FATIGUE HANDBOOK

Offshore Steel Structures

Edited by
A. Almar-Naess

I
B
TAPIR
1985
Editorial Committee
Jan R. Getz
Professor, MARINTEK, Trondheim, Chairman of Committee.
A. Alrnar-Naess
Professor, Norges tekniske hogskole, Trondheim.
Carl A. Carlsen
Dr.ing., Senior Principal Surveyor, Det norske Veritas, Oslo.
Kristian Haslum
Sivilingenior, MAROTEC A/S, Oslo.
Torgeir Moan
Professor, Dr-ing., Norges tekniske hogskole, Trondheim.
Per Tenge
M-Sc., Chief Surveyor, Det norske Veritas, Oslo.
Harold S. Tyler
B.Sc. (M.E.), Principal Metallurgical and Corrosion Engineer,
Phillips Petroleum Company Norway, Stavanger.
Authors
A. Alrnar-Naess
Professor, Norges tekniske hogskole, Trondheim.
Hiikan Andersson
M.Sc., Structural Analyst, VERITEC, Oslo
Einar Bardal
Professor, Dr.ing., SINTEF, Trondheim.
Stig Berge
Professor, Dr .ing., Norges tekniske hogskole, Trondheim.
Knut Engesvik
Dr.ing., Senior Research Engineer, SINTEF, Trondheim.
StAle Fines
Sivilingenior, Senior Engineer, A.S VERITEC, Oslo.
M.B. Gibstein
M.Sc., Senior Principal Engineer, A.S VERITEC, Oslo.
Per J. Haagensen
M.Sc.A., Senior Research Engineer, SINTEF, Trondheim.
Agnar Karlsen
Sivilingenior, Principal Surveyor, Det norske Veritas, Oslo.
Jon Lereim
M.Eng., Principal Surveyor, Det norske Veritas, Oslo.
Inge Lotsberg
Dr .ing., Principal Engineer, A.S VERITEC, Oslo.
Torgeir Moan
Professor, Dr.ing., Norges tekniske hogskole, Trondheim.
Einar T. Moe
M.Sc., Senior Project Engineer, A.S VERITEC, Oslo.
Stephen Slatcher
M.A., Ph.D., Research Engineer, A.S VERITAS RESEARCH, Oslo.
Stig Wastberg
Ph.D., Principal Engineer, A.S VERITEC, Oslo.
 PREFACE

