has been founel that atomized aluminum Table 6-24. As indicated hy th~s table, which is
6-62
AJfCP 7(l6...185
---
6-63
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 6·22
LUMINOSITY CHARACTERISTICS AT SEA LEVEL OF PHOTOFI.ASH COMPOSITiONS
CONSISTING OF HIGH-ENERGY FUELS IN STOICHIuMETRIC AND FUEL·RICH
COMBINATIONS WITH POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE
Aluminum
s 41 1.2 147 9 14 10.3
35
x 41 1.7 226 11 16 13.8
i\:Iagnl'sium
s 18 1.2 142 16 24 10.0
X 20 2.3 um 17 25
15
11.5
Zirconium
s 38 0.7 92 7 14 2.8
x 55 0.9 147
278 11 23 6.9
'l'itanium
s 18 0.4 65 9 15 4.9
4
x 16 1.3 80 12 21 5.1
( 'alcinrn
s 12 1.2 75 16 5.7
30
X 13 1.7 115 15 19 7.4
Bor01l
s 0.5 23.0 IH GH 89 a.5
85
x 2 14.3 51 ;'5 92 8.5
l::;ilicon
s Did not ignite
X Did no t ignite
Iltsil\ll\, whie'h rt·quirrs a mIlch smallrr burster, 1'1"111,in<ii('atl' that these additi"l's do !lot increllse
g-iVl's 11 Hash of much longer duration and has a ttl(' out put of thost' photoHll.qh itpms which arc near
longf'r tiUH' to p,·ak. Tht' magnt'Siulll alloys are optimum. ('()utlirtillg rpslllts hn\'!' bePll obtained.
intrrlJlrdiat,· ill tll{'ir hrhavior. The ilifi'erencr in Some purlier illvl'stigators obt.aint'(l results which
tht' mt'tlll dust.tn-burstrr ratio may iw du(' to the i IIdielttf'd improvement with somt' additives. 18
rplatiVl' ignitibility of th(' metal fuels. Powdered
Illugnrsium is ('asipr to ig-nitr than powderpd alu- 6-4.5.3 Particle Size
minullI; as II ('OIlSNIW'IH't', atollliz('d aluminum hllH ~f ueh of thl' rpsearch und development (·OIH'ern·
not llt'PH Ilsrd rffi('i('utly in It II It·ta 1 dust bomb. in/! photoflash !'ompositions has ('('nh'retl arOlmd
Tilt' longer tinl!' to ppuk anti flash duration of til,· d<'tt'rlllinatioll of tht· opt imum partirll' sizp
maglH'sinlJl ('1111 Ill' t'xplained by thp rradion bl" Hlld shupt'. Whilt· it has IflnlX bt'plI known that
t Wt't'll magnrsiutll and nitrogen whit'h prt,(,pdrs thp t ht' a vt'ragt' partil'lt, sizto !lnt! parti('le sizp rangp
r'('artion with oxygpn. art' important IlIll'IIII1l'It'rs ill d(·tt'rmining thp lumi.
Small amounts of additiVl's, prill('ipally m!'tals nosity ('hanwt/'risti('~ of Jlyrote('hnit' Hash mix-
alld silic'a /!rls. hav!' het'll tried to int·rpas,· thl' light t\lrt'~, 1M d!'tllil(·t\ r!'lationships W('rl' (lifficult to es-
output fr'oll1 photoHash d,'vil·'·S. IV'sults, in gpn- tahlish llntil l1wthoos ht'('aml' availahle to riaSllify
ti-64
AMCP 706·185
PotasHiulIl Ilitralt' 1i!!.:U:1O .H 1766 !t'II\'t' smllH pllrtit'lt's (psrtie\ps having tht' initial
Strolltium lIitl'ldt' iO.::!/:!9.H 1899 sizt' distributioll of tlk llH'tlll dust) which burn in
BariulIl Ilitratt· 74.4/25.11 1598 tht' air.n
Potassilllll pl'n·hloratt' 65.Hj:i4.~ 2529
6-4.5.4 Cloud SlIl; 1le
thl' fllt·l IIlld oxidallt Jll)wdpn; illto narrow pnrti('l" Sillt't' II 1lI!'I I Jlh(ltotla~h bllrst:; ar.. I'sstmtially
SIZt' rllllgl's. sJlht'rit'al ill shapt· alld t'sselltially 0PIlIjUt' to visibl,'
}<'or potassiuIII pt'rehlorntl'-alumilllllll ( 60/40 by rlld luI ion. I ht' Illllount of 1il"'ht mllia!!'(} i~ propol'·
wI·jght) tlash t"omp"silit>lls. it was fO\llld thut ollly t iOllul t() th .. sqlwr .. of thl' burst rlidius, provided,
6-65
AJlCP 706-185
TABLE 6·24
!UMINOSITY VALUES OF VARIOUS OXIDANTS WITH ATOMIZED
ALUMINUM AND ATOMIZED MAGNESIUM TESTED
IN 11.112 PHOTOFLASH CARTRIDGE
Time Total
.Peak to Integral
Intensity, Peak, Light,
Oxidant 106 Oandles msej 1(jl O(1lndle-Seconds
Aluminum Composititms
Sodium nitrate
-----------------
Burned without detonation
Potassium nitrate Burned without detonation
Strontium nitrate 124 3 1.61
Barium nitrate 139 3 1.64
Magnesium Oompositiom
Sodium nitrate 4
Potassium nitrate F"iled to ignite
Strontium nitrate 21 5 0.33
Barium nitrate 42 5 0.65
6-G6
;------1
I I
I I
r- --- SHuTTCn OP"RATIO~
.. <
I
~
.
I
\
5
I
\
I
..
~
I TIIolE INTENSITY Ii
'- -- --'-CHA~ACTrRISTIC 3 2~
MI20 PHOTOFLASH 801018 i
~-- -
zo
TIME. MilLISECONDS
- TIME
Figure 6-44. Time-Intensity Curves for MJ20Al Flash
Figure 6-43. Syrn.hronizafion of ShuHer Powder and MJ22 Dust PhotoRash 80mbs
eoneentrations have greater power than the pure appreciably influence the output of the dust bomb.
explosive and, therefore, perform better as Centrally located bursters, all Eactors considered,
bursters. l8 gave results comparable to those for any other 10-
As has been indicated, there are marked dif- ration. 'I'he shape of a relatively small amount of
ferences in the behavior of flake aluminum, explosive in an essentially nonreacting metal dust
atomized magnesium, and atomized magnesium .. should have little influence except to change the
aluminum alloys when dispersed and i~nited as a Cf'nter of tht' gas bubble formed. (See Paragraph
dust cloud. Flake aluminum requires a weight of 6-4.4.2. ) 88
burster approximately equal to the weight of the For a reactive photoflash mixture where the
metal dust. Atomized magnesium requires much reaction contributes to the growth of the gas bub-
less weight, approximately 1/100 of the weight of ble, the effect of location, shape, and amount of
the metal dust.n The maximum radius of a ruag- initiator are important. The use of an initiator
nesium dust flash depends, approximately, on the too powerful for a particular case and composition
cube root of the dust-to-burster ratio for the lower might cause too rapid expansion of the gas bubble,
ratios and on a somewhat lower power at the higher resulting in casp rupture before a desirable initia-
dust-to-burstf'r ratios. At a constant dust-to-burster tion of the photoflash mixture. For a long column
ratio, the radii of magnesium dust flashes increase, of flash composition with an initiator in one end,
roughly, as the cubp root of the quantity of dust. a stage can be reaehed where reaction in the
In general, for magnesium and magnesium-alc.- photoflash mix will propagate through the mixture
minum alloys, an inereasp in the dust-to-burster resulting in some measure of independence from the
ratio results in an inereast' in time to peak, an in- mode of ignition. 18 .68 During this process, the case
crease in flash duration, along with an increase in must continue to maintain confinement in order to
integratNl light values, and, to e lesser extent, an have adequate ignition of the balance of the photo-
inerpase in light intt'nsity. B?cause of the large flash mixture.
dmoulltH of bllrf:tt'r required for flake aluminum,
variations in the dust-to-burster ratio within the 6-4.5.6 Confinement
llst'ful rangl's Sf'pm to hevt' liUII' effect. The characteristics of the case surrounding a
Other fadors-including shape of the burster, rt'active photoflash mixture affect the amount of
loading tt·ehniqucs, and confinement-have been time available for ignition of the mixture as well as
studird. Most dust-typt' bombs that have been the way the mixture is released and. disseminated.
studird Ilse a cylindrical burster Or a trlmcated A caGe of excesshre strength, requiring an ap-
l~Olle. ,{,lw ml'thod usrd to load a burster did not preciable amount of enerfn' to rupture, may divert
6-67
AMCP 706-185
" 140 -
-iT 10
ftc ~;
0
3
a 110
"~
~I 10
"'
i
~:!;
.
10
103
w
> " ..
;;
i
g i 40 - 00
'0
~
o L-->- --L.~ _~_~ --'-_-'---_-L_~...1--~
'It' 5.0 0600 140 fI(I 71:0 1.., 100 • .0 "0 ~lO MO 1000
0
.." 1.0
TIM(I:, MILLISECOND.
WAIIELENG"It, t.lILLIMICRONS
-......,.~
Tetry!/TNT, 30/70 20/55/25/2.5
:g 6 -0--.-----.- TNT RDX/ AI/PIB,
z
o 78.5/20/1.5
~ !>
...-' Tetryl/AI
o
~
u .-----------. TNT/AI
Tritonal: TNT/AI
80,000 FEET
AvERAGE ALU~INUM
-----------------
PARTIt:LE SIZE' 50 MICAOHS
70/30
75/25
80/20
L - . _ l . - !_ _ L_
8 12 16 20 24
1 I
28 For dust.type photoflll8h bombs, Ule casing ma·
AVERAGE PARTICLE SIZE POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE. U'CRON$
terial has a relatively unimportant influence on
the light OUtput. The thickness of the case has a
Figure 6·46. EHed of Particle Size of Potassium Perchlo· limited but not critical effect on tht' output, espe·
rate on luminous Efficiency of 60/40 Potassium Perchlo·
rate·Aluminum Compositions cially with large bursters. 78.77
6-68
AIltCP 7()6.185
TABLE 6·26
LUMINOSITY CHARACTERI; "~C~ OF PHOTO FLASH COMPOSITIONS CONSISTING OF
HIGH·ENERGY FU~~l.S IN STOICHIOMETRIC COMBINATION WITH
POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE'"
Sea Level
34% AluruinllDl 42 41 1.2 147 9 14 3.5 10.3
41 % Magnesium 35 18 1.2 142 16 24 4.1 10.0
57% Zirconium 58 38 0.7 92 7 14 1.6 2.8
41 % Titanium 33 18 0.4 65 9 15 2.0 4.9
58% Calcium 23 12 1.2 75 13 16 3.3 5.7
17% Boron 31 0.5 23.0 18 68 89 0.6 3.5
29% Silicon 35 Did not ignite
100,000 Feet
34% Aluminum 42 4!J 1.3 103 7 14 2.5 7.3
41 % Magnesium 3n 16 0.5 10 1.2 33 0.3 0.7
57% Zirconium 58 65 0.7 92 3 11 1.6 2.8
41 % Titanjum 33 29 O.n 49 4 13 1.5 3.7
58% Calcium 23 26 0.5 176 2] 29 7:l 13.3
17% Boron 31 No deflection
29 % Silicon 35 Did not ignite
6-4.5.7 Ambient Pressure of light results because the flash diameter at alti-
As indicated by the data in Table 0-26 the tude (l<'igure 6-47) is greater than at sea leve1. 68
light output of most possible photoflash mixtures The effectiveness of photoflash mixtures con-
is less at an altitude of 80,000 feet than at sea taining calcium depends on thp. formation and
level. Of th'~ high energy fuels evaluated, alu- energy content of discrete bands. 78 The phenome-
minum and magnesi. ,n were most efficient at sea non of increasing light output observed with com-
level and raleillm was most efficient up to 100,000 positions containing calcium metal, calcium aHoys,
feet. 66 As the bciling point and extent of diss(lcia- calcium perchlorate, and calcium nitrate also re-
tion of the rea<'ti.oll products dcpend on the am.· sults when adding an inert calcium salt such as
Lif'nt pressure, the final flash temperature will ('alcium oxi,ie ::lr calcium fluoride to a composition
dect'pase with increasing altitude. The radiation producing a high temperature such as aluminum-
prop.ue(>d by most photofia~h items is continuous pota..<;sium IH'rchlerate. The magnitude of the in-
(see Paragraph 6-4.4.1.2) approaching thet of !I. aease in light output, however, is considerably
graybody with a high emissivity and lower light less thlill for otht'f ealcium-cont&ining composi-
values obtail1{'d. Some compensation for this loss tions. H6
6-69
AMCP 7()6.185
REFERENCES
1. Alan St. H. Brock, A History of PtrewOf'ks, port 1758, Picatinny Arse~al, Dover, N. J'.,
George G. Harrap and Co., Ltd., London. .January 1950.
~. Jean Appier (alias Hanzelet), La pyrotechnie, U. S. A. Richer, The Photoflash Bomb, Picatinny
Pont a Mnusson, 1630 (quoted in Brock, A Arsenal, DOVfJr, N. J., April 1935.
History of Fireworks). 15. H. J. Eppig, D. liart, flom"'J, Photoflash, T9
3. Claude Ruggieri, "Elemens de Pyrotechnie," Series: A Study of Light Emission Oharacter-
Fortune, Paris, 1801 and 1821 (quoted in istics of Safe, Dust Type Photoflash Bombs,
BrG~k, A History of Fireworks). Picatiilny A.rsenal Techuical Report, 1757,
4. Claude RuggiE'ri and Thomas Morel, "Die Picatinny Arsenal, ThJver, N. J., "B'p.bruary
Pyrotechnie," N ach der Vorschriften, Leipzig, 1950.
16. S. A. Rieh~r, The Photoflash Cwrtridge, Pic&-
1807 (quoted in Brock, A History of Fire-
tinny Arsenal, D<>ver, N. J., April 1955.
works).
17. M. G. M. Clarkf\ Developmer.t 0/ the Photo··
5. Claude Ruggieri, "Pyrotechnie Militaire,"
flash Bomb, ORDWES Repol·t 1949-5, Wes-
Fortune, Paris, 1812 (quoted in Brock, A
leyan University, ~'diddlet()wn, COrlllccticut,
History of Fireworks).
April 1949.
6. James Cutbush, "Chinese Fire," American
18. The CO'mpilati,')n of Flame and Shockwave In-
Journal of Science, VII, 1823 (quoted in
formation Applicable to Photoflashes, Final
Brock, A History of F'ireworks).
Summary Report, Contract DAI-28-0l7-501-
7. Summary Technical Report, Vol. 2, Chapter
ORD(P)-1096, Arthur D. \Ji.ttle, Inc., Ce.m-
4, NDRC Division 11, National Defense Re- bridge, Mass., September] 955.
search Committee, Office of Scientific Research 19. R. M. Blount, G. Francis, R. W. Evans, Study
and Development, Washington, D. C. of Light Sources for Night Aerial Reconnais-
8. D. Hart, Research and Dct'elopment Progress sance Photr;graphy, Contract DA-36-039-SC·
in Military Pyrotechnics, Research and De- 7833Z, Denver Research Institute, Denver,
lelopment IJecture No. 24, Picatinny Arsenal, Colorado, August 1960.
Dover, N. J., 1955 (DDC-AD 82 6'78). 20. George Shortley llnd Dudley Williams, Ele-
9. T. Stevenson, E. R. Reche!, Delay Actwn ments of Physics, 3rd Ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
T racer Ammunition, Frankford Arsenal Bu- Englewootl Cliffs, N. J., 1961.
port R-44, Frankford Arsenal, Philadelphia, 2]. S. Gladstone and B. Lewis, Elements of Phys-
Pa., 1940. ical Chemistry, Va~ Nostrand Co., Inc., Prince-
10. T. Stevenson, Delay Action and Dim Igniters tou, N. tT., April 1960.
for Small Arms Trucer Bullets, Frankfortl. 22. B. Donda, The Theory of Colored Flame Pro-
Arsenal Report 708, ~-'rankford Arsenal, Phila- duction, RDTN-71, Naval Ammunition Depot,
delphia, Pa., 1946. Crane, Indit/.lla; Bureau of Naval Weapons,
11. Develop, Manufacture and Test F;asklig}:,t Wa:;hington, D. C,
Bombs, Picatinny Arsenal Technical Report 23. E. J. Bowen, The Chemical Aspects of Light,
80a, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., Mru:ch 2nd Ed., Clarendo~ Press, 0xford, 1946.
1937. 24. Intet'national Encydopedia of Ohemical Sci-
12. J. H. Robinson, Investigation of }i1 ailures of eMf. Van Nostrand Co., :nc., Princetou, N. J.
M23 Photclfl:z,sh Bombs, Picatillny Arsenal 25. A. C. Gaydon, The Spectroscopy of Flame,
Technical Report 1068, Picatinny .Arsenal, Chapman ann Hall, Ltd., I;ondon, 1957.
Dover, N. J., January 1941. ~{i, A. (t. Gaydon and H. C. Wolfhard, Flames,
13. H. J, Eppig, D. Hart, Bomb, Photoflash, T9 Their St ..1tcture, Radiation an{i Temperature,
Serifs: Development of Improved Photoftash 2nd Ed., Ohapman and Hall, Ltd., London,
Composition, Pica tinny Arsenal Technical Re- 1960.
6-70
AMCP 706·185
REFERENCES (cont'd)
27. Wal\acp R. Brode, Clwmi,cal Spcctroscopy, tion Chm'ltctet'istics oj Transparent and Trml-S-
John Wilf'Y & Suns, N. Y., 1943. lucl'nt Material Under Nonisothert'ltal Co'ndi-
~H. A. Fran14on, S. K\tz, lWeI E. Rais{~n, "Radia- tions. ASDTDR 62-719, Air Force Systems
tior.. Charadf'ristics of Black Body Sources," Command, Wrigl;t-PnttersOll Air Force Base,
SymposiulH uri Temperature,.lt~ Jlf cawuren,ent Ohio, .T \lIle 1964.
:znd Control, Reinhold Pnb1ishin~ Co., N. Y., 41. B. Jackson, S. M. Kaye, G. Weingarten, Resins
1962. Other Tha.n Laminae 1116' as Binde.rs in Pyro-
~!l. fi. Kinglake. Ed., Applied Opt~'.cs twd Optical
technic Cmt'pos'it'w7ls, Picatinny .Arsenal Tech-
En.oinee r'i '!(j , Vol. I, Academic Press, 1965, nical Note 40, PicatinllY Arsenal, Dover, N, J.,
p. 8.
,January 1960.
:n .f. 'i'hcwl;s, ltJd., Encyc/,opcc/;i{l Dictionary 42. 11. ,J. Eppig. ,J. D. Stracham, Self-Hardening
Physics. Pel'gamon Press, IJtd., London, 1961.
Pyr'otccitnie e'mtpositions, Picatinny Arsenal
:11, 1\I. G. l\1pllon, Ed., Anclytieal A bsorption Spec-
Te'~llllical Heport 1801, Picatinny Arsenal,
troscopy, .John Wacy & Sons, Inc., N. y"
Dovel', N. •T., December 1950.
195J.
43. D. Hart, Rcsrarch and Devclopment in Mili-
:32. R. h Weber, lVi. 1.V. ,;Thite, K. V. Manning,
tary Pyrotcchnics, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover,
Pily~'ics f01' !.h:ic)1cC and Engineenn)7, McGraw-
N. J., February 1955 (DDC-'fIP U10769).
Hill Book Co., Inc., N. Y., 1957.
H. B. ,Tackson, An Investigation of the. Effects
:]3. R. C. ('aSpp.rsoll, H. P. Lenzyck, R. C. Chau-
of Loading Pressure, Flare Case Coating, and
nel, Visibil~ty Data as It Lippl'ies to Pyrotech-
:lIagrtcsinll! Particle Size on the Burning Time,
nics, Contraet DAI-2H-017-501-0RD(P)-1294,
Luminous Intensity, and Color Characteris-
Dunla 1) awJ Associates, Stamford, Connectl-
tics of PY"otechm'c Flarl? Compositions, Pica-
ent, April 25, 1955.
t illllY Arsenal Technical Note 14, Picatinny
:l4. E. Frl'emun, G. Weingarten. A Thermal
Arsenal, Dover, N. J.
Theory for Hates of Propagative Bu'rning.
.til. R. M. Blount, R W. Evans, Exycrimental In-
Pieatinny Arsenal Technical Report 2596,
vestiaation of Infrared Radiating Sources,
Pi(~atillny Arsenal, Dover, N. fL, June 1959.
Denver Resl}arch Institute, Denver, Colol'ado,
:{5. D. Hart, H .•J. Eppig, Long Range Research
,July 1!J61 (DDC-AD 324 807), March 1962
011 Pyrot('chmcs,' Burning Characterist·ics cf
(DDC-AD 328 6aO), November 1962 DDC-
Biliary Mixtures, Picatinny Arsenal 'rechnical
AD 332 848),
Report 1669, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J.,
46. B. ,Jackson, The Effect of Cross-Sectiona,lArea
Octubu' 1941 (DDe-ATI 6G 289).
and Case Material on Burning Characteristics
:36. Herbert Ellprll, Modern Pyrotechnics, Chem-
ical Publishiilg' Co., N. Y.! i96I. of Pyrotechnic Compositions, Picatinny Ar-
:n. B. E. Donda, Rclat'wnships Obserued in Col- s(,Ilal ':.'echnical Note 7, Picatinny Arsenal,
ored Flare.~, ItDTR--15, ~aval AmlPllllition Dover, ~ .•J., September 1957.