Soon after oil and gas exploration and production began in the North Sea in the
19603, it became apparent that the steel structure design developed for offshore activities
in the Gulf of Mexico was not adequate when transferred to the more rigorous North Sea
environment. In particular, fatigue cracks evolved as a result of wave action during the
severe winter storms. There were no serious accidents, but it was evident that there was a
great need for better understanding of the fatigue phenomenon so that safer structures
could be built.
In Norway, a vigorous effort to collect wave, wind and current data, and to develop
methods for calculating static and dynamic response in offshore structures started in the
early 1970's. A corresponding, but less intensive activity to determine fatigue capacity
of materials and welded joints in air and sea water, was initiated some years later, However,
everyone concerned recognized that a much greater effort was needed to keep up with
the rapidly developing construction work in progress in the North Sea.
In 1977, concerned materials scientists at SINTEF and Det norske Veritas prepared
a 5 year program for intensified research on fatigue of offshore steel structures. This was
approved by the Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in 1979.
In 1981, it became the National 5 Year Program for Fatigue of Offshore Steel Structures.
The stated objective of the program:
Establishing a more reliable basis for design of welded marine structures with respect to
fatigue, thus contributing to an improved and better defined safety level for such struc-
tures, and developing a basic understanding of mechanisms and conditions governing the
fatigue life of steel structures.
A steering committee was named with responsibility for the organization and
execution of the program. Present members are:
Bjom Lian, Statoil, Chairman
A. Almar-Naess, Norges tekniske hogskole
Einar Horn, Det norske Veritas
Per Tenge, Det norske Veritas
Harold S. Tyler, Phillips Petroleum Company Norway.
 During 1981-1985, research work was performed in laboratories at Norges tekniske
hogskole, SINTEF, and Det norske Veritas. This work generally followed the original
program at a total cost of about 25 million Nkr. The main contributors to the program are
the Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and Phillips Petroleum
Company Norway. Supplementary funding is coming from Statoil, Oljedirektoratet, Norsk
Hydro A/S, and Kvaerner Industrier A/S. Close cooperation was established with similar
programs organized by the European Coal and Steel Community and National programs
within the Community.
In order to satisfy the objective of the program, it is important that results are
available to engineering industries, oil companies and certifying authorities without delay,
and in a form that can be understood and utilized by those responsible for the different
stages in engineering, design, fabrication and service of offshore structures. Therefore,
this book was written as one of the projects within the program.
A six member committee with Mr. Kristian Haslum as editor drafted the outline
and gave the initial instructions to the authors. At the final stage of the book, the editorial
work was undertaken by Professor A. Almar-Niess.
It is intended that the book should cover the most important subjects related to
fatigue of steel structures, to an extent and depth which will give the reader a correct
understanding of the main problems, and enable transfer of knowledge into practical
design. Examples of calculation of fatigue stresses and fatigue lives have been included
to illustrate the text.
Much of the editorial work has been to coordinate the eleven chapters so that the
different topics are dealt with in a logical order without unnecessary recurrences, and with
nomenclature and symbols that are essentially consistent. In this, the editor has been only
partially successful.
The editorial work has been a joint effort between the authors, Mrs. Vera Almar-
Naess, who has composed the book and corrected the proofs, Mr. Per Molde and Mr. Ingar
Graneggen, who have drawn the figures, and myself. I want to thank them all for a re-
warding cooperation. I would also like to acknowledge the positive connection with
Professor Jan R. Getz, chairman of the drafting committee, and Mr. Nils Ostlyng, director
of Tapir.

Trondheim May 1985

A. Alrnar-Naess
 CONTENTS

1 OVERVIEW OF OFFSHORE STEEL STRUCTURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Types of offshore steel structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 System layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Design requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2 Loads and load effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.3 Ultimate strength design check. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.4 Fatigue design check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.5 Progressive failure design check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3 Practical implications of design criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.1 Semi-submersibles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.2 Tension leg platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3.3 Jackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
1.4 Lessons learned from fatigue failures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.1 General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.2 Fatigue failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.3 Implications of service failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

2 LOADS ON OCEAN STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
List of symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2 Stochastic processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3 Dynamic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.2 Single-degree-of-freedom system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.3 Physical properties used for dynamic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.4 Natural frequencies of common structural elements . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.4 Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.4.2 Regularwaves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.4.3 Irregular waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.4.4 Long-term wave statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
 Contents

2.5 Hydrodynamic forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

2.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5.2 Loads on small-volume bodies - Morison's equation . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5.3 Loads on large-volume bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.5.4 Deterministic calculation of response to hydrodynamic loads. . . . . . 69
2.5.5 Spectral method for calculation of response to hydrodynamic
loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.5.6 Slamming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.5.7 Vortex-induced oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.6 Long-term stress range distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.6.2 Deterministic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.6.3 Stochastic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.6.4 Simplified long-term distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3 FRACTURE MECHANICS AS A TOOL IN FATIGUE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . 91

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
r 3.1 Fundamentals of fracture mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
I I .. 3.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.1.2 Analytical basis of LEFM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.1.3 Evaluation of stress intensity factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.2 Fracture mechanics applied to fatigue problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.2.1 Estimation of crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
3.2.2 Estimation of fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.2.3 Fracture mechanics applied in the calculation of SN-curves . . . . . . . 130
3.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Appendix 3 .A. Conversion tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Appendix 3.B. General references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Appendix 3.C. A small compendium of stress intensity factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Two-dimensional edge crack problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Elliptical cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

4 BASIC FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF WELDED JOINTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1 5 7

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
....... ; List of symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
.. 4.1 Basic fatigue mechanisms and characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.1.1 Fatigue initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
4.1.2 Crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.1.3 Final failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
4.1.4 Characteristics of fatigue failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.1.5 Fatigue capacity assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.2 Constant amplitude SN testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
4.2.1 SN testing versus crack growth testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176