Depot. Cralle. Indiana.; Bureau of Naval 47. A. 1<'. Taschl('r, S. M. Kaye, Effects of Mag-
'Veapolls, WashingtolJ, D. ('., Scptembl>r 1964. I!('"iunt Content C(U!e Material and Case Coat-
:{R. R. Ii'. Barrow and E. E. (,aldin, "Some Spec- ino 011 Burnina Characteristics of a, Flare
troscupi(~ ObservstiollS of Pyrotcch!lic l<'lames," SYldem, Pir'atinllY Arsenal Techilical Note 42,
['roen:din(/s uf Physical Socidy of Londmi, PicatillI!Y Arsenal, Dover, ~. J., April 196C.
62 (194!)) -ttl. S. Rrsniek, Simulated lliah Altitude Tests of
:{9. B. E. Donda, Emissioil Studies of Sr/ected Py- Illumination Compositions, Picatinny Arsenal
l'ottc/'llic Planlls, RDTN-77, Naval ·\mmuni- Hrport ~161i, Pieatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J'.,
tion Dppot, Crane, flldiana: Bureau of Naval April ]955.
WI'apolls, WashilH.~tO!l, n. C., Aug-llst 1964. ·W. W. A. :-;l'hJllt'lill~, Applird Rlsea.rell for Threat
-to. R. C, f<'olv,'pil('r, W .•.1. Mallin, 'l'hamal Radiu- Si(Jlwtuff (hnl'ratioll Tahniqll()S, Final Re-
6-71
AMCP 706-185
REFERENCES (cont'd)
port, Denver Research Institute, Denver, Col- 60. R. G. Weldon, Development of the Signal,
orado, August 1963 (DDC-AD :140411). Flash, Guided M'issile MK 37 Mod 0 for the
50. R. Shulman, Effects of Variation of Cavity Spar?"ow III Missile, NA VORD 5860, Bureau
Geometry Upon Small Arms Tracer Burn- of Naval Wf'apons, Washington, D. C., May
ing, !<'rankf"rd Arsenal Report 1421, Frank- 1958.
ford Ars')nal, Philadelphia, Pa. 61. ,J. W. Haldeman, Development of the Signal,
51. E. S. Freeman, "The Kinetics of the Under- J<'lash, MK 19 Mod 0 for the Terrier BT-3 Mis-
water ('orrosion of Powdered Magnesium," sile and the S£gnal, Flash, MK 56 Mod 0 for
Journal of Physical Chemistry 59, 1009 the Corvus Missile, NA VORD 7055, Bureau
(1955 ). of Naval -Weapons, Washington, D. C., Sep-
;)2. R. ~1. Blount, G. Francis, Study of Light tember 1960.
SOlt;'crs for Niaht A_erial Reconnaissance Pho- 62. Air Force Manual 55-6, Department of Air
tography, Contract DA-36-039-SC-78333, Den- Force, Washington, D. C.
ver Research Institute, Denver, Colorado, Au-
63. Air Force Manual 95-3, Department of Air
gust 1960.
~~orce, Washington, D. C.
53. ,J. R. Quick, R. T .•Johnson, Simplified Method
64. S. Haffner, A Survey of Available Literature
of Determim:ng Optimum Burst Altitudes for
on the Rapid Combustion of Metals in Air,
Aerial Photoflash Bombs Under Various Con-
Picatinny Report 2061, Pica tinny Arsenal,
ditions of Light Output and Flight Altitude
Dover, N. J., September 1954 (DDC-AD 44
for Fixed Camera Trail-Angle Combination,
543).
WCIIR-55-5, Wright Air Development Center,
65. A. A. Shidlovsky, }I'1tndamentals of Pyrotech-
Air 'l'echnical Service Command, Wright-Pat-
me, Government Publication of the Defense
terson Air Forct' Ease, Ohio, November 1956
Industry, 1st Ed., Moscow, 1943 (Library of
(DDC-AD 110 518).
Congress Call No. UF 860.85), 2nd Ed., Mos-
;j4. Night Aerial Photography, A Technical His-
cow, 1954 (Library of the University of Cali-
tory, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Con-
fornia, Berkeley, Calit).
necticut, July 1954 (DDG-AD 46 595).
55. The Magnesium Burner: Uses Other Than 66. S. Lopatin, Sea Level and High Altitude Per-
Photographic, Wesleyan University, Middle- formance of Experimental Photoflash Composi-
town, Connecticut, May 1951 (DDC-ATI 168 tions, Picatinny Arsenal Technical Report 29,
202). Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., October 1961.
56. The Magnesium Burner, II. Fll~ls, Wesleyan 67. J. Hershkowitz, The Action of an Explosive
University, Middletown, Connecticut, October on Surrounding Nonreacting Metal Dust, Pica-
1952 (DDC-A'l'i 171 350). tinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., December 1957
;)7. R 'r. Eckenrode and F. L. Marian, The Spot- (DDC-AD-150 486).
ting Technique: The Question of Spot vs 68. .J. Hershkowitz, The Mechanism vf Ignition and
Smokr ami Spot Duration, Memo for Hccord, Propagation of Oxidant-Metal Flashes, Pica-
Project TS 4-4020, Frankford Ar.,enal, Phila- tinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., April 1958 (DDC.
delphia, Pa., November 1964. AD 156424).
5~. R. 'r. Eckenrode, ThlJ Spottiny Tr.~hni(i1te: Ef- 69. R. M. Badger, A. L. Wahrhaftig, F1trther
fect of Ambient Illumination, Spot Intensity Stlldi(;s of the Effect of Co'mposition on the
and Color, Memory Screen Information, Memo Properties of Flash Powders, Contract W-535-
for Rt'eord, Project 754, :F'rankford Arsenlll, AC-24521, California Institute of Technology,
Philadelphia, Pa., October 1955. Pasadpna, California, .July 1942.
59. D. D. Collins, Pyrofuhnic ll'lashes and Flares 70. R. G. (~lark(', W. C. Nelson, R. W. Stallbaum,
in (hn"ded Missilr Trackiny, RedslOne Arsenal, Photoflash Boml). IV. The Effects of Cast and
Huntsville, Alabama, December 1959. /land Packui Bursters, ORD 1951-2, Wea-
6-72
REFERENCES (cont'd)
leyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, search 118boratory Technical Report 44, Pica-
June 1951 (DDe·AD 51 317). tinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., November 1961
71. Further Investigation of Photoflash Powders, (DDC-AD 266 486).
Memo Report ENG-M-59-676-15-26, AAF Ma- 75. S. Lopatin, C. A Knapp, Pelletization of n-
teriel Center, Photographic La.boratory Sec· luminants to Improve Photoflash Efficiency,
tion, Air 'l.'echnical Service Command, Wright- Picatinny Arsenal Technical Note 24, Pica-
Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, February tinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., August 1959
1943. (DDC-AD 207 077).
72. P. Tavernier, Contribution to the Study of 76. R. G. Clarke, The Photoflash Bomb. Ill. The
Plash Powders, Translation by U. S. Joint rasing and the Dust Oharge, ORDWES Re-
Publication Resf'srch Service of report from port ORD 1950-4, Wesleyan University, Mid-
Liberateire de la Commission des Substances dleto\'1n, Connecticut, June 1950.
Explosive, 17 May 1944, Picatinny Arsenal 77. H. G. Clar!:e, C. B. Ford, The Photoflash
Technical Memorandum 1072, Picatinny Ar- Bomb. II. Technical Developments in 1947-9,
senal, Dover, N . •T., October 1963. ORDWES Report 1949-11, Wesleyan Univer-
73. G. Weingarten, Ohemistry of Pyrotechnics, sity, Middletown, Connecticut, May 1949.
Presentation at Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, 78. S. Lopatin, High Altitude Flash Oharacteris-
N. J. tics of Oalcium! Potassium Perchlorate and
74. S. M. Kaye, J. Harris, Effect of Fuel and Oxi- Standard Photoflash Compositions, Picatinny
dant Particle Size on the Performance Ohar- Arsenal Technical Rf'pnrt 2646, Picatinny Ar-
acteristics of 60/04 Potassium Perchlorate! senal, Dover, N. J., October 1959 (DDe-AD
Aluminum Flash Composition, Feltman Re- 313 204).
6-73
AIfCP 706-185
CHAPTER 7
PRODUCTION OF SMOKE
7-1 HISTORICAL SUMMARY, GENERAL filters for industrial purposes, dispersion methods
The military use of smoke for screening and/or for chemicals used in the control of insects,S and
signaling is probably as old as warfare itself.1.2 cloud travel and contamination behavior for use
Before gllnpowder and other pyrotechnic mixtures in the solution of industrial pollution problems.
were available, smoke was made by the burning
of natural materials such as grass. The wide- 7-1.1 SCREENING SMOKES
spread, planned use of smoke in military opera.- The tactical pOMibilities of using smoke to
tions may, however, be considered to be a develop- screen friendly troops and terrain from enemy
ment of World War I. During this period, smoke observation, were comparatively late in being ap-
was used extensivdy for signaling, screening troop preciated. Isolated tactical uses are recorded, such
movements, and as a fear mechanism due to the as the screening of a river crossing with the smoke
rrsrmblance of screening smokes to certain toxic produced by the burning of damp straw by Charles
chemical agents. l •a XII of Sweden in 1700.1 However, for the century
The reseal'eh and development concerned with prior to World War I, the dense clouds of smoke
tht> military uSe of particulate clouds started o'.ur- incidental to the use of black powder had been a
ing W o~ld War I and was continued at a limited growing nuisance; and methods for the artificial
rate in the period between the two World Wnrs. gel1t'!'ation of umoke for military purposes were
Thc tactical significance of the planned nse of neglected until just before World War I when the
smoke, which was not fully realized until the close first experiments of this type were made in con-
of World War I, was strongly considered early in nection with naval operations.
World War II where the requirements for smohe- The German Navy performed with ship-borne
projucing devices were much grea.ter. Consequent- generators using sulfur trioxide and ~hlorosulfonic
ly, e~tensive research and development programs acid from 1906 to 1909 and used these methods for
were established early during World War II to producing sllioke in exercises carried out in 1914.
obtain the information necessary to develop thf' At about the same time, the British and American
tactically required smoke-producing items. Navies inve'ltigated the use of "funnel smoke"
After W orld War II, research and development produ'~erl by restricting the air supply to the fur-
programs on particulate clouds of military interest naces. The navll.I use of screening smoke developed
were continued again at a reduced rate. In spite rapidly enough so that the German Navy employed
of this lin,ited effort, information obtained from it with great success in the Battle of Jutland.
these programs proved valuable during the Korean Scre<'ning smokes played an increasingly impor-
Conflict. Since that time, work has progressed tant !'ole in later naval engagements.
in the development of improved smokes and in During World War I, the dense clouds pro-
fulfilling new requirements for ahlR in the tracking duced in damp weather from chlorine gas alBo
and 8 !quisition of missiles and aircraft.
1 llerved to musk other activities and clearly demon-
The research and development in exploiting the strated the tactical value of smoke in land war·
ul'lefulness of particulate douds for military pur- fare. The British, in 19]5, were the first to make
poses have also proved to be of great value for use of smoke 0/1 land to simulate gas attacks and
civilian applications. These include the physics to scret'n advane;ng troops. The material used to
of atomization, tIle production of high.efficiency grlWl'ate this smoke was the British type.S smoke
7-1
AJlCP 7Q6.185
mixt 1'1' of pitch, tallow, black powder, and salt- rial or a sllitablr method for producin~ large-area
peter. Thl' obscuring pom'r of the smokfo Wa.<J due s('rprns,
to inrompl~tp combustion of the solid particles in The smoke munitions available in 1940 included
the pitch. Rrreening smoke WIiS used on a large proj(,(,tiles, bombs, smoke pots, grenades, and air-
seal(' by th", Canadians in their attack on Messines planp spray tanks, whirh were sufficient to enable
Ridge in Septembpt 1915. During the following ground taciical units to conceal their movements
year, the use of smoke continued to increase as its by laying curtains of smoke across the battlefront.
value became apparent to all of the major bellig- The tal·tical employment of small, smoke-produc-
f'rents.l ing munitions was established as a result of actual
Both rrd and white phosphorus were soon intro- experience in field rnaneuvers and demonstrations.
duced as smokp-producing materIals. White phos- Th(' principal screening materials available in-
phorus prov('d to be the more efficient of the two and (~lllded sulfur trioxide-chlorosulfonic acid (FS),
was by far thi' most effi('ient smoke-producing ma- a liquid solution for USf' in projectiles and airplane
terial introduced during World War I. Sulfur spray tanks; hexachloroethane-metallic zinc mix-
trioxide was the next most efficient smoke-produc- ture (He), a solid mixt.ure used in burnine--type
ing material used, in spite of t.he fact that humid munitions such as grenadefoi and smoke pvts; and
air was required to fonn the sulfuric acid fumes. white phosphorus (WP), used in grenades, pro-
Other materials whirh produce sulfuric acid fumes jeetiles and bombs. These materials were superior
on eon tart with humid air, such a.<J oleum, chloro- to similar materials d~veloPed and used during
~ulfonir acid, and sulfuryl chloride, were also World War I.
widely used. The two latter materials also pro- Thf effectiven('ss of German air operations
duced hydrochloric Ilr:d fumes. Metallic chlorides, against British cities during 1940-41 was consider-
including till tl'trachloride (British K..r., French ably reduerd through the use of large-area smoke
Opacite), titanium tetrachloride (Germall F-Stoff; scrpens whieh prevented accu:rate aiming. The
British protected important industrial eenters with
United States PM), and silicon tetrachloride, were
smoke pots of an oil-burning type similar to the
also used.
smudge pots uSl'd in United States orange groves.
Another group of materials, producing the so-
Unes of smoke pots were laid out in such a manner
('aIled zin(' smokps. wrre basically mixtures of rinc
that the vital area was s~reened under any wind
dust and an organi(' ehlorine-eontaining' compound.
dirpetioll. The operation of this type of stationary
Tht' Berger mixtur(', used by the French (!uring
:o;mokp pot line required an extensive supply system
World 'Val' T. was composNI of zinc dust, carbon
since all important areas needed protection. As a
tetraehloridp, ziu(' oxidp. a!1(l kipst'lguhr. An im-
result. the British developl'd truck-mounted mo-
prov('d mixture wa" dr-veloJl('d in 1917 hy the U. S.
bil" gt·lIPrators. the most suitable of which was
Bureau of Mines alld was known as the BM Mix-
known as the "Haslal''' whieh produced a gray-
ture. This mixtur(' ("ollsistN} of zilJl' dust, carbon
brown smoke by burning and vaporizing crude
tetrarhlori<ie, t:odiulIl chlol'idp, ammoIliulIl ehloridc, oiI.··~
and mSj:..'1\,'siutn l'arilonate.
In the tTnitl'd States, the Defense Department
TIl(> intl'oJuM.ion of militn.ry aireraft. especially and the National Defpnsl' Resesl('h Committee,
bombt'rs whi('h ('ould attat'k important r('ar·are& alollg with several universitips and industrial con··
targl'ts, en'at('d a definite lH't'd for large-area ('('rIlS, eooperatiwly pm barked on a research pro-
smok(' Sl'ret'lls for prot,(·('fion. ('oIlse<jllt'ntly, much ~ralll to produee lurgp-area smoke sereens, 'F,l\r~y
of tht' effort bt'twe!'11 tlw two World Wars was di- ill 1(14:!, the optimulIl particle size for a hydro-
1"I,(,tt"d tow8rtt developing tt'ehniquI''i for produeing ,'arholl slllokt' was detprmilled and meehanical
fht'S<' largt'-art'a SDlOke s('reens. iTlL'ludillk tht· use smoke ~'\'nerat{lrs wert' devt·lopl'd to produce this
of airera!"t for this pllrpost'4.~ At the begiilning tyP(' ,If scrt'I'n,6 Work on smoke pots based on the
of World War II. howt'wr, nrit}wr tht· lTnitl'd veuturi prim'ip!!' was started at this time using
States nor Ureat Britaill had II satisfadory matp- fupl hloekll ttl vaporize volatile materials; however,
7-2
AMCP 7M-1SS
tht's{' de"ic{'s were not fully fNldy for production by the Servj(~es. ljittle information on the manu-
during World War II. flletnre and applieution of colored smoke Si10rlM
The ~mokc-producing materials sHch IL<; WP, WIIS available in th(' United States !it the beginning
F'~, and IH' had disadvantagt's which at times, of World War ~ cluf', mainly, to t.he eur.taiirnent in
Iimitl'd their llsefulness in World Vlar n. All of fireworks ltuUlufaeturc. Investigations were started
the smokps prodllcPcl froUl thest' rnat{'rials ,"'ere by various ei'lilian and military agencies. Various
irritating'. FS smok{' was corrosiv{' in the presence t.ypes of smokf' signai!;--inc·luding both parachute
"f moisture. WP smoke tended to rise rapidly, or and non parae hut<:, rockets, 1 jfle grenades, Very
to pillar, due to thl' heat given off by the burning pistol eartridgrs, hand grenadt~ signals for avi-
phosphorus. He, .'lad similar smoke compositions, ators, submariuf' reeognition signals, and smoke
produeed zinc chlorid;- which was toxic. In spite pots I',)r ground use--were developed in a variety
of tlll' disadva1ltages, thest items wprp useJ, along of polors. Inasmuch as the American Expedition-
with th" Ilt'wly deveiopPfl, mechanical smoke-pro- ary l<'Ol'eps wer(' to opt'mtr in 11 sector held by the
dtwing dt'vii't's, in advancing the strategic and French Army, it was found expedient to adopt the
hwtieal us!' of smoke durinl~ World War II. For t'lltirc Fr('IlCh Army system cf pyrotechnics.
the fil'st time, large areas, including whole cities, The I<'renrh lIsed colore:d smoke sign!l.ls whieh
('()uld be screenrd from aerial obsenr p.tiol1 for rela- eonsiflted of red and yellow smokes in signal para-
tiwly long ppriods of time.4.5 ehutt' rockets, rifle grelHl.des, ?5 mm and 35 mm
Scrt'enin)r smokp again proved to br of vaIu,:, Vf'ry ;listol cartridges, and a messel"ger signal
ill the Korpan actioll in whirh the United Nations' TIll' only }<-'rellch smok(' manufactured in the
:£"orpes o)wra ted without t he benefit of air superi- United States was yellow smoke, since this item
ority for much of the hm('. Hence, lar~l>-area (~oul(l J.ll~ producpd from avaiiablt' ingredients; the
ser('(,lls \wr(' rmployed to protect vital port areas orlwr colored smokes, sueh as re(~, could not be
as well as forward combat areafl. 7 In addition, manufactnrecl because necessary rlyeGtuffs were in
lIIurh of ttl(' I(orpan Ih'1 ion was a st-uggle for dom- short supply at that time. The United States did
inating terrain, and smoke wa'> constantly used in lIot develop mortar or artillery projectiles pro<1uc.
rplativply small·scale operations. t 'olored smoke ing colored smoke durinf-,' World Wlir I.
was also used for screening personnel withdrawal The British Army also recognized the need for
opl'rations heeawH' it persisted IOllger thRn the colort·d smoke signals and developed a number of
whitr ph()sphorns smoke norlllllJly used for this Sttch lllunitiolls early ill Wor.ld 'Val' 1. Red, yel-
pUrp051'.1,6,8
low, hlut" and violet smokes were devdoped for
liS\' ill rille g'renadl's (with or without parachutes),
'7-3
AlrICP 706·185
III the period betwc!:n World War:; I and II, a Hulbct ill Ii tlrcrease in tht' flam~ color and intellRity.
cOl\s\derl\bl(~ l\umber of llluuitiollS for producing Hillel' thl' +I aliI(' tra(~el' W:1S coneidered most im ..
colort!d smokr were dewloped. I.ncluded amor.g f\Jrtllnt, (hI' work was not pursued. After World
these items wprc colore(~ smoke halld and rifle gre- \Vat· II, It requirement for smoke tracers was re-
nades, canisters containing colored smoke fillings rstablishrd, and improved smoke tracerl'. were de-
for val'ious calibers of projectiles, colored &treamer VI'IOPNI based 011 the use of organic dyes,lO the
smoke bombs, colored smoke markers for aerial best d which were of th!' anthraquinone series
delivery containel'd, and colored bursts for the 4.2- producing orange-red smoke. These smok'l tracers
inch chem~cal mortar projectile. All of the~e were WHe developed primarily for training pilots t~
produced in a variety of col.ors. The British Army impnve their gunnery score with wing-mount.ed
also developed ('olc-red smoke rifle and hand gre- guns. D,]e to th~ pilot's extreme forward position
IlRdes, and colored smoke fillings for most (;f their in th!' aircraft, flam(' tr«crrs coming from the wing
artillery projectiles. The German Army limited gnns in the rear were difficult to pick up and fol-
their '!Olored smoL:e signals t,) various small hand low visually a.., they passed. Smoke tracers, on the
signals. other hand, left a lingering trail which was easier
Extensive use of signal smoke in 'World War II to sight and point at. the target. However, since
and the Kore16n Conflict proved that the nsc or they could not be seen readily at night they were
colored smoke fr)r dignaling purposes has an im- not. considered all-purpose tracers and, consequent-
portant place in the communications system of ly, did not brcome standardized.
modern warfa,re. Four colors-red, green, yellow, In 1950, development of spotting bullets as an
and violct--were found to be the most suitable. additional aid for fire control and target acquisi-
SmGkes were a~so of value in marking a specific tion was undrrtakel1. l l A smaller caliber spotting
operations area or target They also played an bullet was designed to match the trajectory of the
important part in antisubmarine warfare and in major round at the critical range. Upon impact
air-sea rescue operations. In many instances, espe- with the target or nearby, the spotting bullet ex-
e£ally in the I(or~.an Conflict, the use of pyrotech- ploded to givc flash and smoke. Since the flal:lh was
nic signals, including smoke, was much faster and of extremely short. duration ~ 30 to 50 millisee-
more effe.~ti ve than more modern communications onds), the smoke puff became of greater impor-
methodE when the tactical situation was degen- talwe because it rose and lingered over the point
erating. 9 of impact for a longer period so that the gunner
could readily correct his aim. This development
resulted in thr standardization of the caliber .50
7-1.3 TRACKING AND ACQUISITION
M48 eombinatioll spottRr-tracer round and the de-
SMOKES velopment of a Ilrw family of spotting rounds.
Rmoke has been found to definitely complement Another WIt' for the smoke-producing devices
t.he observance of tracer projt'ctiles and, more resultl'd from the illl'reasing sp('ed of air or space
recrntly, has bt'rn used as a space yehiele tracking vehietes which were uewlopcd after World War
aid. Tracer bulll'ts, while dew·loped as a light- J 1. III ()f(h'r to assist t.f·st personnel in the optical
produeing devie!' for improved aim and fire con- tracking of tht'St' vehides, it was Ilecessary to de-
trol for automatil~ w('apons, emit distinct amounts Vt'lop smoke-producing tra('ki~lg aids, somt' of which
of white smokr which is ('om posed essentially of wt'r{' reqnirt'd to fUllctioll at {'xtrl'llwly high alti.
metal oxide particles. Undt'r l'ertain atmospheric tudes.
conditions, snch as firing into bright sllnlight, the
sr..oke trail i>. ('asipr for II. g'Ullllt'r to follow than a
1'1'11 flame tra('rl', a.lt hough t hl' fiaml' tract'r is tht' 7·2 PROPERTIES OF SMOKE
bpst UIld~1' most otill'r l·ollditions. In 192:3, studie:,; 'rlw vultH' of a Illilitary slllokt', wilatever its use,
Wt're Ilndt'rtakplI to dew lop a smokt' tracer. It is r,'latt'd to tilt' seattt'riug', ref\el'tioll, and absorp-
was soon appart'nt that att('mpts to ill~rease the tioll of il!(·idt·nt radiatioll by smllll slIspended 1'8;'-
volume of tht' smukt' trail along the trajt'ctory rl'- t it'!t·;-i. Tllt'sl' propf'rtil's art' assot'illtf'd with the
7-4
1-----------------.---
AJlCP 706·185
[ !r-....... ·. .........
r·' . . . I
!
! , -<,
I
, i
I "·! ,
_-
i 1
.
..... _ACe
i ..-
... ..., I
, [
TV"tCIolM'mc~u I~a~ ~
I
1
'ftOt""'~CIMIlrll;OFW~~ 1",,-
('"'~.i! I
- ~
'-
~ ,
-- 1
I I
.. ~It .. 1ON
I I
i I ..... TliaJC.l[! _.._---_ ...... ",1 '~:r
I
~f~'Mt'd....L ''l''''IIA0'>1«JooII(.-
1"" ,o"~,o" ",'
.,., c' 010-' ",' ~ . 'P.' ,,' ~' , <I'
" ",' ",' ,d'
r=~~~"J
n',
,,' ",' I I
I '"
~ .i' <l
'"
')' 1l.tfrrtC. "fLOCII
( .. /5(0;:
"" -,I ",' ",'
".. 1
.... TlCl I
.~
,*,"i"US~
I
~i ~. I, i
. <,'
-
COI"'ICII'1iIT ~, ~,
I ~,
~.
""I/MC
L-..-~~ ""I
",'
'°'1 ,
""" 0'''''' 0","
'''' 00 00> 0' 0'
'" ~ !CO
""'"
Mln'ICL( tu.Mur"._....
number, siz(', and naturp of the suspended par- Dusts are particulate clouds made up of solid
tides. The number of particles, their size, and particles formed by the mechanical disintegration
initial behavior depend upon the smoke agent, the of matter. The diameter of the particles in a
parti('ular munition, and tht, method of release. dllst range from about 0.1 micron to greater than
Thp d('llsity, persistenc.y, and subsequent behavior 100 microns.
of' the smoke eiOllrl also depend on meteorological Mists arl' gaseous snspt'llsions of liquid droplets
eOllditions, such as humidity, wind speed, wind di- produeed by the condensation 01' a vapi>r or atom·
rt'etioll, and air stability. ization of a liquid. Mists, especially those occur-
ring IIlitllrally, ('onsist of relativeiy large particles
7·2.1 PROPERTIES OF PARTICULATE rUIl~ing ill size frcm around 5 microns to larger
CLOUDS3,12 than 10 mi('rons. If the concentration of droplets
The dassitieatioll elf types of suspensions in is grt'at !'Ilough to intt'rfere with vision, it is called
terms of thl'ir nuture, origin, and particle size has a fog.
!lot bpt'll ('olllpl"t!'ly S\ll"l'l'ssful (Iut' to t hl'ir indefi· A S!l1okt' is a suspens;on in a gaseous medium,
!litt' ('haraetl'risti('s awl bl'('lluS(' of tht· differences, slleh liS tlIt' atmosphere, of small partieles which
llut always dl'llr·eut, twtWI'PIi dt'st!riptivt' terms in IIIIVt' h rt·}uli\,t·ly low vapor pressure and whieh
S('it'lltitip 1I11t! ('0111111011 usag,', A gaseolls sllsIKmsion st·ttl!' slowly ullder the infiueJl(!e of gravity. AI-
of liquid or s()lid pllrti(·!t·s t!)(, diallleter of whieh t hOUl!h sllIukl's arl' oftI'll (' haractl'rized by their
is I"ss t hall IOO lIlil'ro/ls is ('ommolily t'alled Ii par- II\O;lt, ot' fllrlllutioll, tilt' main criterion is one of
til'ulll.tt' (·Iowl. 'l'h('l't' art' th1'l't' broad ('lass!'!! of pllrti('\t· siZt', Whilt', at OIH' ti>lll', (lilly clouds
partit'ullllt' ('Iollds: (1) (iusts, (~) mist.", /llld un forllll'd by ('OIl1bllstioll and destr\l('tive distillation
slllokt's. If tht, pIII·tieil'S ill UIIY pllrticu\llt(· cloud wt'rt' l'lassitit'(l as smokes, lit prt'st'ut lU\y gllSl'OWi
urt' It'ss thlln approxillllltt·ly 10 JIlil'rOlls ill di. SllSpt'IISioll of pnrtil'it's rIluging ill size from ap-
IIIl1t'tt'r, tht·), IIrt' t'all"d aerosols. 'I'ht' t.(·rm Ilt'rosol proxilllutt'ly 0.01 t() pt'rhllJls :).0 mi('rom, in diaD}·
\l'IIS illtrudlll"'d to ,'ov,,!' Oldy tille. Ilt'rilll sUlipell- ,'It'r. Ilnd whi('h "lIll11t1t 1)(' ('11,s.o;ifi,'d liS a dust or
siolls. It hilS. hOWt'v!'/", bpt'li applit·d ill r:'t'('ut yt'a~ III i:-;I , is t'ollsitit'rl'd to lit' U SlllOk(,. III many ('ases
to alrllost Hlly III'rial SUSIlt'llsiulI of pln'tieles. hi Ill" slllokt' parti('/t·;; an' aglo(rt'I{lIt,·S of lIIal1Y ex-
SOl/lt· "IIS('S, "spt'("ially ill th,' I 'uit .. d Statt's, thl' t rt'lIlt'ly SIIIII II , pri IlIl1ry purl idt's. ( 'a rl,() II tHuokt's,
It'rm at'rmwl is \IiiI'd iustt'lld of pl1rticullltt' dour.!. for PXlllllplt" lin' l'llUlllOsed of t'xtrl'IlIt'ly "mall,
7-5
AM"P 706-185
6r----r--~r_--,_--_,----~--~----~---r--------------
2.00
c
....
II: C
C ....
II:
....
>
C
j:: ....
::)
3
....uIL II:
t-
IL
....
.
" .50
0
0 O. 0.2 05 0.4 O~ 06 0.7 0.8 0.9 LO 1.1
, 51 0115 0~Z4 0.393 0.3'4 0212 0224 0.196 o 17~ OI~1 0.'43
7-6
AHCP 706-185
primary particles 0f approximately 0.02 micron in scattering of vehicle light will occur when the
diamlt<>r which coagulate into irregular filaments droplets art' aoout 0.3 micron in diameter.
that may reach a length of several mi(Jron~. In The angular distribution of the scattered light
Figur(' 7-1 is shown ttl!' approximate particle i,,, also a function of rIA. For Rayleigh scattering
sizp range~ for typical airborne particles. by small particles, the forward and backward scat-
te1'ing is the same. With an increase in the pg,rticle
7-2.1.1 Opti~l Properties of Particulate Clouds radius, the forward !'lC8,ttering becomes much
greatPf. For a particle whose radius is equal to or
Particles suspended in a gaseous medium scat-
grf'ater than the wRvplength of light, this f~wtor
ter, rrileet, and absorb radiation in a manner which
may bt' 1000 or morr in favor of the forwar.d IScat-
depends on the nature, size and shape of the
tpring.
particle, and the wcvelength of the incident radia-
f:;moke clouds, which have a distribution of
tion. These factors, in turn, determine the effec-
particle sizes, exhibit the scattering which would
tiveness of a smoke for screening and its visibility
be observed for a mixture of a larg-e number of
when used for signaling or similar purposes.
different uniformly sized smokes mixed in varying
Tht' scattering of light by a particle can be
proportions. No completely satisfactory analysis
treated as the interaction bfltween the electro-
of thp amount of scattering that may be expected
magnetic waves and the particle. When light
from such a polydispersed smoke cloud has been
strikes a particle which is comparable in size to, or
marle.
smaller than, its wavelength; reflection and re-
The theoretical treatmeut of the scattering of
fraction, in their normal sensc, no .longer occur.
light by particles which also absorb is a difficult
Interaction between the radiation and particle
problem, especially when absorption is selective.
results in energy being removed from the wave
When the incident light is white, thc scattering
front. Some of this energy is de~rarled to heat but
by each of the particles will remoVl' s.:>me of the
much is re-radiated as scattered radiation. Each
particle be(~omes, in pi'fpet, a self-luminous source. light selectively absorbed so that the light finally
scattered by the cloud will be colored.
The theory of scattering by spberical particles
was developed from Maxwell's equat.ions by 'Jus-
7-2.1.2 Properties of Particulat~ Clouds Affecting
tave Mie. 13 For spherical particle!> which are small
Their Stability
eompared to the wavelength of light, this theory
gives rN,ultf< which are in complete a.greement with Smoke clouds and other particulate clouds are
the results obtained from the ll~ss-general Rayleigh esr,entially unstable and will eventually dis&.ppear
theory which states that the amount of radiation with timr ill)e to: (a) motion of the particles, (b)
scattered is inversely proportional to the fourth evaporation and/or eondensation, and (c) .:Joagu-
power of the wavelength. As the particle radius lation and agglomeration.
ir.f!reases in size to approximat?ly the wavelength
of the light, the scattering becomes a complex func- 7-2.1.2.1 Motion of Smoke Particles
tion f)f the particle radius, the refractive index of Movement of smoke particles under the in-
thl' partiele, and the wavelength of the incident fluen('e of gravity and as a result of nndom bom-
light. Tht' scattering eoefficient, i.e., the scattering bardment by gas molecules (Brownian motion)
indpx, is an ext,.emply complex function of the may cause particles to disappear by sedimentation
parameter r! A, where r is the radius (f the particle or diffusion. Sedimentation effects are important
and)" is the wavelength of the incid.mt light, and for particles one micron and larger, while diffusion
I'xhibHs Olll' or more peak~ l}eforp approaching the effects arr inlportant only for much smaller par-
limiting" vahlt' of 2.0 as is shown in Figur£' 7-2. As ticles.
the refractive index of the partjclt~ increases, the
peak in th('sl' eurv('s moves toward smaller rlldii 7·2.1.2.1.1. Sedimentation
partie It's. For s('reening smokp m&dp from fog oil An individual particle seelillg under the in-
which hus a rl'iradiw illdpx of 1.50, tile maximum fiuencp of gravity will reach a terminal velocity
7-7
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----- ---- - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------
AMCP 706-185
when the aerouynamic drag on the particle is equal l'ollisil'ns oetween part.icles and r<Jsulting in coagu-
t.o the effective '",eight of the partide. If the par- lation or agglomeration of the particles.
ticle is a rigid sphere which is large with respect
to the mean free path of thc gas, but. not so iarge 7·2.1.2.1.2 Dlliu.sion
that. inertia effects are important, Stokes' I.Jaw is Diffusion of particles due to Brownil\n motion
applicable, and the terminal velocity 11 is given results because the parti~les arc irnp"lcted by the
by: gas molecules of the suspension medium. The ruo·
gd' (I' -- 1")
v = ~---'.!----'c- tion imparted to the smaller particles is greater
(7-1)
181) than that imparted to the larger particles so that
where d is the diameter of the particle, I' is the the amOl:nt of diffusion is inversely proportional
density of the dispersed phase, 1" is the density of to the diameter of the particles. 3 Diffusion eife2ts
the gas, 'IJ is the \'i~cosity of the gas, and g is the ac- arc relatively l111important for most particulate
celeration due to gravity. Particles which are small clouds of military intercst.
with resped to the mean free path of the gag. fali
somewhat more rapidly than this equation indi- 7·2.1.2.2. Evaporation and Condensation
caLes, while large partides settle sOlllewhat more The evaporation rate for a given material o.e-
slowly. pends on thc difference between the vapor pres·
The rat(~ of sedimentation for some particles is sure of the dispeI·sed material and the actual
given in Tablr 7-1. It is to he noted that the sedi- partial preMmre of its vapor present in the air.
At a given temperature. the vapor pressure of a
TABLE 7·1 liquid increases with the degree of curvature of
TERMINAL VELOCITIES AND DIFFUSION its s>urface; this increase becomes marked as the
COEFFICIENTS OF RIGID SPRERES OF droplet size decreas~s. Hence, a critical droplet
UNIT DENSITY IN AIR AT 760 mm lIg exists for any temperature and vapor concentra-
PRESSURE AND 20°C tion. Droplets smaller than the critical size will
cvaporate because their I.ltpor pressure is higher
than the partial pr('ssnre in the vapor phase, while
those larger than tLe critical size will grow as a
result of condensation. The same considerations
apply to the sublimation pressure of a small, solid
particle.
7-8
AKCP 706-185
where U is the coagulation constant. In integrated motions of from one to many feet. in diameter are
form: observed. Tht' amount of atmospheric diffusion
is illdica~ed by the angle of riSE and angle of spread
(+) - (-!:-) = Ot (7-3) of the cloud ns it travels downwind from the sour~e.
The initial angles of rise and spread usually will
where no is the number of particles at t =
O. be different than those measured farther away
While it is difficult to calculate the exact de- from the point of generation.
gree of polydisperity, it can be shf)wn that the
probability of collision hetween particles of un- 7-2.2.1 Meteorological Factors
equal size is greater than that between particles of While the initial behavior of a particulate cloud
equal size. Hence, polydisperse smokes coagulate normally is due to the transient effect of the he'lt
faster than those whicL are monodisperse. More- and turbulence resulting from the process by
over, differential settling also increases the prob- which the particulate cloud is generat~d. the be-
ability of collisions between particles of different havior of the cloud at a distance from 'the gen-
sizes. The coagulation rate of smoke is increased by erator depends on the meteorologilJul conditions
stirring, since eddies and swirls result in particles prevailing. The principal meteorological factors
hav:ng a higher relative velocity which increase affecting travel of this type of cloud are wind speed,
chances of collisions resulting in an increased co- direction, turbulence in the lower atmosphere, and
agulation rate. thermal gradients.
7-2.2 TRAVEL AND PERSISTENCE OF
PAR'fICULATE CLOUDS3,12 7-2.2.1.1 Wind Speed and Direction
The behavior of a particulate cloud is strongly To obtain a cloud concentration in an area
influenced by the diffusive properties of the at- from a limited number of stationary sources, a
mosphere. For example, the persistence of screen- wind velocity of fixed speed and direction is de-
ing smokes, which are composed of particles too sirable. Too high a wind iilpeed requires an ex-
slll8.II to fall out appreciably by Stokes' Law and orbitant rate of production in order to maintain
which have~oo Iowa vapor pressure to evaporate, proper coverage, while too low a wind speed re-
is almost completely dependent on meteorological quires excessive time to develop the cloud. If there
factors which tend to dilute the cloud. Tile form is no wind, good r.?sults can only be obtained by
of a particulate cloud in the atmosphere depends producing the cloud from a moving vehicle such as
upon the location, type, and configuration of its a plane or boat, or by the projection of smoke
source. When a cloud is emitted from a jet at a generating munitions into the area. The latter
considerable velocity, mechanical turbulence and method is feasible only in offensive operations.
rapid mixing with the air results. This initial con- Conditions of very low wind speed are likely to
dition of turbulence disappears by the time the be accompanied by sudden variations in the wind,
doud has traveled a short distance from the gen- carrying the particulattl cloud into areas where it
erator. Also, the formation of particulate clouds is not desired.
of military interest is accompanied by sufficient When a particulate cloud is emitted by a sta-
heat so that the cloud as a whole will rise. As tionary generator in a steady wind, the plume
the cloud becomes more and more diluted with travels downw·.d wL, the &peed of the wind and
cooler air this effect will be less ohservable unl<.!ss the ax: of the plume is parallel to the wind di-
there is a ...,ery great initial rise in temperatm'e, ap- rection. The density of the cloud at any point
is the case when smoke is produced by the burning downwind will be, in general, approy.imately i .
of white phosphorus. (Se!:' Paragraph 7-3.3.2.1.) "t'rsely proportional to the wind speed.
The process by which smoke is diluted and mixed
with air i9 callen "atmospheric diffusion." This 7-2.2.1.2 Turbulence
process is also termed "eddy diffusior," to djstin- Wind spel.'d and direction are subject to rapid
guish it from molecular diffusion since eddy-like and violent fluctuation. This unsteadiness in wind
7-9
AKCP 706-185
velocity amI direction can be considcled to be due per 100 meters, there win be no tendency for the
to pulsatiolls taking plaee in three directions; air to rise b.'eallsP the air mass carried upward
namely, in the gPl1eral direction of the wind, and will beeOIni' ('older and heavit'r than the surround-
in horizcntal Clnd vertical directions at right angles ing ail'. This <lecrem:e of temperature with alti-
thereto. The total of these pulsations in the dif- tude of 1°C per 100 mete't·s is termed by the meteor-
ferent directions is a measure of the gustiness or ologi'lt the adiabatic lapse rat!' for dry air, and the
turbu!enc(' of the atmosphere. degree of stability or instability of the atmosphere
On!' obvious cause of turbulence is mechanical. will df'pend upon th~ extent to which the tempera-
The higher tlw wind velocity. the greater the tur- tnre gradh'nt departs in one directi.m or the other
bulenel', particularly over rongh terrain. Over a from 1hir-; (~ritical value. Au extremr condition,
smooth surface of water there will be no turbu- when the temperaturp inerea[;('s with altitude, 1S
lene!' produ('cd by mf',:hanical causes at low wind kIlOW}) as inversion, wh ich causes extreme sta-
spf'eds. \Vinci speeds greatpr than 10 to 11 knots, bility ill the I()wrr atmosphere. The meteorological
however, will produce waves wLich, in turn, pro- fa('tors dpscribt'd eOlltrilmte to tlll' degree of sta-
dl!!'p mechanieal turbulenl'e in tIl(' lower air layers. bility of the 'ltmosphere which exerts a consider-
Another important factor in producing turbu- able influence on the performance of a smoke cloud.
knee is thermal instability ill thc lower atmosphere. Extreme conditions of stability or inatability will
During th(' day in bright sunshine, the ground influencc tllP. rffectiveness of the smoke cloud in a
surfal'f' re('eiv('s a gT('at deal of heat frem the sun particular tactical situation.
and, SillC(, the earth is a poor eonduetor, the tem-
pl'ratur(' of the surfnc!' will risf' many degrees. 7-2.2.2 Stability of Aerosol Clouds Under Various
Tlw layer of ilir ill contact with the ground is Meteorological Conditions
IH'ated and, since it becomes lighter by expansion,
the layer rises. Since the warm lower layer of air
7-2.2.2.1 Stable Conditions
('annot rise eVNywhere uniformly, it must break
Hnder inversion (~ollditions over smooth ter-
through thc upper cooler layers somewhat as bub-
rain such as calm water, the otlly tendency shown
bl!'') burst IIPward t;lrough a liquid. The actual
by a smoke cloud to rise and spread is due to the
drivi.lg foree is the weight of the cooler air, which
initial transient effect eaused by the heat and
settles to\\'llf(l thp ground r.isplacing the warmer,
tllrbulcnec produced by the smoke generator. The
!ightel' air. These upward, eOllvertive currents
tllrhnlenec is quickly damped out but the heat
eaus(~ thl' bumpiness of thp air which is noticeable
prr'lun'd may be :mffieient to cause a very pro-
in all airplane The passage of a warm or cold
nounced rise, as is the case with white phosphorus
front lila:.' ('ompldel:v alter the tpmperatul'e rela-
smoke lIlunitions. I Il the case of oil smoke, where
tion bctwe(,ll thp I-!roull(l surfaf'(' and air and pro-
the amount of heat produced is small, the tempera-
(hte(~ stabilit;y or instability regardless of time of
ture of ~he srucke at any dilution is only slightly
day or sky eonditions.
greater than the temperature required to produce
a buoyancy sufficient to offset the increase in.