. VIII .
 Contents

4.2.2 Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

4.2.3 TypesofSNtests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.2.4 Fatigue failure criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.2.5 Fatigue limit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.2.6 Real structures versus test specimens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.3 Cyclic strain and material response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.3.2 Monotonic stress and strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
4.3.3 Cyclic stress and strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.3.4 Cyclic stress and strain resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.3.5 Fatigue of notched members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.4 Variable amplitude loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.4.1 Characterization of fatigue loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.4.2 Cycle counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.4.3 Load spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.5 Cumulative damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
4.5.1 The Miner summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
4.5.2 Equivalent stress range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.5.3 Stress interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.6 Fatigue of welded joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.6.1. Crack initiation versus crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.6.2 SN-curve - low cycle and lugh cycle fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.6.3 The effect of geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
4.6.4. Residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.6.5 Material properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.7 SN data for welded joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
4.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
4.7.2 Classification of SN data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.7.3 Assessment of design SN-curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

5 SIGNIFICANCE OF DEFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.2 Classification of defects according to origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.2.1 Fabrication defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.2.2 In-senice defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
5.3 Other faults in fusion welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
5.4 Statistical description of weld quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5.5 Non-destructive inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5.5.1 Non-destructive inspection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
5.5.2 Nondestructive inspection reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.6 Assessment of defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.6.1 Fitness-for-purpose approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.6.2 Defect severity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

. IX-
Contents

6 IMPROVING THE FATIGUE STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINTS . . . . . . . . 259

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
6.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.1.2 The potential for improving fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.1.3 Improvement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.2 Weld geometry modification and defect removal methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.2.1 Grinding techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.2.2 Weld toe remelting methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.2.3 Improved welding techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
6.3 Residual stress methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
6.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.3.2 Hammer peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.3.3 Shot peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.4 Combination of improvement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
6.5 Test on large scale components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
6.6 Comparison of improvement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.7 Cost of improvement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
6.8 Applying improvement methods to offshore structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
6.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.8.2 Effects of size and stress distribution in improved joints . . . . . . . . . 283
6.8.3 Inspection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
6.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

7 EFFECTS OF MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND CATHODIC PROTECTION

ON FATIGUE OF STRUCTURAL STEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
7.1 Qualitative presentation of effects. mechanisms and important factors. . . . . 291
7.2 Effects of corrosion and cathodic protection on experimentally determined
SNdata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
7.2.1 Plain specimens and different types and qualities of welded joints . . . 294
7.2.2 Significance of environmental factors and corrosion protection
measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7.2.3 Significance of loading variables and materials properties . . . . . . . . 299
7.3 Effects of corrosion and cathodic protection on crack growth . . . . . . . . . . 300
7.3.1 Different effects at different levels of crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
7.3.2 Significance of loading variables and materials properties . . . . . . . . 301
7.3.3 Significance of environmental factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
7.4 Prediction of effects of corrosion and cathodic protection on fatigue life by
means of crack growth data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
7.5 Design guide-lines, British proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7.6 Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309
 Contents

8 FATIGUE OF TUBULAR JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313 .
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.2 Types of tubular joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-315
8.3 Simple welded tubular joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
8.3.1 Definitions and symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
2 ! 3 -3Y 9 8.3.2 Definition of the hot spot stress, and stress and strain concentration
factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
8.3.3 Methods for stress analysis of tubular joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.3.4 Stress concentration factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
8.3.5 Fatigue testing, experimental results and establishment of SN-curves 339
8.3.6 Joint design and fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
8.3.7 Procedurg for fatigue evaluation of tubular joints . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
8.3.8 In-senice experience. Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.3.9 Fracture mechanics analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
8.4 Heavy duty joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
8.4.1 Overlapping joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
8.4.2 Complex joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
8.4.3 Cast steel nodes (CSN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Appendix A: Parametric formulas for stress concentration factors. . . . . . . . . . . . 363