7-2.2.1.3 Thermal Gradient density caused by the presenee of th(' sl.lOke ma-
Stability conditiom; in thl' atmosphere are de- terial. As the smoke! rises, the temperatur~ falls
tpi'min!'tl hy t hI' tf'InIH'ratHre gradient t hpreiu. If becanse of two efl'eets; llamely, further dilution
the temperatnre (le~l'pasc with heigh t is more than with ('001 air, and adiabatic expansiDn due to a de-
1°(' pel' 100 metns, the air will ill' ['lIstable; i.e., ('rease ill baromrtri!' pressure. Since, in an in-
tIl(' 10wl'r laypr of air will tend to eise and COll- version, the tcmprrature of the surrounding air
tinllt' to rise as long as this ('ondition prevails. This increases with illerc'lsing' altitude, an ebvation is
is ,'ausp(] by the rising' Jllass of air, pxpallding and soon I'paehed <\t whiclJ the smoke is stable, possess-
wolillg' 11"; it !'ises, bceolJlill6" warm,~r and lightpr ing a dt'llsity i;jputical with that of the surround-
than the surrounding ai r. :f the dccrease in tem- 1Ilg' all'.
perature with altitud,' is betweeJl zero and 1 DC Oil vapor slllokl is often observed to level off
7-10
AMCP 706·185
at all eleyittioll of approximately 100 feet under wind vrlocity. All instantaneous view of the cloud
stable air conditions. ('e<'tain types of smoke ex- wOllId show that it is furrowed and broken by
hibit an erratic' behavior beeause of ubu{)rmal den- nriatiolls in the Will(1 direction and sudden up-
sity. Exampl('s of these are: (a) the smoke pro- w,'rd t'oIlYt'C'tive currents.
dueed by hurning Jil ill an (/r.~hard heater iL whiel:! Tlw lowl'r air is thermally unstable when the
carbon partielps and carboll dioxid" Iras are pre:;- IH'gatiw' templ'rat;ure dl;creaflr with altitude is
PlIt, and (b) HC smoke in which largo(' particles of more than 1°(, per 100 met(>rs of elevation near
zinc chloride and other heavy materialr-o a~'p formed. ground level. This Ilegative gradient may COll-
'Vhile a substantial amount of :1eat is produced tinue indefinitf'ly upwar(l. Thus, in thunderstorms,
ill til!' formation of thes!' smokes, h1uch ()f it is t'.lll1ulull ('1onds often risr to a height of several.
(tHickly lost by radiation. partielllRrlr at night. milrs; a smok(' cloud would b(' ea"ried to the samp,
8inc(' tl\{, hl'at producf'd in the generation of thr hpight.
smoke will IIsually cause the smoke ('loud to rise {Tmlt-r oth(,1' circumstances, a tmrrent i'f warm-
!,Y('l1 under the most stabJe conditions, it may br (01' air may bl' blowing at an elevation of a few
:-l.nti(·ipate!i that the elond will lift entir(>ly off thl' hnndrC{l feet so that the temperature gradient
g-roull:1 after a short distance of travel. If, how-
Illay bN'omp zero, or r, rn positive, giving an in-
evel', a wincl of ('ol'siderabl(> velocity is blowing,
yprsion at this pll'vation. There is no tl'udency
t his lifting fron: tll(> gronnd will not occur.
for th(' hwpr air to rise through this warmer light-
Although the heat producrd in the smoke gen-
pr layr.!', and a dt'finitr eeilinlr will be established
('rator Pl'OlllOtf'S a risr, it has little {'tcpct upon the
for the eollVt'etivr turbulence. Within this layer
sprrac1 of tlw smoke dou(!. The spread that oc-
tl)(' atmosplH'I'r turns o"l'pr and uver, and the smoke
('IUS is due to initial turbulence and this soon
Illay hE'('ome rliif'lc·;pd thl'oughout tlw layer before
(lamps 011t. COllsequently. if it is desired to pro-
duee l'ontilll~ous clouds of smoh' from a series of it has travf'lf'd wry far, Howcver, eddy diffusion
individual g'('nerators, it is IH'('rssary to place always O('(mrs at tht' boundarirs of the upward
tlJ(' geJierators wry clos(' tog-cthrr; otherwise, the ('onvrctiw ('l1rrl'lI"s, causing· some smoke to diffuse
individual plumrs may lIot merge for H long wa.y throllg-houi: tht' settling layer of cooler air t..:ven
downwind. Thio situation holds fOl' smooth ter- with a hilrh convecti\'r ceiling.
mill. How('Y:~r, if thr terrain is covered with 'fl\(' rate of ris!' of the ('onYectiv(' current in-
shrnblJPry, for (Oxampl!·, thp latf'rai spread of the ('n'asps with tl1p[lI1al instability. The angle of rise
f'loud is grratly ill('l'l'l,Sed as a rpsult of the me- of the smoke eloud. IRS a statistical average) is in-
(·hanieal tnrbnlrll('(' produf'(~c1 by the wind flowing v('rsely proportional to the wind velocity. With
throug;] thp shrubbrl'Y. zpro wind, th(' convectiyc crl'rentr, rise directly
upward. As the wind increases, dIP direction of
tl1P cOll\,petivp (';.rrent is iW'lined increasingly
7-2.2.2.2 Unstable Conditions
away from the vertical.
Whrll thp air f'llrrpnt is turbulrnt urf'ausp of
thrrmal instability, atmoflpheri(' di1fusion takes
pIa!'!' to s11('h all ('x tent that tbp illitial, tranl'lient 7-2,2.2.3 Estimat\on of Atmosph~ric Diffusion3
I)('havior of t hp (,loud, fiu!' to til!' hf'at Hnd turbu- Two ~xpressiolls were drrivi'd which ('nable th('
1(>1]('(' fl'OIll tht' g'PIH'rator, is of littl(' signifieance. (~oll('('ntratioll of (gra~m; Ill'r e ubiI' ('cntimeter) at
'rhr HPI'Oi;OJ ('1011.1 ('olltillll('S to ris(' and spread as a gi\'PII point in II mnokt' cloud to be pr('a.idl'd from
it tra\'('I~ dOWllWi'ld until th(' (·loud bt'('omes so kllm\'l('dge of t he rat!' of (·missioJl of partIculate
t !till that it~ boulldaries ar(' 110 longer distillguish- lIIattpl' awl of ('I'1'tail1 IllP«'orologit'ul pNperties of
ahl(' to tht' ('~'t·. If It tin1/' t'xposnrp WI'I'P to be tht' atmospJlPrp. Till'S!' pqllllti()Jl~ for pl't'dieting the
tahll of tIl!' "Ioud, it wonld app!'ar as a ('ollr with ('olH'PlltrHtioll frolll ('ontillllOllS poillt allli line
its apt'x lit tht' ~('neI'ahr awl it,. axis rising at aJ! seur( e~ at grollnd 1('\'('1 art':
Hllglt' from thp horizontal. the allglt' of rise de- ('oLtimwlls point S(Wl'!'f' PlllittinJ! () gram" per
pt'.lfling- lIjlOIl tilt· d('gre!' of instability and the sP!'oud:
7-11
All.:CP 706·185
--~
,
e..p [ -x
n-;! y~
_ _ __z:!)]
( e/+ G~'~
not evaporate, faU out or coagulate rapidly.
-0' C fj ~-Il
,.. tI Z .r d. Be effective at a low eoncentration of ma-
(7.4) terial.
e. Be substanti&lly nontoxic; noncorrosive to
Continuous erosswillcl infinitl' line source emit··
equipment, and, except for control agents,
ting Q grams lwr ~R.cond per centimeter:
nonirritating to t.he ey~s, throat and skin.
.rd:r,z)
2Q
= '7:'he,U.rl-~"· eXJl
[ 1
Clx~- " .
-Z2
(7-5)
f. Be suitable for large-scale manl'faeture,
storage, and transportation, without har..ard
01' deterioration.
w'here the spacp coordinates x, ]I and z (origin at
the oo11r('(') refer t.o thp downwind, crosswind, and
wrtieal dirertions, ff':o,pl'dively; U is thf' mean 7·2.3.1 Screening Smokes
wind velocity; Cy and 0, art' !!:enf'ralized eddy Hereening smokes are usually white and can
diff'usioll t'ol'ffidclIts; and n is a parameter r~fer bt· used to:
riJlg to thl' stability of the atmosphere, the llU- a. Conceal movements-, illt6Iltions, cquipment,
mf'rical value of whiph varies bf'twpen zero and and installations of friendly forces from
unity. These equations indicate that t.he concentra- ground observation.
tion varirs dirrctl~' wit.h thp SOllrrl' strength Q and
b, Blanket friendly positions and installations
approximatrly inYl'rf;ely with th£' mf'an wind ve-
in order to cOllceal them from air observa-
laeity fi. Thr distriblltion of eoncentration in the tion and attack.
('rosswind dirl'ptioll and ill the vertieal direction is c'. Prevent aimed fire on approaching friendly
approximatl'ly Gaussian; howpycr, du(' to ground aircraft, i.e., to screen thf' landing of air-
ref\pctioll, thp vcrtical distribution eorresponds to borne troops by parachutc and glider.
only oJl(,-half of the <tallsian (~Ul·\,(,. If the terrain d. Provid(> an extl'llsi\'e, thin haze for conceal-
is level and there is Oldy a small tcmperaturr ment of friendly areas without seriously
gradient, n is approximat{'ly 0.25. Under theS€ impeding close-range vision.
('ollditiollS, tlw peak eOll('entrati:m downwind from P. Establish dummy screens to deceive observ-
a point source will decrease as X--1.76, and for a ers.
line sonr('p as ,r·- 0 .88 , f. Communicate.
g. Form a thermal radiation attenuation '>creen.
7·2.3 SPECIFIC PROPERTIES OF MILITARY
There are three types of smoke screens. A
SMOKES
smoke screell laid over friendly areas to hinder
Rmoktos are us('(1 for four bilSi\' military pur-
('rwmy ael'iul obs{'J'\'ation and visual precision bomb-
poses: (1) for Sl'l'l'l'J1;ng, (:!) for signaling, (:1) for
ing it' culled a blanket screen. Thi:, typ(' screen is
t ra('killg' awl aequisitioll, and (4) for disseminat-
formed by the gradual merging, downwind from
ing (S(',' Para:.rraph 7·:n of ag('nts in riot eontrol the sOllret' of generation, of individual smoke
and nthpr applications. Whih' smoke may be P"()- streams, A smoke "au is normally established in
dtl<'c,l frolil II larg(' lIumhr·r of chemicals in a a battle IIn'a to eOllceal friendly activities from
vtll'it't\, of wavs Ollly a fc'w of these meet thE' spe- ohservation and ground tirt'. It is formed in much
(·ifie 1':.qllil'\'Ill:'I:t~ fc;r a military smoke. '}'h(' ideal tiL' imnw mallllf'r as it blanket. screen. Usually,
miJital',V sn;okl' material will: h()wt'vpr, a Sl\10kf~ ha:lp is h'ss uniformly dense than
a. Ik uyai\ahle ill suftit·icllt qUlllltit.ies for large- a sllloke bhlllkt't. A smokl' cur/din is /I delise,
sell it' prod \letiull of t Iw mixture at a rela- vertical development to C(lneea! objects at ground
tivc'ly low ('ost. It'vpl fr'oJII obst'l"\'t'rs at g-re/llllcl It, "('1.
I l . Hi' easily awl C't)i(·j{'lItly dissPlIlillated with. Onder IllUIlY eircnmstnnces th('se distinctions
out th!' liSt' uf l'laboratp equiplIlI'llt. disappear. For examplp, 11 smoke curtain may in-
7-12
AMCP 706·185
terfere with aerial observation or a blanket screen dissemination, measnrem('nt, ph'., of colored smokes
may settl£> to the ground and become a smoke is {'ontainrcl in Paragraph 7-a.4,
curtain. These distinctions are i:nportant for de-
fensive screening only, inasmuch as offensive use 7-2.3.3 Tracking and Acquistion Smokes
of &moke has the primary objective of blinding
Hmoke-producing (levices such as- generators or
unfriendly forces by enveloping th~m in a dense
traeers are used as 11lI aid in the optical tracking
blankct of smoke at ground level. Due to the re-
of projectiles, high speed aireraft, and missiles
quired subEistenee of smoke screens, large quanti-
hoth at i'wa I('vel Il.nd high altitudes. These devices
ties of near optimum materials must be used.
optimiz(' tll(' 11 bility to locate and track whirles
Of tht:' large number of available smOke-producing
along till' flight path and minimize the possibility
chemicals, only a few have been found suitable for of losing' l;·ignHieant data. Requirements for optical
use in the production of military smoke screens. tracking' aids vary <;onsiderably because of the
wide range of eonditions pncouutered in the track-
7-2.3.2 Signal Smokes inl! of tpst v('hitles operating over a wide range
[t is a prerequisite that smokes used for sig- of altitudes and speeds. No singlt' smoke agent or
naling- and commUlli('ations be clearly distinguish- generating systPllI will satisfy all requirements
able from othl'r smokes (and other clouds) pro- and Ilumerous smoke-produc.ing methods are neces-
duced for diffrrent purposes. Thus, the use of sary. Each is designrd for a particular applica-
tion, I'lUphasizing ('('rtain ideal characteristics.
white, gray, and blanket smoke~ for signaling is
'While thi' valut' of a screening smoke is due
Wi y limi t('(i and colored sn!okes are ~lOrmally used
to its absorbing and light-scattpring power, the
for this purpos£>. In addition, the use of several
visibility of a slUokl' trarking aid is due, chiefly,
differPllt {'olors allows lllort' information to be
to its light-scattering' powrr. The ideal tracking
transmitted and also results ill a elrarer distinc-
and acquisitioll smoke should have the following
tion bctWt't'1l tIl(> smokp signals and It varying back-
(~hara('tpristies :
ground. Effrcti\'!~ methods for the production of
{'olorl'd smokl', including pxplosive dissemination, a. Be t'ffil'ient OJl a wright and volume basis.
invol\'(' tlll' vaporization alld ('ondensatioll of a b, Have the ability to function and perform
dye; tIH'rpfol'c, thp dye must bt' heat-stable so at altitudes where pressure is low, and water
vapor and oxygen conc.entrations are small,
that it {'all hp rapidly vaporizrd at a relatively
e, Have the ability to function through the
high temppratl\l'{' without apprel'iablr thermal
range of temperatures encountered from
(iegl'adatioll. III addition to its color, important
ground temprrature to the minimum high
ehal'aett'risties of a {'olol'rd smokl' include:
altitude trmperaturl'.
a. Visibility (thp conditions under which the d. Require !ittle power for generation and dis-
('loud can be seen and its color recognized). persion.
b. nuratioll (the t.ime period during which e. Bl' as nontoxic, nonexplosive, and noncor-
smoke is rvolved from a munition). rosive as possible with regard to both smoke
c. Persistellce (the total period of time during ehemieals and products.
which a eloud is visible).
d. Volume (thp quantity of s-moke emitted; for
eolol'!'d smokrs, volume has also been de-
7-2.3.4 Smoke for Dissemination of Agents
fillrd as th,' (~ri)ss-sectiollal area of a cloud A~ent smokes for riot control and other pur-
prrselltl'ti to illl observer). POS('s art' producl'll ill much the same way as col-
ored signal smokps. In many cases, a vaporization
1\ Ithough 1101 as iJJlportallt as ill thp ease of prO('eSB is followed by a ('ondensation process in
Sl'('('('IIi 1Ig' sllwkt', tht' smoke (,loud shon ld be as whie)1 till' agent {'ondens('s to form the disperse
Ilontoxi(', nonirritat ing, alld lIoIl('orrosiw' as pos- phas!' of til!' slUokt'. Agent smokes may be dis-
sibil'. IllflJrlllatioll 011 till' ('ompositioll, method of sPlIliltatl'd by {'xp!osiw lIH'all'l a.>; wt'lJ as by some
7-13
AMCP 706·185
of the other methods discussed in Paragraph 7-3, libriUIIl is rpached, The production of a super.
The physiolo~ieal rffeetiveness of materials dis- saturatt'd vapor and formation of a dispersed phase
seminated ill this way depend" strongly on the by \'oJHlensatioll art' eompl(>x procesS>('s and pro-
particle sizt', While visibility of the smokl' may vI' ('('('d essentially simultaneously, Consequently,
lllay not bt' important, tlJ(' volume of smoke and its littlr c1irl'd information has been obtained on the
duration is> important, It is also necessary that the I'lirly stfl~('S of partid!' formation,
vaporization and ('ondensation procrss be efficient Condensation of a vapor iR facilitated by the
alld produ('(' a minimum of nndesired changes in presence of fOl'l'ign particles. InsolUble foreign
the flgent bt'in~ dispersed, particleR can absorb a thin film of vapor on their
;;;urfac('s and bt'havp as liquid droplets of equal size.
7·3 DISSEMINATION TECHNIQUES If t hp foreign pal'ti('le is soluble in th(' condensed
Dissemination refers to the process by which a liquid, thp vapor press nrc of tIle liquid is decreased
\'hemieal agent. is couverted into a cloud consisting and, ('onst'qucntly, the snpC'rsaturation required for
(>ither of vapor or fine particles, suspended in the l'api(l eondensatioll is redw'E,d, Oharged droplets,
aIr, Fo!' agents such as smoke, which are dis- whirh art' fortll('d duC' to tht' prest'JlCP of iOIlS, tend
seminated as a particulate cloud. the process to ha\'(' a larg!'!' surfal'(, and, hence, a lower vapor
usually il1\'o1\'es tht' formation of small particles prpSSllr(' which result in condensation at a lower
of tllP (lisprl'sed plJas(' and the distribution of these sllpl'l'satnratioll, If eondensation, in the absence
partie1es in thr air, of fort'ign partielps, wpre to start from a single
molpculp, tht' theory indieatps that 11 mnch higher
7-3.1 FORMATION OF THE DISPERSED slllWl'saturr.tion wO:lld 11(' required than that {)b-
PHASE SP1'\'(,<1 f'XIH'rilllPntfllly, Therefore, it is postulated
The u.ifilH'rsed phase can be formed in two t hat small agg'r('~atps of mo1pculc>;, of a:)proxi-
ways: (a) h:'o" 1·(lJIdrnsation proeesses in which mat!'ly th!' ('l'iti('al sizt', arC' eontinually produced
moleculp>, of a vapor unitp to form the particles by l'al.tloHl tllli'tulltion in thp vapor. Molecular ag-
of the (lil"persp(l phase, and (b) by dispersion IIl'l'gatps smalJt'l' than tIl!' critieal sizp will disap-
prOf'('ssrs ill whirh thc' particles arr formed by 1)('111', ,,1Iilp Ihost' largt'r than tIle ('ritipal size will
prr 1lIlit-volllllH' of HIP mat('rial) decreases; while ,;atlll'at,'<1 yapor is produced hy the \,yap0i'atioll of
in the seconr! l·asl'. tIl<' sI)('('ific ~mrfae(' illereases, a sllbstalll'\', followpd by the ll1ixill~ with cooler
ail' of til(' 1'!'latiwly warm vapors produced, Con-
7-3.1.1 Vapor Condensation Processes dl'llsatioll till'lI follows, resulting 1Il the formation
'I'll" disjH'l's('(l phas(' of most particulate clouds of till' disp<'l'I"!'rl pitas(', TIl(' partif'lt's in a smoke
is pro<lw'('cl hy ('OII<iellsatioll fr01ll th(' vapor phasr PI'O(hll·('d as thl' t'('sult of ('()Jnbllf,tiol\ al'p also due
and invol\'('s th,' unitillg of vapor molpf'llirs to form to vapor ('OIl(11'lIsation, Tn this ease, du!' to the
hi~IIt,1' trlllpl'l'atllt'(':' ill\'olved. it is impossible to
largot't' partic'll's, 'I'hc' formatioll of it clispers('d
iIlJaI~"z(' 1flt' IH'OC'('SS ill drtail. Clwmical rractions,
phas" hy this IIIdhor1 il\\'olws two fiteps: (11) pro,
dW'illg' Ihl' \'apot' ill a sllJH'l"satnratt'il statp, alld illl'\lIdillg' s(,\'('I'al for (ll'odul'illg' smokrs of mili-
(h) ('()lIdplI~ill~ tl\(' slIppl"satlll'all'c1 yapol' 'rhl' tary illkl'pst. oft('ll invo1\'!' a ('om})oIlPnt of ttl<' at-
snppl'Satlll'1ltl'd \'apol' is IIsllally obtail\('d by: (a) lIIosphpl'(' (s1\('h /IS wah'!' vapor) as OIl(' of the
1'1'1ll'tallts,
thl' ('()()Iing' of a warlll \'apol', 01' (b) It (·hemieal
,'padillll whit'll I'l'Slllts itt till' fOl"matiol\ of a snper-
sntlll'iltl'd \'lIllOI'. III t'itlll'I' en "I', till' {'X('I'SS vapor 7-3.1.2 Dispersion Processes
will "olld"I1"" 10 fOl'lll 1hI' pa I't il'iI'S of' tlH' dispc'rst'd TIlt' formatioll of a rlispl'rS('d phas(' by di81)('r ..
pha,;", 'I'h,' t'tlll(l('lhalioll of' it snp"I'sallll'all'<l YaIlOt' ,;ioll IIll'liIods ill\'oh('s thl' slIhdivisioll of /I soli<l or
is a'·"ldlqHllli .. tl hy Ih,' Iih,·t'lltioll of hl'at so tllat this liqllicl illto till,' pal'li('ks, Thl' 1Idlla1 1lH'(~hallisms
prOl'I'SS will ,'olltillll" Olll'" illitiatl·d. ulltil ('(Iui- b~' "'hit'li tilt' titl(' pIIl'til'\I'S aI'\' protilll'pd and dis-
7-U
AMCP 706·185
pt'l'st'd ill the ,.;uspending mediulll ar,> intimately t he venturi nozzle type, wher(' the smoke-produc-
rt'luted alld 1I0t always eOlllpletely understood. ing Illatrrial is atomized prior to evaporation.
III the eaSt' of 11 liquid, ('nHgy applied to it causes 'rhert' art' two othpr important types of atom-
tlt(' liquid to (\SSU!lH' an unstable l'onfiguration iZ('rs whil'h arr of sOIllewhat lrsser milit.ary im-
whidl thl'll brraks up into small dropiets. A :;olid portallt'!'. Th!' first of these type,; is· the ceutrifugal
substalll'!' may he dif.>rllpted and dispersed into fine atomizrI' ill whie!: tllr liquid is fed onto the ce r ~r
parti('lrs by appli('ation of t'Bergy, or the solid of a rotating dise, (,Olll" or top and centrifuged
('all bl' preg't'olmd to tht' d!'sired siz!' and then dis- off the ('dgp, producing dl'oplpts of relatively uni-
pPl'srd into til(' sl1spentiing mediulll. form sizr. Tn th!' speond typl', thr hydraulic
In the atomization of liquids, the energy is ex- atolllizPI', liquid is forced throug-h &. nozzle and is
panded mainly in: (a) forming new surfaces, hrokl'lI IIp illto dropletfl. III this latter case, the
(b) ovrrcoming viscous forces in changing the atolllization (lrpellds more Oil tht' physical proper-
shape of thl' liquid, and (c) meeting losses due to tit'S d thp liquid and tlw eonditiol1s of ejeeti()ll
iurfficient application of the energy to the liquid, from the lIozzle t Ilall 011 tl)(> interactions between
Devices commonly used to disperse liquids are of tht, liqni(l and til!' ,'urroulldillg gas.
three main typef>. Dusts can br forml'd by the disruption of solid
One type employs a high velocity gas or air matrrial or by th(, dis/wrs;oJl of a material, finely
.iet to break up II liquid rmerging from a nozzle. ))J'('g'J'UllIHi to a df'sirpd size .
Atomizers of thifl tyP(' produce a very wide range The for('('s l'Pquirrd to disrnpt the solid ma-
of droplet sizes which can be somewhat reduced tprial may he appli!'(1 ratII!'r slowly by milling,
hy trapping the larg('r droplets within the atomizer. l'l'llshillg', or griJl(lillv" 0)' rapidly through ex-
Tht' cleg'ree of atomization obtained by this method plosion or impad. In either ease', tll!' applied forces
IS influi'IH'rd hy the following factorE-i: ,'alls!' disintrg'l'atioll hy "plittinG' or cracking' along
a. TIl(> 1'dativr yeloeity of the air past the plal\('s of W('akll('ss ill the material. The result is
droplets. thr formatiolt of slIlall fragments ana fine particles
b. The physical properties of the liquid, in- n'lpaspd frolll th!, frpshly formpd surfaces by
cluding surface lension, viscosity, and den- !'raeking OJ) a mi!'roseal(' as the material is torn
sity. apart.
(', TIlt' ),l'latjw qllantity of air expressed as tllP
ratio of \'oilll\lp of air to yolume of liquid. 7-3.1.3 Combined Processes
Withill /I limit('d rangp, tll!' ~llkiyama 'ranasawa ~inee mist dispenion methods will not pro-
('quatioll Hpplil's, ('\'1'1\ thollgh it is rlinwllsionally duee pal'tieles "f the correct size, in many casef> the
i 1l('OI'I't'('t. 6 dispersrd phase f(lr smokes of military interest is
obtained hy eOlldf'lIsation from It vapor phase which
is forme(} by (~vaporation of tlw smoke-producing
agent. Howev!'r, ill order to faeilitate the trans·
II'llt')'i' d" is t lit' dillllll'h'l' ill lIIi('l'ol1s of a singlt' drop f!'l' of h(,at to alld the rpm oval 01' thp vapor from
with I\;" sallli' ratio of SlIl'l':W(,-to-yoluIIW as 1\ l'ep1'r'- the slll'faer of til(' agl'llt, it i~ oftrE atomized br-
s('lllati\'(' salllpl(' of til!' atolllizl'd droplets; I' is 1'01'(' it. is ('vllporatrd. Y:1J'tkula1f' clouds ('an be
thl' \'t'1()('it~· of tll\' ail' ill ('('lltilll\'t('I'S 1)('1' st'('OIHI dpyrJopc'!l hy tll(' atomization of II solution con-
)'('Iati\'!' 10 ll1at (If tll(' liquirI: (h I ().t is tl)(' yohlllH'- I aillillg 11 )ll)IJ\'olat i 1(' tH' s\ ightly volatil<' solutr in
flow-I'att' of liquid to tilt' \'ol!lIl1t,-f!o\\,-rilt(, of ail'; a \'olatiJp "nln'lll. Thl' 801\'('lIt ('vapOrall's and leaves
? i.s th!' dt'llsily of th(' liqui(I in g'rallls 1)1'1' (·ubi(· tll(> snilltl' \Vhi..!! ('OlltiPlISl'S to fnl'Hi th,~ disJwrspd
"('1I1illl('I('I': :J, is lht, \· .. Io(·ity of tI)(' liquid ill (lois!'s: phas!' of a parti!'lllal(' doua. TlIt' /·xJ,losiv(' dis-
.11)(1 1 is tIlt' ~ud·a(·t' t"lIsiuII ill dYIl.,,, Pt'!' ('('nli- pt')'sioll of ':olatilp lIlat(,l'ials. ,;uel! as the dyl's used
1111'1(')', This "quatio)) is 11"";] ill ('sliIll1l1illg' 111.' Jlt'I'- fill' ('(dol'('(] slllol,(" is als() it '·IIl!lbilit·d pro('ess. The
forman,·(· of' piIl,ti(·lIlat., ('!olld g','n.'rat())'s slIl'11 as !'xplosi()11 )lIt'l' !11t1J ie'ally d ispl'J'sl'''. \'aporizes, and
7-15
AMCP 706·185
mixes the material with cooler air, resulting in the materials Hll' proper references should be con-
formation of a particulate cloud, >ll1ltrcF4,15,16,l i and if little or no information is
available. pxtrcme caution should be exerted,
Till' rPllJaining' sections of this chapter em-
7·3.2 MILITARY PRODUCTION OF SMOKE
phasizp production of smoke by pyrotechnic means;
Pyrotechnic munitions for producing smoke,
however, thp same principles arp applicable to
whether for screening, signaling, or other purposes,
other methods for produ('ing smokf', some of which
ai:,' usually one of the following general types:
arp briefly discussed.
a, Venturi Thermal Generator Type, The
smoke-producing material and the pyro-
7·3.3 WHITE SMOKES
technic fuel block required to volatilize the
\Vhitp smokps arp widely used for sereening, ac-
smoke material are 1Il separate compart-
quisitioll awl tracking, tirf' control, and signaling
ments. The smoke-producing material is
purposp:-.. 1'he:; ('an bp produced from many chem-
atomized anrl vaporized in t}J.(' venturi noz-
j('als ill a "aridy of ways and, in general, are more
.lIe by the hot gasps formed by the burning
pffit·ient on a weight basis than colored smokes.
of the fuel block.
Helatiwlv fpw of thp nwthods for producing
b Burning Type. Burning-type smoke com-
whitt' smok(: arp of value for production of the
positions are intimate mixtures of chemicals.
largot' amollnt of smoke required for screening
Smoke is produeed from these mixtures by
purposp!o; whil'h is olle or the importallt uses for
either of two methods. In the first method,
whit!' smok(,. HecallsP of the large amount of
a product of comb1\stion forms thf) smoke or
smoke l'C>(juired, it is important that the maximum
the product reacts with (,(Hlstitllents of the
p/f('('t h(, obtail)('(l PPI' IlJlit-wpight of smoke-pro-
atmospherp to form a smoke. In the second
dwillg llIatprial. 'rhis will tlf'pend 011: (a) the
nlPthod, the heat of ('ombustion of th(j pyro-
wpin'ht of tllt' matprial !lvailabh· to forn' smoke
par;;dps. wlwHH'J' this was ori~il1ally pres(lut in
technic spn"?i-l to volatilize a component of
the mixturf' which then l'ondenses to form
the smoKe. tIll' mixtlll'l' 0[' is ('ontriliuted from th(' atmosphcre,
/ll)d (h', t hI' f'tTieif'll('Y of l'OIl wrsion of thf' smoke-
('. J<Jxplosive Disseminatioll Type. The smoke-
Pl'OdlH'illl! nlat('rial into slIlOi{(' partiel!'s having the
IJL'odul'ing matprial if; plllverizf'd or atomized
optinllllll lil!ht-s.. att(·l'ill~ and o:)seuriug' eapability.
and tl](>11 vaporiz,~d, or a prpgronnd solid is
}<'ol'lllatioll of smokf> pal'tieles by ('ondellsation
diRlwrspd by thp ('xplosion of a bursting
(·harge. frolll tli(' vapor phas,· is tht' 0111y practical way to
pI'olb,'!, thl' IUl'I!(' alllOlillt of whitf' SlIlOkp required
It is /0 bi' Ilotpd that smoke is ali-lo produced for for l\lilitltn' St'l'l'l'lIillg PIIl'POS('s. "rhl' hot vapor is
military pm'post'S by othpr than !lyroteehuie means. lIsllally 11I';)(!tH'('d by \'olatilizilt iOIl (\1' by ('hemieal
~'or ('xampl<" ("'J'tain s(,1't'l'ning-slllokp mntprials l'('adiolls II' whi(,1t 0111' r{'aetilllt is [JOrmaIly a COUl-
('a n 1)(' d issf'!lti Ilil t {'(I by 1lH'('halli('al smokc ~t'lll'l'a 1'011,'111 of I hI' LlII1()spllt",(>, l~xamplH; of tlw thl'ep
torN allll otltt'['S hy tlw lise of airplalH' spray tanks. [Host \rial'ly itSI'd s"I'I'I'uilll-: SIIlOkf'i-l arr:
Signals and I I'i!!'kill~ aids ('llII i)(' gent'rat('d by
a. Oil smoke. whidl i~ prodn('ed by tlw volatili-
using' Itot ('XIWUSl goas('s frol11 aiJ'('raft or tunk en-
zation H!HI .'owh'usat iOll of oil.
giJIf''; 10 \,ili'ul'iz(' t hI' SlIlokl'-J)J'()(lut'illg materials.
b. White phosphorus smoi.e, which is produced
'I'llI' iIWJ'('(li"lIts u ;1'(1 i/l Sl!lokt'-Jll'odl/('ill~ l'hem-
hv ")wrnit'al l'eadion with th,' atmosphere.
". :~'iJIt, "'!luridt' slliuk,', whieh is produced
i"als alld ('Olllbllstioll Jl['Odll('/S, awl/ol' tlw eOIi·
<I"IISt'<I vapo[' pm'ti"les I'I'OdIH'Pc! ill a Slllok(', should
hy 11 l'owhillllt.iull (If volatilization and dWUl-
I", ,'(lIl~id('I','d to hl' irl'itatillg and/or toxiC'. l'ar('
ieal rNI!'t lOll.
should ht' ('X"l'tt'<1 iii wOl'kiltl-: with slllOkl'-}l,'o<illeillg
millprials alld tht' 1'('slIltill;! ,;Illokps, I'sph,jally 1't'- Oil ~m()kes art' llormull,v l;l'udll('(,d l)y vO'nturi-
gill'dill~ th' i/J},alatioll of high ('OIl"t'lItl'atioIlS alld tyl'" tlll'l'lllal generators, altlJ(lu~h intimate lnix.
IOIlg' ,'XPOSIU·,·' tileI'd\>, \\'h"11 iU\'I'stigatillg' lit'\\' tt:r,' hurnill/-r typt's of llllllJit:OllS ha\'\' been (it'"
7-lti
AMCP 706-185
veloped for dissemination of oil smoke. Zinc A Jll'l'SSIU'(~ tubt' (,Olll!eets' thl' agent ('ompartment
chloride smokp is produced by a burning-type IIlld till' fuel ('ompartrncnt and permits the pres-
munition. 'White phosphorus smoke for screening ~I1I'(' (\\'wlopl'd by the furl bloek to aid in forcing
is normally produced by a bursting-type munition. oil through an orifice into the venturi throat.
IIt're th(' oil is mixed with the hot gas stream
7-3.3.1 Oil Smoke flowing through the venturi, The high velocity
A very satisfactory white screening smoke can of tIl£' gasps promotes atomization of the incoming
be produced by t h(' vapol'i7.ation and condensation oil str\'am and the droplpts aI''' quickly vaporized.
of an oil that has a high boiling point and a low The rate of f('eding is goverJH'd by the pressure
volatility. 'I'll(' first successful geIlf~rator for pro- differential bdwe,'ll tilt' agent compartment and
ducing oil smoke was the M1 mechanical smoke tIll' throat. thp size of the f('('(1 orifice, and, to a
generator. In this generato:' the smoke oil was minor ('xtent, the resistance to the flow through
flash evaporated at a relatively high temperature, the fpt'd tube. I"ittle d('('ompositioll of the agent is
with wat!:'r added to prevent coking. Thc equip- ('II1t;;pd by the rplatively high temperatur('s required
ment was heavy and complicated, including gaso- fOl' rapid evaporation due to the short period of ex-
line engines to opcrat(' the necessary pumps and posure. The efficiency of this typP of generator j."
blo'vers, coils for th(' evaporation of oil and high pst w}l\'1\ the agent is heated to a rather high
water, and burners llsing flH'1 oil tu heat the coils. tt'lLlp('rature for the shortest possible time rather
In spite of their many disadvantages, these gen· than a lower temperature for a longer period, 'I'he
prators, along with similar types, were widely used partide sill' of a smoke produced in a venturi
dvring World 'Val' II. thermal-generator type of munition ean be defined
in tl'rm& of: (a) the Nukiyama Tan1\sllwa equation
7-3.3.1.1 Venturi Thermal Generators (Equation 7-li), modified to include the effect of
'rowan! the end of World War II another systt'llI Ill'at upon the aerosol, awl (b) the thermo-
slllokt' g'l'lleratol', tIll' Hpssien, was developed for dYllamit' pl'Opl'rties of both the liquid and the
the ('. :So Navy in which the fog oil was atomized, Jlyrotechlli(~ ('ombustion pro<luds at the point of
mixed with till' hot. gase& produced by the com- mixing, which ,~olltrols the amount of liquiG
IJllstioll of a fllel, and vaporized ill a venturi vaporizP(l. 'l'hllS, thl' smoke formed ean be eon-
throat, 'I'ht' de':elopmel't of wnturi-type th(~rmal· sid('red to hI' llllHIl' up of two parts· the larger
g-('Ilt'l'1ltOI' IlllllJitiollS IIsing pyrotedmie fuel blocks JlHl'1 i('l('s prod ll('pd IH'cdomil!an tly by tl){> atomi.:a-
was also aC('()ll1plisllt'd dll~'ing World War 1I; how- tioll I1I'O('('S';, 111:(1 smaller partidl'g produced by
1'\'P1', t ht's!' items wert' not fully ready fOl' produc- vaporizatioll and l'olltlensation.
tion until after tll<' War. The portioll of till' liquid vaporized depends
Oil till' heat tralls,j't'rrt'd 1'1'0111 Ow hot gases. 'rhe
7-3.3.1.1.1 Operation of Venturi Thermal 1l1ll0lJllt vaporizl·,l is siglliti,'aHtly utfpl'tl'{i by mass
Generators flo", rat PI', meltll SI)('('ifie heat, awl illitial gas tem-
Tilt' ojlt'ratioll of It venturi-tYPI' tilt'rmal gen- pt'rat \l1'('. With propel' dpsign of the V(>uturi,
t'rator to Pl'/lt!IICl' II Siliok(~ iJlvolvl'S thl' atomization tiwl't' is sllftit'it'llt tilt", fot' thl' heut to h(' trans-
oi tht' IIqllid. tltl' vaporization of the droplets f('l'\'l'd frolll tht' /!asl'~ to till' til/llitl. 'rhe oVt>rali
prod\l('t,d, alld th,' displ'rsioll of tlw vapor ill a PI'O\'t'SS ill the v('lItwi (,!III Ill' ,'ollsidt're<l to be
stl'l'lI111 of :Illt g-ases. A typi'.'ai IIlIit, sho\V1l sche- ('~t'lltilllly atiiuhatil',
mati"ally ill Fi/!IIJ'" 7-:1, l'OIlSish of: (1t'IIt'I'ators of d.;" typt' rt'~~:dalt' particle sizp
11. 11 flll'1 bltwk II'hiell, Oil I) II I'll ill g', 11I'otlw:l'S through rapid dilt:lioll of til\' vapor with eool air.
I ht' J 01 gasl'S. i\S 1I1;xi1lg Hnd ,'oolillg tJt't'urs, tilt' slltul'att'll VUpol'
b a "hamlwr l'tJlltaillill/! Ill,· liqllid to 1)1' t'(llltit'llS,'S, For oil ;,lIlukt's, II "t'l'Y rapid ,·"a~1l1a-
\i\"l.Irizt'd illld tlispt'rs('d, alld 1 :iJd \)I""\lI'S for It YI'I'Y short IH·riod "I' till\(' l'll11Sing
t· a high \'l,ltwity Yaptlri!.l'I· tlillt' ill th(' furlll (lj II],' I,itl'ti,·lt·" tu groll', llillltioJl. hOWt'\"'.\ ut'l'llrS so
11 yt'lllul'i, rapidly tl:al tll,' t'uagl!latiul\ i~ dlt,('kpd dh'l' u few
7-17
AMCP 706·185
AGENT
FEED HOLE 'l'he volume of gas, measured at O°C and 760 mm
"¥fi~~
\ C .,......TrR
.....c.....~L WIRE
Hg, is about 0,97 liter per gram of mixture for the
first reaction and 0.92 liter per gram for the second
reaction.