9 UNSTABLE FRACTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
9.1 Failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371 .
9.2 Modes of unstable fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 .
9.3 Toughness parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
9.3.1 Charpy toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .374
9.3.2 Fracture mechanics parameters to characterise unstable fracture . . . -375
9.4 Fracture toughness (KIC and CTOD) testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.4.1 KIC testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 .
9.4.2 CTOD testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
9.5 Application of fracture mechanics to unstable fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
9.5.1 The stress intensity factor approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
9.5.2 The CTOD design curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
9.5.3 The R6 failure assessment diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389
9.5.4 Stress concentrations and residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
9.6 Factors affecting fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
9.6.1 Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 .
9.6.2 Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
9.6.3 Strain rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
9.6.4 Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401 .
Contents

10 FATIGUE LIFE CALCULATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
10.1 Importance of fatigue life estimation at the design stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
10.2 Prediction of fatigue life by use of SN data and the Miner-Palmgren
approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
10.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
10.2.2 Closed form fatigue life equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
10.2.3 Calculation of equivalent stress range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
10.2.4 Stresses to be considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
10.2.5 SN-curves and joint classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
10.3 Prediction of crack propagation by use of da/dN-AK curves . . . . . . . . . . . 422
10.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422
10.3.2 Constant amplitude loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
10.3.3 Variable amplitude loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
10.3.4 Geometry functions and crack growth integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
10.4 Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis of fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
10.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
10.4.2 Load calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
10.4.3 Stress calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
10.4.4 SN data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
10.4.5 Fabrication tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
10.4.6 Cumulative damage hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.4.7 Probability of failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.5 Design formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .437
10.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .437
10.5.2 Allowable stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
10.5.3 Allowable cumulative damage ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
10.5.4 Comments on the design formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443
10.6 Allowable stress format for pre-engineering design check . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
10.6.1 Design chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443
10.6.2 Considerations on the Weibull parameter h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
10.7 Considerations on yield strength and relieving of residual stresses . . . . . . . . 447
10.7.1 Yield strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
10.7.2 Post weld heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
10.8 Example 9 . Redesigning of cross joint in a loading buoy . Discussion on the
choice of SN-curve and possible use of stress relief heat treatment . . . . . . . 448
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

11 FATIGUE IN BUILDING CODES .BACKGROUND AND APPLICATIONS . . 459

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
11.1 The various codes on fatigue requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459
11.2 Fatigue design regulations based on fatigue strength tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
11.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
11.2.2 Stresses to be considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
11.2.3 SN-curves and joint classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
 Contents

11.2.4 Thickness effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

11.2.5 Fatigue failure criteria inherent the SN-curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
11.3 Stress concentration factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
11.4 Examples of fatigue design based on fatigue strength tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
11.5 Fatigue design regulations based on crack growth rate tests and fracture
mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
11.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
11.5.2 Crack growth parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
1 1 -5.3 Crack growth calculation for butt welds, cruciform joints and
tubular joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
11.6 Examples of crack growth calculation based on crack growth rate tests and
fracture mechanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
11.7 Fatigue failure criteria in connection with repair of defects . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
11.8 Notes on damages and methods for making repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
11.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
11.8.2 Repair and reinforcing methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Appendix A. Joint classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

SUBJECT INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

 CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW OF
OFFSHORE STEEL STRUCTURES

Torgeir Moan
Norges tekniske hsgskole, Trondheirn

ABSTRACT
The main features of various types of offshore steel structures are outlined.
Their construction and fabrication are discussed in relation to their fatigue
strength.
Design requirements for offshore platforms are reviewed, with emphasis
on those concerned with structural integrity. The practical implications of
design requirements are shown, with a semi-submersible being used as the
principal example. In particular, the factors that determine the relative im-
portance of the fatigue design criterion have been discussed.
Lessons learnt from service failures of structures are used to illustrate
how fatigue failures may be avoided by proper design, fabrication and opera-
tion.