~--------~F~U~E~L~______
~------.-~---;
Analysis of the gases produced by the burning
of a typical ammonium nitrate fuel block (11
parts charcoal, 3 parts linseed oil, and 83 parts
Figure 7·3. Typical Venturi Thermal Gel/erator ammonium nitrate) gave the following:
48.8% 13.5%
thousandths· of a s('colld, and a rl'nul.l'kably nur·
0.6% 5.2%
row rang(' of partich' sizl's results. If the generator
26.1% 5.8%
is working well, it i~; possible to obtam a reugh
('h('( k Oil the parti(·lp·sizl' rang'(' by a simple color \\ hi<'h correspollds, approximately, to the reaction:
t('st. If t hI' slln's dist' or allY other bright light
SOllr('l', W)lPll almost obsl'ul'('(l, appears re~l, the
tiNH 4 N0 3 .+. 4C ~l1H20 + CO + aco ll
71 i'i
,-------------------------------------------------------------------- - ----- -----
AMCP 706-185
TABLE 7-2
CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL OIL SMOKE POTS
H% NB 4 CI
'i~) ('hareoal
:1% IJillsl'ed Oil
1!l1I /t il) II BOl1choll fllz\, (:\1208) BOll('hOI\ fnz!' (l\T20lAl)
"spits" through (similal' to
wutnri igniting floating' tYIW)
quiekmatdl & start!.'r
UIII'I'/II!! Tilll I' , mill 12 ± 1,5 1,2 :::±: 0,25
.1 Pillil'otio" SCI'l't'llillg', llsrd singly Urt'lI1HiP type,
01' ill Illlllt ipl!' Oil t1st'd for trainilll!
land 01' water pili' JlOses
()IISC/I"ill!! /'OWIT Sing-It· pot 1iIl~
a 1:~.O\l() l'll ft
1'''0111 allti lolally
'1I'sl'ul','S objt·,·ts
I-ti ft','1 away
111 1)[ll'lIill~ 1',,1' stlJlPo,t,dly id"lIlit'al fllt'l 1d,'t·\0;, \\'ith ,'hal't'DIII. .)11 th,' IIth,'1' halld, IIddiug' Hill
Tn'allll"II! of Ill" ,'al'lHlII with ,'h"lliit'lds (slidl as 1Il"lIillli' dIIOl'id,' Il/' Sllb,tillilillg' IIHphtirnlnlt' (01'
potus,sillHI ,·/Il'hOllUI.· ,.1' silililal' alkali dlt'lll!(,IlI!'.) . ,tal',')1 ill a ,'/lsI I'll"! hltH'k I fo/' l'lIHI't'(l1tl will I'l.'-
III,'I"'<I,,'S th,· IlIlrllillg !'a/" ",'hil" t 1"'/1/1111'111 witll dill'" th,' hUl'lIillg' I'alt',
Itll ilt'id will d",·n'It,.,,· tIll' hlll'llilll! rail', TIlt' suh- ,\11 illl'l"'lI'" il! ,·jlll,'!' 1111' illiliul 1,·lIlllt'rallll't·
,lilllli"l1 "I' l'"tassillill lIilJ'Il!t', ,.;odillill lIitl'lIl,', 01' III' tIlt' jll'l'SSIII'" ill Ih,' 1'\11,1 hlo"" "llIl/llh"I' will Hlso
HII111I(;',illl:! <"Id(l/'III.' fill' part of III!' allllllllllillill illt'I"'ilS" tIlt' hlll'l,illg' I'll!" ~111'!:ill!: (II rapid bllr:l-
lIill'at" will "1l11S" all ilj('I"'HS" ill hlll'ni,,!: I'lltt·, A lUg' with H high I'll!,· of KIIS "\'tdlltioll t'.dlowt·t! by
1"'It'''llabl., .'xplllllatll'll 1'(11' th,' ill!'!','II";t· is Ihat ,,/0\\1'1' hlll'l,illg' will, a lo\\' I'II!t' of gas ,';'ollltiull) is
th"st' "tllIlJIt'lIll1ls fol'lll "I!l'hollat"s \\ Iit'll bUl'lIt·.! ~1I11ll'! i III"S oh~"I'\"'d Th i~ IIhj"t'l ionahl,· ('Yl'lil' bl'-
7-19
AMCP 706-185
OIL VENTURI
VAPORIZER
figure 7-4. Typical Oil Smoke Pot (Floating)
/'"
/
havior is pl'obably due to variatiOl;s in the charcoal
Ilst'd inasmuch as surging is favored when a blend
of slow- and fast-hurning charcoal is used to
make thr flu'l block.
Recaust' charcoal may cause undesirable varia-
t.ions in the burning l'haraderistics of a fuel block,
attempt" have brrll madt' to develop a fuel block
FUEL
which does not cOlltai!! eharcoal. A mixture of
g'uanidirlt' lIitratl" ammonium Illtrate, linseed oil,
IUHf IImmollnilllll dil'hromate WHS found to bp only
part.ially satist'aetoI'Y. Hrasonablt- SUCCt'SS was ob·
tained using polysnlfidt' ammonium perchlorate
as a hilldt'r' allil a suh"t.itutt' for all or part of tllt' Figure 7-5. Typica.l Oil SMoke Pot (Training)
('arbon ill 1\ ('Ilstabll' I'm'l blul'k, This reduced or
1'lilllinaft>,1 tIll' SWt,lIillg lind ('I'Il('killg observ('(l in pots similar ttl those \hwd in orulIg'{' groves in the
standard 1lllll11OIliuIIl lIitratt' I'arboll fu('l blocks. lfllijt'tl Statl's, /llld tht- HIlSll'l' gl'!ll'ratol' developed
alltl l\sl'd by tIll' British ill til(' Battle of Britain.
7-3.3.1.1.3 Typical Venturi Thennai Generators Iii 1111 "/lSI'S, t hI' SlIlt)kt' PI'o(itl('l'Cl wus brownish-
('har'lIdt'ristil'S of lypi(,111 vt'lIturi·tYPI' thl'rmal g'rll)' til blll('k itt ,'ulur bt't:ltllS(' till' 0;1 'NUS partially
gt'llt'ratorsal'l' gil'l'lI ill 'l'abll' 7·'.!.. l<'igul'l's 7-4 !llld dl'I'OIll}lost'd I hilS yit·ldillg' frt·!' ea!'lJOlI. III gene:ral,
7·;' illustrate s,'hl'llllllil'ally two typt'S of oil frd th" SlIIukt, pl'lldll,'Ni had poor sl~rN'l1illg propertil'~'
SlilOkl' pots. ami lilllilt'd Jll'r.sist I'll ('{'.
Two oil lillltJkt' gt'lh'nd.or mixp:-> which wert'
7-3,3.1.2 Other Methods t'or Producing Oil Smoke J'I'lI>illllllhly ~;lIti,.;fad(Jry w,'!'!' ,\t'wlo[lt'd during
HI,fllrt· lilt., dl'\'I'!O]llllt'll! of Iht, \11 smok!' ~t'll \\'01'1,1 \\'111' II. Thl' lir:.! was it 1IlIXt.l,i'" of saw-
ITalor. Illdhuds fiJI' prot/Hl·jllg' ni!·blHwd
,'DIlIIJIIIIl ,iust alld 1'i:1l 1'1'/111 I imprt'g'lIl1tl'd I\ith II soilltiull of
thl' J't'dul'lioll lIf air supply
SlIlllk!' ";1'rl','lIs ill..tlldl'd plltassilllll I'hlUl'II\t' hilt! l\ 1 ig-h bllilill~ POil,t oil
to t.hl' hoikr,.; ,)f lIaval ships, Ih,' IISI' ,d' slIllltlgl' '. Diul) willdl had bl't'll jt'lit'li by tht' addition of
7-20
AMCP 706·185
a small pel'{~entage of soap. '1'he other mixture smoke is formed. Phosphorus penloxide and phos-
cOllsisted of jellied oil and black powdtr. Tn each pho.!":,c acid art' not toxic in small concentrations,
car>e, the ideal mixturr was one in which aJl of the although they may be irritating to the eyes, res·
fuel bllt none of the oil was oxidized, and in which piratory traet, and skin. Phosphorus smokes have
the amount of heat produced was sufficient to relatively little effect on metals.
vaporize all of the oil. '1'he smoke exit orifice was
important in controHi::1g t!1c flaming tendency of 7·3.3.2.1 White Phosphorus
t;J.e Inixture, tlw particle size cf the smoke pro. White phosphorm; is widely used in bursting·
duced, and the pressure within the smoke pot. type munitions to produce smoke screens for
Considerable eifort was directed toward the ground-combat. operations, and for signaling and
development of smoke generators, using the sen- spotting purposes. Slow-burning fragments of
sible hellt in exhaust gases from vehicle and air· white phosphorus, produced and spr.ead by an
crfie engin!?s for the evaporation of oil to form explosive burster, are incendiary while burning.
screening smoke. Results indicated that the Since burning white phosphorus produces flesh
amount of smoke produced was not adequate for bUl'ns which art' slow to heal, it is an excellent
scre~ning purposes but was adequate for signa.l-
harassing agent.
illg. In an attempt to increase the amount of White phosphorus is the most efficient smoke
smoke produced, til!' exhaust gases were h~rned in producer on a weight basis; however, the screen·
an aftrruurner, thl'reby increasing their tc..npera- ing effectiveness of white phosphorus in bursting-
t mes and heat content. 'With this modification, type munitions is slight. Most of the charge burns
sati!;faetory slUoke ~creens were produced by air- within seconds following the burst, resulting in a
l~raft using intrrual combustion ('ngin('s.
smoke concentration llIany times that required for
7·3.3.2 Phos}Jhorus Smokes t~ff('etive screening. In addition, the temperatll:'e
White sllIokr ('ollsisting of small droplets of rise 1Il the cloud immediately surrounding the
phosphorie aei<l haw' been wid2ly used for mili- bU:'st is suffieient to produee a strong thermal up·
tary purposrs. 'l'hcs(~ droplets result from the :lraft which rapidly lifts the cloud from the ground
reaction of phosphorus pentoxide, formed by the so that the smoke cloud pillars. This may be help-
burning of phosphorus or phosphorus-containing ful :or sigruding purposes but generRlly reduces
l'ompounds in th(' air, and the water vapor in the the ,·ifectiveness of white phosphorus as a screen-
air, or: ing smoke.
Two general ways to improve smOke-producing
+
P4 502 -~ 2Pa0 5
rffieiency are possible. The first involves reduction
P205+ 3H 2 0 ~ 2H aP0 4
of the heat of combnsti')n, which can be accom-
+
H aP0 4 nH 2 0 ~ H SP0 4 (dilute)
plished only by using different phosphorus com·
Till' <'onecntration of phosphoric a('id in the drop- pounds. The second method, which is more attrac-
lets is rh.. tprmined by tlll' relativp humidity. Meth-
tivc, involves eon trolling the rate of combustion
ods whi('h have bt'ell used to form phosphorus pent- by rl'ducillg the fragmentation of the phosphorus.
oxide for military srnokt's utili..ing phosphorus in- Several methods for eOlltrolling the fragmentation
('huh' :
of' phosphorus h·~ve beelJ tried, including the addi·
It. burning in air of whit!· phosphorus (which tion of ll}('chanical reinforcement such as steel
is spontaneously flammable), woo1,10 asbrstm;, plastic tubes, wire screens, and
h. burning' ill air of tIw phosphorus vapor (pro- oj hpr deviees, (·/tusing cjedion of the phosphorus
dlll'ell by the (~va:)oratioll of red phosphorus in pieeps of pr(>lleterminrd size. Other mllthods
in a furl-oxidant mixture), and attpJllpted invol\'(' the alteration of the physical
t', burning in air of phosphint' (produced by prop£'rties of phosphorus so as to prodUCE: a plas·
the ad ion of It Jllt'tal phosphide with water). ti(~ Illass with low shatt(~l'ing eharacteristics.
Phosphorll," vapor is I'xtren1('ly toxic' and causes Plasti('iz£'d white phosphorus,20 PWP, was
bOI!!' liPl·It/"; howpver, it is not pres('nt after the fouud to be the most promising develOpment for
7·21
AMCP 706-185
This page is reproduced at the
back of the report by Il different
.~
reproduction method to provide
better detail. aOCaS04 + 191\ --. 6Ca(POs h + 12Ca2P207
+ lOP~Ss
The h"at "-oduced by this reaction vaporizes the
.t!mailling red phosphorus contained in the smoke
mixture. Thl' phosphorus vapor burns on contact
~ '. - to
with air-. Some sulphur dioxide is formed when
the P 18:1, produced in the above reaction, burns
along with th~! phosphorus vapor:
+ 80 + 2P201S
'~)f1(JK['
P 4S3 2 ---~ 3802
111 the presence of moisture, there is a tendency
.\'~ P.· '
illlRsTu-in r:(l'r .
for 1'('1\ phosphorus to slowly oxidize due to the
presence of small quantities of copper and iron.
_"iiiIIl!f Thil'l may result in ignition diFeulty and an over-
~
.. . ' - ..
all decreased perforruanee of the smoke item.
• '" 4
Stable I'd phosplwtUS has been produced by de·
creasing or eliminating these, impurities. 21 ,22,2S
..
~i. .
7-3.3.2.3 Metal Phosphides
Metal phosphides, esp~cially calcium phosphide,
which was first produced commerci'll1y in 1920,
Figure 7-6. Typical WP-filled Device (M15 WP Smoke have been l.:sed. in sea markers. In these markers
Hand Grenade) the metal ptosphide :reacts with water to form
phosphine, which then burns in air to produce
control of the fragmentation of phosphorus and phosphorus pentoxirle and wat.er. For calcium
pillaring of the slUoke. This consists of an intimate phosphide:
mixture of granulated white phosphorus in a vis-
COUf> rubber solutioll. The; material burns more CaaP:! + 6H 0 ~ 3Ca(OHh + 2PHs
2
melting. As a result, pillaring is reduced and the Thl! rate of reaction is governed by the access of
effective s<-oreening time is greatly prolongeil. Test thl! water and by the baek pressure of the gas
results have indieated that plasticized white phos- produel'd. Calcium phosphide has been the most
phorus produces distinctly better smoke screens satisfactury for this purpuse. Aluminum ph06-
than similar phosphorus-filled rounds. The auti- phid:~ is difficult to react and is slow-burning,
personnel incf'ud:ary action of PWP is as good as whereas magnesium phosphide reacts too rapidly.
that of WP.
7-3.3.2.2 Burning.Type Mixtures Containing Red 7.3.3.2.4 Other Reactions for Producing Smokes
Phosphor as Containi.ng Phosphorus
Red phosphorus, the eomparative~y inert aHo- Other methods for producing phosphorus-con.
tropie form of phosphorus, is used in burning-type taining smokes include:
munitions mainly for signaling purposes. Compo- a. The dispersion of phosphorus in a solven\;
sitions '~()J}sistill~ of red phosphorus and certain such as carbon tetrachloride or carbon di.
oxidants or fncl>; an relatively slow-burning ar!d sulfide. The solvent evaporates and the fine-
are sometimes used in sea markert:. The chemical ly divided phosphorus burns in the available
reactions may be (Iuite involved. Fo ... example, the oxygen and produces a druse white smoke.
main reaetiull for a burning mixture of calcium b. 'l'he rI,ftctioll of phosphorus trichloride with
sulfate awl red phosphorus appf'ars to be: ba.ses sllch as ammonia and amines. The
7-22
,----------------------------~-------~----
AMCP 706·185
7-23
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 7·3
CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL DEVICES USING
PHOSPHORUS FILLING
spray tanks.24 Its reaction with water yapor is when dissolv!>d in dichloroethane and similar ma-
relatively complcx. First, the titanium tetrachlo- terials. The solvent evaporates and ~he titanium
ride is hydrated. This reaction is followed by tetrachloride reacts with the water vapor in the
further hydrolysis yielding, finally, titanium hy- air to produce smokt'.
droxide and hydrochloric acid. The smoke consists
of a mixturc of fin? particles of solid titanium hy-
droxidc, Ti (OIl) 4; the hydrated oxide, Ti0 2 •
7·3.3.3.1.2 Silicon Tetrachloride
H 2 0; intermediatt' hydroxychlorides of titanium; Silicon tetraehloride is another liquid metal
and dilutc HCI droplcts. The sequence of reaction chloride which has been used to produce smoke.
is: Silicon tetrachloridc is, howe vcr, less re'lctiv~ than
titanium tetrachloride and, unless considerable
TiCl., + fiH 2 0 - 4 'riCl 4 ·5H2 0 moistlll'c is present, little smoke is produced. The
TiCl 4 • 5JI:!O --~ TiCI:,(OH) . 4H 2 0 +
HCl. smoke particles produced from tha l"eaetion of sili-
TiCl:!(OIl) . 4II 2 0 -_.-) 'riCh(OHh . 3H2 0 con tetrachloride with watcr vapor are dilute hy-
+
HOI drochloride acid droplets and hydrated silicon
'l'iCI 2 (OHh . aII2()--~ Ti(OH)4' H 2 0
oxide. 'rhe teaction between silicon tetrachloride
+
2HCI and water ,'apor is similar to that for titanium
fJi')uid FM is excessiwly corrosive to metal if trtraehloride.
moisture is prt'sent. With nnisturc, FM forms a Silieon tetraehloride is less corrosive to meta1s
solid, gummy deposit that clogs equipment. .d.. 0.2 than titanium tctra(!hloride. If dry, it can be
perl~cnt phosphorus.mlution in CS z and CCI 4 , storcd in aluminum or steel containers. With
added to the FM, allcviates this problem. moisture, sili('on tetrachloride forn;s It. b'llmmy
'l'italli II III tetrachloride can also bf' disseminated (ieposit which clogs equipment. Flesh blll'IlS f::-om
7-24
AMCP 706-185
silicon tetrachloriue are similar to hydrochloric gnhr. The last two ingredients served to absorb
acid burns. the carbon i.:ltrachloridc and to slow down the rIlte
of rel-'ction. .As tbe smoke produced contabed
7-3.3.3.1.3 St.'innic Chloride some carbon in addition to the zinc chloride, it was
Stannic chloride will prod ace a good smoke somewhat gray in color. An American improve-
(rom rcll1.tively small amounts of rr.aterial. The ment, thf' addition of an oxidizing agent, resulted
11\ a whiter bmoke. Othet· changes were made lead-
reactions of stannie chloride with water vapor
J.re similar to thost' of titanium tetradtlorid". The ing to the development of the smoke mixture,
Rmoke is eomposed of HCI droplets and a mixture available at the start of World Wfl.r II, known in
of four shnnic hydroxy chlorides. L1 the presence the United States as HC. 'l'~is mixt.ure contained
of moisture tney arc nearly as corrosive as titan- hpxachlol'oethane as the chlorinating agent, zinc as
ium tetrachloricle. A gummy d<3posit on metals dIP fuel, a perchlorate as an oxidizing agent, and
is formed by stannic ehiOl'ide w~len moisture is ammonium chloride as a retard~r. The British
present. 'fhp smo\;.p is corrosive to anything af- hud a sim.ilar mixture containing bexachloroethane,
fected by hyd:rochloi.·ic acid. Stann ic chloridE; pro- zinc oxide, and calcium smcidc as a leducing agent.
(hH'es burns similar tll strong acid curns. Since neither of these mixtu.res 'Vas completely
satisfactory early in World Wa~ II, the Britisn
mixtuTi' was modified h:v replacing the reducing
7-3,:;.3.2 Solid M'}tai Chlo~ides
agent, calcium silicide, with alumin~u'..
Solid mptal chlorides are normally dis~'~lliinated
by thermal vaporization followed by condensation.
In mo,;;t ca~;es, the energy required to vaporize these 7-3.3.3.2.2 Chemistry of HC Smoke Kixturesll5 •26
agent~ is provid0d by a pyrotechnic heat source. The basic reaction between a completely chlori-
Thc hy<h olyses rpactions for the metal chlori.des nated carbon compound and metallic zinc can be
which have been used as smoke agents are: represented by the reaction:
7-25
AMCP 7()6..185
- -uow consist of. approxiraa~dy equal amounts by ThE amount of aluminum in the foregoing reac·
weight of zinc oxide and a chlorinating agent 3uch tion ca~ vftry from 3.6 to 10." percent by weight.
as hexachloroethane or carbon tetrachloride, and 3. With the lowc! aluminum content, only carbon
few percent (\£ aluminum. The reactioI'. might pro- monoxide ifl formed; and, as the aluminum con-
ce~d through the following stflPS, when hexachloro- tent ifl in(,l'eased, free carbon begins> to appcar
ethan.e is the chlorinating flg-ent ; along with the ('arbon monoxide until at the
2Al +
O-lOla -.-~ 2AlCIa 20 + upper limit ali the carbon is in the form of smoke.
If less than 3.6 percent of alumim1 ffi is used, both
This reaction is exothermic, libcrating around 280
earbon dioxidc and ca'I'bon monoxide are produced;
kilogram-calories of energy. The aluminum chloride
and, U8 the p{'rcentagc of aluminum is still further
formed then reacts with the zinc oxide:
l'C'ducc'.1, tllp ratio of carbon dioxide to carbon
2AlCla +
3ZnO ~ 3ZnCl 2 Al2 0 s + lllOlloxidt' inereast's The heat evolved varies from
This reaction is al;;o exothermic, libcrating 103 0 356 grum-ca!orit's per gram of a smoke mixtu:ce
kilogram-calori('s. The overall reaction obtained ('Olll!lillillg :3.6 IJel'cent of aluminum to 717 gram-
by combiuing' thc above reactiolls is: ealories per gram of mixture containing 10.1 per.
2Al+ C2 0l 6 +
3ZnO ~ 3ZnOh --l-AhOa 2C + cent aluminum (,ontent. If carbon tetrachloride is
This readioll is highly ('"«othermic, libcrating 383.5 tIlYed (Typr.E He mixture) illsten..l of the hexa-
kilogram-calories or 717 gram-calories per gram dllol'orthalH', tht> amount of aluminum for similar
of smokc mixture. A second r~action sequence rpuetiolls to take place ranges from 5.37 percent
\('ading to tIll' samp overall readion is possible. to 10.2 percent. The Variation in burning time
This sequence, which to somc im'estigators bE:tter with aluminulJl content, for mixturp containing
reprcsents thc actual (;om',,(' of thc reaetion, is; lwxachloroethane (Type-C HC mixture), is illus-
2Al + :~ZllO 3Z11 + A1 0
--'> 2 3
tl'ati'o by till' data pl'Psented ill Table 7-4.
:~Zll + C:!Cl n ~ 3ZnOl2 + 20
Both of thes(' rt'uctions are C'xt'thrrmic, the first TABLE 7-4
to the f!xtent of 1:16.6 kilogtam·ealories, and the V ARIATION OF BURNING TIME OF TYPE-C
second to the extent of 219.H kilogram-cal odes. HC SMOKE MIXTURE WITH
The overall l'!'aetioll with aluminum is similar to ALUMINUM CONTENT
the reaction:
(AN,·l\I8, He SMOKE GRENADE)
:ICaSh + 15ZlIO -+ fjC 2 CJ O ~ 15Zn012
Aillminum Cuntcnt, Burning Time,
+3CaO sec
%
+ 6Si0 2
+ 10C 9.0 55
for tltf' parlier smoke mixture cOlltaining ~alcium 8.4 64
silicirl(' as f hl' I'PflucilJg" agcnt. "'.0 65
'rhl' t'""tPl1t of the reaction betw('en zinc oxide 7.;; 71
and e«rhull ('an b,' varied b~' changing' the propor- 7.0 84
tion of aluminulIl ill the RInoke mixture. If the' 6.5 96
aluminum (~ontcllt ill the smoke mixture is re- 6.0 107
ducf'd, whil(> thr' pr()portiolls of hexachloroethane 5.5 147
and zille oxide· art' let'pt "ollstant, tht' amount of 5.5 200
free "arbon ill thp smok(' is I'edu(~ed. This results
ill It whiter smoke and also l'l'dUl'f'S"he burning Tlw character of the zinc oxide also has an in-
ratf'. Thp oVt'rall n'a(·tiolJ wh?l'f' no ('arbon is pro- fluence em the burning rate of the smoke mixture.
d llcl'(l is;
He smoke grenades which were loadd wi.th a
2A! -+ [IZnO + 3C 2 CI II -~ A hOa -+ 9ZnCl 2 smoke mixtul'l' containing 6.25 percent aluminum,
+ 6CO 46.9 percent hexachloroethane, and 46.9 perceni,
7-26
AMCP 706-185
zinc oxide were found to have a wide range of Impurities such as chlorides, sulfates Ilnd nitrates
burning times depending on the moibture, car- a('(~elerate
th(' reaetion.
bonate and sulfate content, and the particle size
of the zinc oxide used, Very fine and very coarse 7-3.3.3.3 Modified He Smokes28
zinc oxides form slower-burning 'mixtures than When a shortage of chlorine appeared imminent
those of intermediate size. Fast-burning smoke during World War II, attention was focused on
mixtures result when moderately large-sized pa.r- the possibility of developing inorganic chlorine
ticles of zinc oxide with a low moisture and car- carriers derived from hydrorhloric acid. It was
bonate content are used, while slow-burning mix- found that anhydrous ferric chloride could be used
tures are produced when very small-sized particles in place of hexachloroethane in zinc chlorid!l smoke
of zinc oxide, or those having a high carbonate mixtures. The following reactions involving alu-
content, are usect A blend of a coarse and a fine minum, ft'rric ehloride, and zinc oxide are t.hought
zinc oxide results in a faster-burning mixture than to occur at high temperatures:
would be predicted from the burning time of the
indi vidual oxides.
2Al + 6FeCIa + 9ZnO ~ Al 0 a + 6FeO
2
7-27
AMCF 7(.1'6·185
[,.,.',I",',!~i!,:,,;,I:;'x~:a;;liJl·i\'. ~ "
-
Figure 7·9. M5 HC Floating Smoke Pot
7-28
AlICP 706-185
TABLE 7-5
CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL DEVICES USING HC MIXTURE
Chamctcristic Device
ing from the reaction of the smoke-producing heat, sulfur trioxide vapors reacting with metals
chemical with water vapor in the air. In a num- form metal sulfides and oxides. When the liquid
ber of cases, uEcause of the presence of chlorine comes in contact with the skin, sulfur trioxide
atoms in the original compound or mixture, dilute causes burns that heal slowly. If water is present,
hydrochloric acid droplets are also produced. In sulfuric acid is formed which is corrosive to metals.
this category, the' FS smoke mixture of chlorosul- As has been indicated, the smoke formed is (lor-
foniC' a('id and ~ulfur trioxide, which is used for rosive to anything affected by sulfuric acid.
screening, is probably the most important. Pro-
longed exposure to this type smoke can be in- 7-3.3.4.2 Oleum
jnriom; and should be avoided. Oll'ul1l is a solution of sulfur trioxide in sul-
furic acid. 'fhe agent is dispersed iu the same
7-3.3.4.1 Sufide Trioxide manner a~ sulfur trioxide. The sulfur trioxide
This agent is usually dispersed into the at- reacts with water vapor ill the air; the sulfuric
mosphere in fine particles either by mechanical acid tho;, formed and the sulfuric acid solvent ab-
atomization or thermal vaporization. The dis· sorb water to give smoke droplets of dilute sulfuric
persed sulfur trioxide combines with water vapor acid.
in the atmosphere, resulting in the formatif)l1 of
tiny droplets of sulfuric acid: 7 ·3.3.4.3 Chlorosulfonic Acid
This acid reacts with water similar to 80s.
SOa + IhO ---+ H 2 S0 4
Smokt is produced by uispersion of the aeid into
'rhe acid tht'u t.akes 011 more water vapor to pro- tlte atmosphere by mechallieal atomizatinll or
duce partieb, of diluted acid which constitute thl'l'mai vaporization. Whell tilt' di3persed acid
the smokp cloud. Dry sulfur trioxide does not mingles wit h waft-!" vapor, sulfuric a(·id and hydro-
attack metals at ordinary temperatures. At. red (,hIOl·ie lleid are produced:
7-29
AMep 706-185
7-30
AHCP 706-185
The smoke is a mixture ('If Ti(OH)4 . H 2 0, jnter- trioxide; other bases such as hydrazine, hydrox-
mediate hy(.~roxy chbrides of titanium, and am- ylamine, etc., probably could be substituted. The
monimr. chloride particles. basic reaction is as follows:
7-3.3.5.3 Sulfur Compounds and Ammonia The first reaction give~ sulfamide; t.he second,
amillosulfamidl' ; and the third, trisulfamide.
Sulfur compounds will also react with bases in-
Whether the smoke particles are those products
('luding ammonia and amines. 'fhese smoke-pro-
or further reaption products is 1I0t known.
thlCing sy&tems do not requirp atmospheric con-
stituents to form the smoke particles and, there-
fore, lllay be useful at high altitudes. 7-3.3.6 Sulfur Smokes
Sulfur smokes ~onsist of small particles of ele-
7-3.3.5.3.1 Sulfur Trioxide and Ammonia Ilwntal sulfur suspended in the air. Sulfur smokes
Of Amines l~aJl be prOdlH'rd by methods similar to those used
TIl(> smoke is formed by supplying a reactive for th(' productiou of oil smokes. In addition,
gas to sulfur trioxide at the timl' of dispersion. sulfur smokes can be made by intimately mixing
Ammonia and :uIlilles have proved successful, and sulfur and a suitable fuel. Mixtures which have
other basil' .'>Llbst anc('s, such as hydrazine, hy- lwen used include sulfur, sodium nitrate, and char-
(iroxylamill<.', etc., might bl' satisfactory. In the eoal; sulfur, potassium nitratE' and charcoal; and
('a~e uf sulfur trioxidl' alld ammonia, the reactions sulfur, ammonium nitrate, aud charcoal. The sul-
are: fur is present ill much larger quantities than in
SOJ + 2NlI:! _ S02(Nlh):: + H 2 0 blaek powder; the latent heat of vaporization and
SOa + NIIa~ HS0 NH z 3
fusion of tht' sulfur absorbs thp heat produced by
S03 t- 2NlI a _ NH 2 SOaNH4 nit' J't'action and, hence, s!')ws the burning rate.
Th(' burning rate for this type of mixture depends
All tlirt'P r('adiolls Ot'cur mon' or less simulta-
011 the pereelltage of sulfur.
Ilpollsly. As far as (~all bj~ determillt'd, the smoke
('ollsists of pu rtielt's of thl'se product&.
7-3.3.7 Orgaaic Metallic Compounds
7-3.3.5.3.2 Chlorosulfonic Acid and Ammorua Ct'rtuill orgllTlIl' Illt'tallil' ('ompoullds eaIl be usen
or Amines fur tht, protiudioll of slIloke. Thesl' ('olllpounds are
Am1llonia and til(' amines rl'lI('t readily witli rt'adi\'t' awl will burn spolltunl'ouflly ill moist air.
I iCIRO:! ill lIIueh th!' SUIlIt' manlier as w!th sulfur T1H' [WI! w'n"!' of rl'adion hpt W('('ll 1111 organic metal-
7··31
--------------------- ---------------------------------- ----------------------
AKCP 706-185
7-32
AMCP 706·185 AMCP 706-185
'7·33
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - ---- - - - - --- - - - - ----
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 7·9
SOME DYES WHICH HAVE BEEN USED IN BURNING· TYPE
COLORED SMOKE MUNITIONS
Green Smoke:
1,8-di-p-toi.uidinoullthraquinone
1,4-di-p-tol uidilloa n th raq ninone
1-methylamino-4-p-toluid inoan thraquinone plus
au~amille hyd!'oehloride
1,4-rli-p-toluidinoull thruq uinolle plus
dimethylaminoazobcnzelle
1,4-di-p-toluidil101tllthrll(!uillOlll:' pI us
am'amine hydroehluridt'
I,4-di-p-toluitlinoallthraquinolli' with quinophthalone
(quinoline yellow)
----------------_.
0l'an[lc Smoke:
I-ami IlOIl n th raq ui IIOlll'
1·amillo.8·(, hloroaJlth I'llq UillOllt' pIns q lIillizurin
1- ( 4-pht'lIY llizo ).~.lIa pl.t hoi
H, lO·d iallilinoa II t h rat't'llt' pIlls \lht hnlopprillultl'
1- ( 4· P h'llY luzu ) .:2.11111' htlwl plus !I .1O-dinl1i Iinoan thru('('IH'
()ra1lg(!-Rcd f:!mokt :
1- (4-lIitropbfJllylnw) .~llapl!thol
-----------
r ('/low s'rrwkc:
AUralnill!' hydrtll·hl,lridt·
1· (4·dimethylumiuophl'llyll!zu) .~- JlI!phtlio\
1-\ 1.phl'llylazul-:2-lllljlhtho! (~Ildan II plus l'itlH'r Illlrllmiut'
hytir(l('hluJ'idt' ur tjlllllophthlll<"llt' (qUiIlOlillt' yt'llu\l' I
~.'!': ·dimt't hy I· p- pht,lt,\' !aZ()1l11 ilillt'
AXCP 706·185
I-hydroxy-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinonc
Indigo
l-amino-2-bromo-4 .. p-toluidilloallthraquinone
l-amino-2-methyl-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinone
(Alizarin Sapphire, Blue R. Base)
1,4-dimethylaminoan thraquinone
I-hydroxy-4-p-t<,.luidinoanthraquinonc
I-methylamino-4-p-toluiui'1oanthraquinon<:'
N - (p-dim('thylaminophellyl ) -1 ,4-naph tholquilloniminc
Violet Smoke:
1,4-diaminoanthraquinone
1,4-diamino-2,3 dihydroanthraquinol1(
1,5-di-p-toluidinoanthraquiuone
I-methyl&mino-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinone plus
2-quinolyl-2-indandione-l,3 (Rhodamine B)
l-methylamino-4-p-tollllri.inoallthl'aquinone plus
1,5-di-p-toluidinoanthraquinone
--------------------------------------------------------------------
TABLE 7·10
SOME DYES WHICH HAVE BEEN USEr> IN EXPLOSIVE·TYPE
COLORED SMOKE MUNITIONS
are,en Smol,e:
1,4-oi-p-tnluidillounthraquillOIl(' (Quillizarin Oreen)
p!us IJuillophthaiolh' (QUil:olinc Yellow, base)
in the ratio of 6ri /35
] -4-oi-p-toluidinoltllthraquiIJfJl](> plus Iluraminc hyrlrochloride
7-35
AMCP 706·185
cP g
01.)
~
ILl
~
.... 0 c-
~
t- ~
.., ~ ~
i ..,l-z
III
..,II: ..,
II:
t:
0
~
0
50 -
L
100
I
300
l
SAW'LE TEMPERATURE. °c
I
500
NOTE:
'--~-c4Jobl--'""'"--'riJAo..--
SAMPLE TEWPERATURE, °c
aAo
x- AX~ TEWPERATUAE REPRESENTS SAWPLE
TEWPEAATUAE FOR THE DTA CURVE AND
FURNACE TEWPERATUR£ FOR-THE-TGA CURVE
7-36
AMCP 706·185
perature but the differential between the tempera- 30 percent initial weight 10s.1 during which a point
ture for vaporizll.tion and the temperature for of i.nfleetion occurs. It is p03tulated that th:is ma-
decomposition is not largc, the dye to fucl ratio terial reacts to form all effective c"lor pl'llduct in
inereases but the po~sibility of decomposition of the temperature region (\f 350 D C to 440°0. If,
the dye is also greatly increased. In general, there- however, the t8mp~rature of the dye is not care-
fore, the dyes utilized must be thermally stable and tully controlled, it decomposes further to form a
vaporize without decomposition at intermediate voJlltile red product. Tn geMral, the Jyes in
temperatures. Groups 2 and 3 do not perform satisfactorily.
The volatilization properties of organic dyes They fail to vaporize app~·eei&l.;ly and the irNgu.
proposed for use in pyrotechnic smoke mixtures larities in the differential thermal analysis curves
were studied by differential thermal analysis indicate the occurrence of reactions and/or de-
(DT A) and thermogavimetric techniques.35,~6 The composition. '{'he temperature produced by the
dyes evaluated by these techniques l3an be classi- reaction must be mfficiently high to rapidly
fied into three groups. vaporize the dye but not excessive so as to cause
The materials in Group 1 exhibit an inir.ial decomposi.tion of the dye, or flaming. A conling
weight loss, the rate of which inureases as a fun(;- agent such as sodil'm or potasl'ium bican..onate
tion of temperature. They do not nave an inflec- may be added to t}le fuel n::.bc. to regulate the burn-
tion in their thermogravimetlic C".ll'ves until they iJl!~ rate. Bindercl are s&ffletimes 'Used to produ~e
have undergone a weight loss of 65 tv 100 perc:.e:ut. a composition that is easier to hJ.ndll.' and process.
An examination of the DT A curves for these ma·· The propertIes and structures of .lertain se-
terials generally indicates an endothermal reac- lected dyes are as follows:
tion followed by an exothermal trend, and, finally,
an endothermul region. Over t.hese temperature
Dyes Selected by the British as the Be:'lt Agents
rangl~s the fol!owing phenomena were ohserved:
Available for the Produetion of Colored Smokes
fusion, the evolution nf small quantities of vapor,
by Explosion, Using PETN (pentratrythritol
and boiling.
tetranitrate) for the Explosive:
Compounds in Group 2 show an initial wcigln
loss of froUl 30 to 50 perpimt, fonowed by a sharp Red: o-methoxybenzene-azo-~-naphthol (BriIliant
break in the therm-..gravimetric curve, after which Fat Scarl€'t)
Molf:l:ular Weight: 278
the tate of ~'eight loss is- gflIlcrally slower. The
Components: o-Anisidine ....,. ~-nllphthol
thermogravimetric curves for Group 3 materials
Cl1 H 14N 2 0 2
indicat.e an initial weight 108.'1 of only 2 to 20 per-
cent prior to an inflection.
In general, the materials in Group 1 possess
the thermal properties of :,tability und volatility
required fOI" :S1'.l.tisfl'_ct::>ry func1.ioning in pyrotech- =
nic smoke items. For most of these ~aterials, as
shown in Figure 7-10 for 1,8-ilihydroxyanthra-
quinone, no 'Neight 10s3 occurs befo<'~ LIsion; once
the Loilin~r point is approaclled. the rate of weight
Properties, Descriptirn: Red paste; separates from
loss inerea",es unifl)l'mly.vith temperature The
glaeial ace~ic aeid in red erystalliue powder,
absence ()f a break or point of inflection in the
m.p. 180 D C. HzO---insoluble. Alcohol--red 30-
thermogravimetric curves for the Group 1 ma-
lution on boilillg. Ih80 4 -bluish-l'cd s.)lution,
terials, is indicative in this cas:), of vaporizu.:;il)u.
red precipitate on dilution.
GrOd!) 2 materials do not vaporize appreciably.
Commercial Names: Oil Vermilion (W), Sudan R
A& sLLw'l in Pigure 7-11, 1,4-di-p-toluidinoan.
( A); BriLiant Fat Scarlet B I)~(;i), Pigmen·
thraquinone. a ~taI1rlard. dyi) used for the pro-
Pmple (MTJB).
duction of blue ~r>10ke, e1~hibits ,-,pproximatdy a
7-37
AKCP 706·185
Yellow: 2,4-Diaminoazobenzene (Chrysoidine G, and paste (By), Alizarin Brilliant Green EF,
base) G cone. (LBH), Solway Green E, EF, GM
M oleclllar lV eigh t: 212 (SDC), formerly Kymric Green E, G extra
Components: Aniline-m-Phenylenediamine (SDC).
C1. 2 H 13N4 CI A mixture of 55% 1,4-dimethylaminoan-
thraquill{llle (Brilliant Blue G, M.W. 266) and
7-38
AMCP 106·185
7-39
nitrates have been found unsatisfactory with aura- ('asily handled, (5) it is available at low cost and
mine hydrochloride and indigo. Nitrates, there- ill quantity, aIld (6) it eliminates the necessity for
fore, should not be substituted for the cblorates consolidation under pressure. Other plastics which
in colored smoke munitions unless a special condi- hav(' been cOlisidered include various monomers
tion, such as a shortage of chlorate, makes it neclls- and polymers of acrylic and vinyl plastics, poly-
sary. amines, and epoxy-type resins.
7-3.4.5 Binders
Graphite, zine oxide, and linseed oil have been 7-3.4. 7 Sensitivity of Colored Smoke Mixtures42
used for oorne application:-. but in most cases no Most of the colored smoke mixtures whif.lh have
binder has been used and the composition has been been used, with the exception of the yellc w smoke
eonsolidated under iJressure. Because of the prob- mixture containing auramine, may be r,)Jlsidered
if'ms associated with the loading of smoke mix- satisfactorily insensitive to friction and impact
tures, some work has heen directed toward the de- under the conditions encountered in normal load-
velopm('nt of a plastic-bondf'd smoke mixture. 3s ing operations. Yellow smoke mixtures containing
None of the plas-tic-bonded smokes haV(~ been stan- auramine are impact-sensitive, and require more
dardized. The use of a binder such as polyvinyl care in handling and loading. Smoke mixtures con-
:wetate3 1> would be advantageous be~ause: (1) it t.aining 1- (4-dimethylaminophenylazo) -2-naphthol
eOlltributes few undesirable qualities to the smoke, are lIlarkedly less sensitive to impact and friction
(2) it binds smoke mixtures into a hard, tough, than mixtures eontailling auramine. Ignition LJst
nonbrittle mass having excellent water and shock results show that colored smoke compositions can
resistaDc(', (3) it produces a formulation which be ignited by hot surfaces--and lIO doubt by open
withstands high and low temperature surveillance flames and othcr (lired heat SQurces-of compara.-
with negligible change, (4) it is safe, nontoxic, and tively low temperature. Following ignition, dust
7-40
AM'CP 706-185
SMOKE CIlNISTERS
douds or dispersions of these powders are capable Diethylamino Rosindone might undergo metabolic
of producing dust explosions. reduction in the body to yield carcinogenic 13-
naphthylamine. Green smoke dye 1,4-di-p-toluidino-
7-3.4.8 Toxicity of Colored Smoke Mixture anthraquinone is on the current approved list for
As standardized, the colored smoke clouds are drugs and cosmetics (Food and Drug Admi.nistra-
nontoxic in ordinary field concentrations. In gen- tion)0
eral, toxic materials should not be employed as Before experimentation with a particular dye is
ingredients in signaling and screening munitions. undertaken, it is important to gain all available
[t has been reported43 that certain dyes exhibit information pertaining to the potential hazards in.
carcinogenic characteristics which should be volved ic its use.
guarded against when they are used. The prob-
lem in determining whether. or not a dye is a 7-3.4.9 Typical Devices
carcinogenic hazard is complex because the products
Colored smoke mixtures have been used in hand
of metabolism of the dye must also be considered
and rifle grenades, mortar /lnd artillery projec-
for carcinogenic activity even though the original
tiles, float signals, rockets, smoke bombs, and similar
dye may be harml~ss. The hazards involved in
munitions. As flhown in Figure 7-12, a smoke com-
handling carcinogenic materials are not in the
position is often contained in a canister which is
quantities involved but in the frequency of ex-
ejected from the projectile when th& fuze func-
posure no matter how small the dosage.
tions. The ejeation charge ignites the starter mix,
One of the smoke dyes of great interest to the
ture which, in turn, ignites the smoke mixtu."re.
Army, Indanthrene Golden Yellow GK, bas been
This device contains three canisters which are
tested and f01'lld to be not carcinogenic but it is
ejected from the base of the projectile on air burst.
closely related to 3,4,8,9-dibenzpyrene <Idanthrene
Each canister contains from 380 to 410 grams of
Golden Yellow wit.h,)Ut the two oxygcns) which is
either yellow, red, green, or violet smoke mixture.
known to be a very potent carcinogen. If this com-
Many other smoke-producing items, such as gre-
pound should he pret~.;nL or formed by a process of
nades, etc., are also based on the canister as shown
reduction as an impurity in even as small a quantity
in Figures 7-13 and 7-14. Characteristics of these
as .01 % it would present a considerable hazard.
devices are given in Tables 7-11 and 7-12.
Red dye, I-meth~'lamill'lanthraquinone, has not
been tested for earcinogenicity but has the possi-
bility of beiug '1 pot,ntial liver carcinogen. Two 7-3.4.10 Direct Volatilization of Dye
other smoke dyes, Sudan Orange R (l-phellylazo- Colored smoke clouds are also produced by
2-naphthol) and 1- (2-methoxyphenylazo) -2-na!)h- direct volatilization of dye in the thermal genera-
tho} are reported as carcinogenic. Blue dye, 1,4-dia- tor-type munitions (separate dye and fuel com-
mino-2,3-dihydroanthraquinone, has not been tested partments). The dye should preferably bc a
but is expected to be relatively safe by its structure. crystalline eompound and have a melting point
7-41
Allep 706·185
TABLE 7·11
CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL EJECTION.TYPE COLORED SMOKE DEVICES
under 150°C, or a melting point of 100°0, when Yellow N (N, N-dimethyl-p-phenylazoaniline) gives
mixed with a ~mall proportion of a melting-point a satisfactory color. 'l'he dye duPont Oil Yellow
depressant such as diphenylamine (less than 25 N produces a brilliant yellow colored smoke. Mix-
percent is necesssry). The dye should be stable tures of blue and orange dyes, such as Galco Oil
for three to four minutes at temperatures of 50°C Orange Y·29~ and Ga!ea Oil Blue NA (1,4-di-
to 100°(: above its melting point. The dye 1-(4- amylaminoanthraquinone), give a brown-orange or
phenylazo) -2-naphthol--(~alled commercially by a brown-rose cloud. Blue smoke results from using
variety of names, i.e., duPont Oil Orange, Sudan only 25 percent Galeo Oil Orange Y -293. With a
Orange, Federal Smoke Orange-E, and 1-(0- 75 percent mixture of National Oil Scarlet 6-G
tolylazo)-2-naphthol (C&.lco Oil Orange Y-293)- and Caleo Oil Blue NA, the color has the appear-
protluces good orange smoke clouds but var;es in ance of a mixture of orange and violet or tan and
quality depending UP<JIl the commercial source. violet. IJarger percentages of scarlet result in a
The dye l-xylylazo-2-naphthol (Oalco Oil Scarlet rose-colored cloud and smaller percentages result
II, National Oil ~carlet 6-G) gives a much redder in blue smoke. A mixture of the dye 1-(2-methoxy-
cloud but the addition of 20 percent duPont Oil phenylazo) -2-naphthol (Federal Signal Red A)
7-42
AMCP 706-185
7-43
AMCP 706·185
SMOICE MIX
PRESSED AT 11,000 PSI
EJECTION CHARGE
25 G. GRAOE A4 ILACt( POWDER
35 G. INFALLIBLE ~OWDER
'. .." .
. . .. .. "..
.. '... ."
..
. : . '.
• '0
t. ".'
••
.. •
TRAWIOARD WASHER
CANISTER
FIBER WASHER
Oil Orange Y-293 [1-(0-tolylazo-2-naphthol] basic smoke, All t.he dyes, with the exception of
Oil Yellow 7463 [N, N-dimethyl-p-phenylazo- Oil Blue RA and Oil Red N-1700, are found to
aniline] produce the best results between 450°C ana 700°C.
Gas Green CG (l,4-di-p-toluidinoanthraquiu. Oil Blue RA is used successfully at 400°0 to
one) 550°C but shows a complete loss of color at 560°C.
Oil Red N·1700 produces the best results between
The maximum effect with the minimum quantity
550°0 and 625°C. Water solutions of Auramine
, of dye' is obtained by adding about five percent
and Red Y Supra Conc. (Safranine) are used dec-
of the dye, dissolved and/or suspended in oil
tively to produce colored oil smokes. Water spray
dispersed through a point-type spray nozzle. The
added to "le oil cloud does not appear to have any
dye is added at a point in the oil smoke exhaust
injurious effect. Water solutions of Blue FFB,
where the temperature can be varied l;letween 400°C
New Blue N (Methylene Blue), and Magenta XX
and 800°C. By controlling the temperature within
fail to produce color under the conditions of these
approximately 50°C limits, a fairly constant shade
experiments.
is obtained with each dye. By using different tem-
perature bands, variations are obtained in the
shade of smoke produced from a given dye. The 7-3.4.12 Black Smoke"'"
. efficiency of color production, however, appears to Black dyes do not, in general, give satisfactorily
'be equivalent in all cases. The shade changes dense. black smokes. Such smokes are generally
, ' which result from variations of temperature are produced by burning of hydrocarbons such as
due, at least in part, to the changes in color of the phenanthrene or anthracene. The, addition of an-
7-44
,
~----------------------------------------------- - -- - - -- - - - - - - ------ - - --------- ---------------
AMCP 706-185
CHARGE
TABLE 7-12
BASIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE COLORED MARKER AND
BASE-EJECTION SMOKE PROJECTILES FOR 105 mm. GUN
--------------------------------------------------------------
lIE Oolored Marker Base-Ejection Oolored Smoke
--------.-------------------------------
Build-up period vi Effective instantaneolls Over a period of from 1-2 min
colored cloud
Density of cloud Highly saturated Wispy
Duratifhl of cloud Average 6.3 -85 sec 75-120 sec
Size of cloud Approx. 40 X liD it Streamer approx. 4 ft across
Lethality of round May be lethal (iragments) Nonleth<tl
Fuzing of round .M1'SQ & V'l' fuzing MTSQ fuzing (: nly
'Vcight of round Equal to 105 mm HE round Lighter than J.05 mm HE
round
Ranging of ro~md Similar to 1()5 nnn HE round Canister impacts up to 1;;0
ft away from impact point of
projectile body
---_..__._---_._-----
thrl'''fOne naphthalene to He smokt~ mixtures also
'.II' with an appropriate detonator or booster charge,
TJl.}(juI',ps "laek smoke. The oxidizin~ agent gen- the resulting exploaion giving a !arge puff of
(~!'al\y used is poiassilll¥l p\~rchloratt'. c0!ored smoke. Colored smoke clouds are also ob-
tained from a mixture of a salt and It dye dis-
7·3.t. ,13 Explo~lve- Type Colored seminated by a central high-explo8iv~ burster of
Smake Bursts45 •46 bal atol. amatol, 60 mm igmtion powder, Composi-
In addition to the \~()l()n:d smoke dissemination tion B, or other:.;. '{'he use of a salt dilutent is one
md.hod;.; dis('uss('J in the previous Pal ag-raphs, PrlH'Puu:"e fo!' pr'ndueing tontrulled nuclei on which
I here i~~ tll'~ hiPthod that produces its ,·,fled through the dye may condense. Cll<;t or pressed dye, along
HI(' ad-bn ,)f an explosive hurst<~r. Both propellailts with a ~entral burster, is also used to produce eol-
ami high explosives j;,re u~ed for thh, PUrIY1S{·. F(,( ored douds. 'rhe basic performance differences
examp"', li eclored smoke llflrst ean b\~ obtained hy b~tw('en uissemination of eolort'd smoke fly all
IIsiug a mixtltrt, Df (tpproximatel:: equal parts of itf'1l\ using an ('Xploslve burster and by a munition
tlye and EC i:ilwd(,l'. 'l'hi" rnixhtt't" is detonated using burning-type smol{e mixtures are tabulated
7-45
AMep 706·185
m Table 7-12. The 105 mm Colored Marker Pro- acidity. For many dyes baratol has proved to be
jectile, referred to in the table, is shown in Figure satisfactory. The method for determining tne
7-15. weight of a burster used in colored ma.rker pro-
The dyes that are satisfactory for dissemination jeetiles was derived by a.r;;suming that the energy
by an explosive charge include the same dyes as of the explosive charge is proportional to the strain
those used in the burning-type colored smoke energy required to burst the projectile. In order to
munitions. Also, many azo-type dyes which do not simplify calculations, conversion factors and con-
perform well in burning smoke munitions give very stants are included in a dimensionless factor K. The
good smoke clouds when disseminated by EO pow- weight of burster required is given by the empirical
der. Among the best dyes for explosive munitions formula:
are 1- (2-methoxyphenylazo) -2-naphthol for red,
1- (4-nitrophenylazo) -2-naphthol and 1- (4-phcnyl-
We = KW(Y + U)eK' (7.7)
aZ(l )-2-naphthol for orange, and 4-phenylazo-m- where
phenylenediamine for yellow.
Wv = weight of explosive required (including
initiator), g
7·3.4.13.1 Propellant Bursters41 K= a constant, 11.4 X 10- 6 to 11.4 X 10- 11 ,
Several propellants have been studied for use depending on caliber and explosive used
as bursters, the EC powder mentioned above show- (the exact K can be found by empirical
ing the greatest promise. Various methods of load- evaluation only)
ing Ee powder and dye in a projectile !lave been W = weight of steel components of projectile
tried as follows: (excluding fuze and base), Ib
a. Mixing the dye and Ee propellant powder Y = yield stress of projectile steel, psi
intimately before loading the projectile, e= strain elongation at fracture, %
b. Coating the projectile wall with meltec. dye U= ultimate strength of projectile steel, psi
and placing the EO powder in the central K' = ratio of caloric ';alue of a standard ex·
cavity, plosive to explosive to be used. For in-
(~. eilling the projectile with melted dye and stance, if value of tetryl is 1,100 cal/g
then drilling out a core for EC powder, and and baratol is 900 cal/g the formula
a. Loading the projectile with approximately would be:
equal increments of dye and EO powder in We = KW(Y + U)e(11/9)
alternate layers. Burster charges designed by this method have
The last method, in which alternate layers of dye functioned favorably. The quantity (Y +
U)e is
and EO powder are used, was found to be the best. roughly equal to twice the strain energy absorbed
The alternate-layer method of loading with EO by one cubic iIlch of steel.
powder was found to be superior to bursters of
either TNT or tetryl. The burster ex~losive used 7·3.4.14 Typical Mixtures
is a mixture similar to amatol loadings, consisting 1'ypieal colored smoke mixtures, including a
of 27.8 percent ammonium picrate and 72.2 percent fcw white and black smokes, are shown in Table
ammonium nitrate. 7-13.
7-4(;
AMCP 706·185
TABLE 7·13
TYPICAL SMOKE COMPOSITIONS
Typical
Type Composition, % Application Devices
WHITE:
HC-Type C Hexachloroethane 45.5 Screening Smoke pots
Zinz Oxide 47.5 and Smoke bombs
Aluminum (grained) 7.0 Signaling Grenades
Modified He H exachloro benzene 34.4 Screening- Smoke
Zinc Oxide 27.6 and projectiles
NH4 CIO. 24.0 Signaling
Zinc Dus! 6.2
Laminac v/catalyst 7.8
Modified He Dechloral e 33.9 Screening Smoke
Zinc Ox;de 37.4 and projectiles
NH 4 ClO 4 20.5 Signaling
IJamina·· w / (' !talyst 8.2
Plasticizf'd Whit.e White J'hosr lOms 65.0 Screening Chemical
Phosphorus (PWP) Plafticizer 35.0 (antipersonnel) mortar projectiles
(Necprel' , 100 parts)
(Carbon 75 parts)
(Z'--!ene 44 parts)
(I itha!'l e 15 parts)
BLACK:
KC;')a (200 mesh) 52.0 Screening }renades, etc.
Allthra~e"le (40 mesh) 48.0
COLORED:
l{ed Dye-MIL D-3718 40.0 Signaling Navy floating
KC10 3 24.0 drift signal
Naf-CO s 17.0
Sulfur 5.0
P()lyt'~ter resin 14.0
lied I-Tllethyll!mino (AQ)· 45.0 ~ignaling Rocket type
1,4.di-p·-toluidino (AQ)· 3.0 parachute
KelO s (2~) 3&.0 ground
Sugar, nn{,' (1]\-1.) 17.0 signals
1. (methoxyphenylazo)· Air marker 90 mmRed
~!-nlipht,hol 80.0 Marking marker
NaCl 20 (j ground targets projectile
• (AQ)--A ntilrH.quillot,(1
7-47
TABLE 7-13 (cont'd)
Typical
Type Co'mposition, % Application Devices
Polyvinyl acetate in
ethyl acetate 3.0
7·48
A)(CP 706-185
REFERENCES
1. A. M. Prentiss, Cllemicals in War, McGraw- Bureau of K.wal Weapons, WashingtoJl., D. C.,
am Book Co., Inc., N. Y., 1037. Ma~' 1959.
2. K. F. Sawyer, "Screening Smokes," 7'horpe's 16. N. Irving Sax, Dangerous Properli,e, of In-
Dictionary of Applied Chem.i..~tr~f. Vol. X, 4th dustrial M,..te,'iaJ,s . .2nd Ed., Reinhold, 1963,
Ed., Longmans, Green, London, 1950, p. 781. L,ibral") of Congress Catalog Card No. 63-
3. H. L. Green and W. R. J.lane, l'tlrii~date 20370.
Cloupt: Dusts, Smokes and Mists, D. V8.Il N0S- 17. David W. Fassett, lJon D. Irish, Eds., I.,.,..
du~rlrial Hygien-e Gud Toxicology, Vol II,
trand Co., London, 1957.
4. History of Res.tlrch and Development of the Interscience Publications, 1963.
Chemil~l War/.we Sc,·vi.ce in World War II
W. AN-M7 F'ile; Bwck Program, Report 0-2148U,
·'i.einbold, N. Y., 19'.!:8. ' Olin Mathies('>n Chemical Corpora.tion, New
Haven, C<>nnecticut, April 15, 1961 (DDC-
5. L. P. Brophy, D. M. SYlldham, R. C. CochrallE,
AD 271 (878).
Thf., CJ.emiooJ. W (J.rfare Set m'ce: From .Labora-
19. L. F. Young, W. M. Conway, The T36E1 81e~
tory ta ji'i,eld, Department of Army, Wash-
Wool White Phosphonu (SWP) Smoke Gre-
:ngton, D. C., 1959.
nade, Picatinny Arsenal Technie.a.l Report
6. W. A. Noyes, Jr., Ed., Chemistry, Srlience in
2618, Pica4;.inny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., Novem-
World War 1.1 Series, Little, Brown and Cll.,
ber 1959.
1948.
20. R. D. Kracke, Improved Pho.piwnu Smoke,
7. John A. Ma.rtin, "Combat Smoke in Korea,"
TCR-13, Techni~al Command, Anny Chemical
Armed Ji'orces Ohemic(1l Journal, 7 October
19i):? Cl'mtcr, Edgewood Arsenal, M.aryland, March
1949.
8. B. E. Klebt:r and E. I. Byrnes, "Make
21. H. Zislin, StfAbiZization of Red. Phorplwnu,
Smoke," Armed Forces Chemical Journal. 6
A~nHO. . Frankford Arsenal Report 660, Frankford
Arsenal, Philadelphia, Pa., October 1945.
9. S. L. A. Mar'!haH, Infantry OperaHom and
WeapVn& Usage;n ICorea During Ihe Winter
22. M. S. Si!verstein, G. Nordblom, Stabilwation
of Oommercial Red Pho6phorus, Frankford
of 1950.. 51, Report ORO.R-13, Department of
Anhlnal Re.,ort 206, Frankford Arsenal, Phila-
Army, Washillgton, D. C.• 2'~ October 1953.
delphia, Pa., April 1943.
10. W. W. Cl.'velJ, T. Stevensoll, 8mokf l'rtUer.,
23. M. S. Silverstein, G. F. Nordblom, C. Vl. Dit-
Cill-i.ber .50, F'rankford Al"St'ne.!, Philadelphia,
trich, and J. J. Jacbbein, "Stable Red Phos-
Pa., Nov~mber 1951.
H . .BAT Antilan~ Weapon a'lI.l Ammuflitiota, phorus, " Industrial and Engineering Chem-
Frankford Arsenal Report ]080, Frankford istry 40, 301 (19/t8).
Arsenll.l , PbHade11)hia, Pil. 24. D. L. Elbt.edt, Laborf1,lory aM Pligl!.t Tut.
'2. W. A. Noy~, .Jr., Military Pf'obu"" toill!. A.ero- of Chemical Tracking Aid., AFMDC-TR-58-2,
,..ols and N otl-Per,ident Oases, Summary Teeh- Air Force Missile Development Center, Hollo-
ni(~al Report of Division lO, DepArtment (if mon Air Force Base, New Mexico, July 1958
Arm)', Washington, n. C., 1946. (DDe-AD 23 7:16).
13. U. Mif', A un d~r Pbys. ~3, :177 (1908). 25. 3. B. Elkins, HC Smoke: ProfHJrt~s of Zi,fIC
14. M. H. P. P. YC\'lck, The Texicity or CombtU- Oxide Alecti"g tltp Burnifl{i Characteri.~t\u
Iwn Product6 oj' P'I.Imte.dinics, CWlJ-TM.26- of HO Smcke Mixtures, TDMR.729, Edgewood
12, Army Chemica! Warl'are Laboratories, Arsenal, Jlr{d.
r<:d,ewtlOd At·UNI&.l, Maryland, MI\~r 1960. 26. I... Finkt>lfltein, Thl (,hemuiry of HC Smoke
IS. To:w.' Tl fUm-ds A.H(Jciottii. "./lit:1 PYf'oteckml" Mixttlrel, A.rmy ChemiclL) Lllboratories, Edge-
Items. np 2793, Naval vnh.llttlce I..nOOratory, wood Arsenal, Md.
7-49
AIICP '106-185
REFERENCES (cont'd)
27. G. Vfeingarten, .Long Range Research on. Py- metric AMlysis of Organic Dyes, Piclltin..'1Y
rotechnics Devektpme1.t of an Improved Smoke Arsenal Technical Note 25, Picatinny Arse.lJl.l,
CompoHtio'1'8 {(lr Acf~t·~dor, Practioe, M·1, Pica- Dover, N. J., 1958.
tinny Arsenal '1'eclmical Report 1799, Pica- 37. ORDWES Quarterly Report 1948-8, Wes-
tinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., November 1950. leyan University, Middletown, Connecticut,
28. Jack DeMent, Compoditivn for Smoke Produc- May 1948.
tian., U.S. Patent 2,995,526, August 1961. 38. W. W. Reaves, J. H. Hassmann, Investiga-
29. J. E. AndTews, Jr., B. Werbel, Smokes, Pica- tion of a Long Burning Plastic-Bonded, Col-
tinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., May 1962. ored Smoke Mixture, CWLR 2339, Army
30. J. E. Andrews, Jr., K. G. Carlon, W. W. Chemical Laboratories, Englewood Arsenal,
Reaves, EvaLuation of a Plastic·Bonded HC Maryland, .January 1960 (DDC-AD 233 750).
Smoke Oomposition for the M8 Grenade, 39. N' J. Wilkaitis, Researc/>. and Development of
CRDLR.3065, Army Chemical Laboratories, Flammable Plastic for Colored Smoke U.8,
Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland, April 1961. Army Chemical Laboratories, EdgeWOOd Ar-
senal, Maryland, October 1956 (DDC-AD 137
:U. S. Gordon and C. Campbell, "Preignition and
748).
Ignition Reactions of the Pyrotechnic System
40. Munsell Book of Color, Munsell Color Co., 10
Zn-CeCle-KCI0 4 , " Fiftn. Symposium on Com-
East Franklin St., Baltimore, Maryland.
bustion, Reinhold Publishing Co., N. Y.,
41. Chemical and Radiatioll Laborat,)ries Report
1955. thO, Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland.
~2. S. Grundemeier, Survey of Li.terature of
42. S. J. Magram, S{'nsitivity of Colored Smoke
Ohemical Tracking Aids, HADC-TR-57-7, Air Mixtures; TDMR-547, EdgeWOOd Arsenal,
Force Missile Development Center, Holloman Maryland.
Air Force Base, New Mexico, August 1957 43. A. F. 'l'aiyrek, The Toxicity of Certain Dyes in.
(DDC-AD 135 001). Current Use, PieatinllY Arsenal, Dover, N. J.,
:j:l L. Finkelstein, Colored Smokes, Vol. 12 of His- May 1964.
tory of Research and Development of the 44. Development of a Black Sm'Jke Candle for
Uhemicat Warfare Service in World War Il, Signal Purposes, EACD-376, Edgewood Ar-
Army Chemical Center, Edgewood Arsenal, s~nal, Maryland, March 1926.
Maryland. 31 December 1945 (DDC-ATI 207 45. T. Advokat, Colored Marker Shell M10'l (155
451). mm), Picatinny Arsenal Technical NotE: 140,
:H. G. D. Heath, Formation of Coloured Smoke Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., September
Clouds, Part 1 of Review of Suitable Organic 1956 (DDC-AD 108 297).
Dye Stuff, PR 2547, Ol'eat Britain, April 1943. 46, T. Advokat, HE Colot'ed Marker Sheli for
:J5. D. Anderson, S. Gordon, D. Edelman, Thermo- M29 and T72 Mortars (81 mm M.'f62), Pica-
gravimetric Determination of the Energies of tinny ~4.rsenal Techniral Report 2664, Pica.-
Activation V olatil.1·zati01l, Picatinny Arsenal tinny Arsenal, Dover, N.•J., January 1960
Technical Note 16, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, (DDe-AD 314 621).
N. J., 1948. 47. G. D. Heath, Production of Colored Smoku
:J6 D. Andel'SOll, S. Gordon, D. Edelman, Dif- by Explosive Dispersion, PTP-147, Great
ferential Thermal Analysis and TherfIWgrcwi- Britain, January 1950.
i-riO
THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE DUPLICATES OF
1-5\