1.1 TYPES OF OFFSHORE STEEL STRUCTURES

1.1.1 System layouts
Fig. 1.1 shows typical floating and bottom supported offshore platforms.
All these structures are made of steel, except the one in Fig. 1 . l e, which is a
concrete platform with a steel deck.
Semi-submersibles, or column-stabilized units differ radically in appear-
ance from traditional vessels. They have a platform or deck area that might
be square, rectangular or triangular in general configuration. This platform
is supported by columns connected to large underwater displacement hulls,
or it is mounted on large vertical caissons. The basic purpose of this design
Section 1.1.1

Fig. 1.1 Selected offshore structures.

a) Semi-submersible platform; b) Tension leg platform; c) Buoy-
type platform; d) Jack-up; e) Gravity platform; f') Jacket; g) Steel
tripod; h) Articulated tower; i) Guyed tower.
 Section 1.1.1

t--I- I t ?
Section 1.1.1

is to reduce the effects of wave forces by locating the major buoyancy mem-
bers beneath the surface and therewith the wave action. Sufficient stability
is provided by the columns. Their operation displacement ranges from 15 000-
30 000 metric tons. The ratio between minimum (transit) and maximum dis-
placement is 112 - 213. Several semi-submersible designs have the basic
features displayed in Fig. 1.1 a - b, with a deck supported by two rows of
columns, each connected to a "longitudinal" pontoon. The slender bracing
arrangement varies. Semi-submersibles are commonly used in exploratory
drilling, but also serve as production units in "marginal" oil fields. The buoy-
type platform in Fig. I . 1c is self-explanatory.
Floating platforms are kept on location either by a conventional spread
mooring, or a taut mooring system or a dynamic positioning system. Up to
now spread mooring systems consisting of 6-12 lines with anchors at the ends
have been used. The tension leg platform, Fig. 1.1b, is a semi-submersible type
platform with buoyancy that exceeds its weight, and hence causes a pre-
tension force in the vertical cables. The first tension leg production platform
was installed in the Hutton field in the summer of 1984.
The jack-up is characterized by 3-4 (or more) legs that can be lowered
to serve as bottom support, see Fig. 1.ld. The main platform deck will thus be
raised out of the water on location during drilling. However, the deck unit is
watertight and has buoyancy and stability to serve as a transport unit with
elevated legs during ocean or field transit. The legs may be pipes perforated
with holes, or a truss-work. The jack-up is commonly used as a drilling
plat form.
A (concrete) gravity platform essentially consists of a large cellular
caisson supporting 3-4 towers with a deck on the top, see Fig. 1.1 e. To date,
the upper part of the superstructure has been exclusively a steel grillage,
built of plate girders or as a truss-work, the main reason being the desire for
low self-weight during tow-out. This makes it possible to install more equip-
ment before tow-out, and thus reduce the offshore installation time. The
basic concept of the gravity platform is to attain stability in the permanent
location without special piling.
The jacket or "template" platform is a truss-work tower consisting of
tubular members with a deck on the top and piles into the sea-bed, see Fig.
1.1 f. The deck loads (and environmental loads) are transferred to the founda-
tion through the legs, of which there may be 4 to 16. The legs are stiffened
by a bracing, w h c h will also carry resultant horizontal forces. Most of the
some 2500 jackets in the world are located in shallow waters. There are only
about 50 in water depths over 100 meters.
 Section 1.1.1

Smaller jackets are transported to the field location on a barge and

lifted into position by a crane. Heavier jackets are towed self-floating and
positioned by a weight-buoyancy system. The large legs on one broad-side
of the jacket, illustrated in Fig. 1.1 f, served as buoyancy volume during tow-
out. The installation phase is sensitive to the weather, and several weeks may
elapse before the structure is safely pinned to the sea-bed.
As an alternative to the conventional truss-work platform, steel or
concrete tripod platforms have been suggested for deep water applications,
Fig. 1.1 g. The use of inclined legs makes the global transfer of wave loads
to the seafloor very effective, mainly by axial forces.
The articulated tower shown in Fig. 1.l h, consists of a deck, a buoy-
ancy chamber and a load bearing truss-work structure linked to the sea-bed
by a joint. Alternative structural layouts are envisaged. So far, this type of
platform has been used as loading buoys, but its potential as a production
platform is being investigated.
The guyed tower in Fig. 1.1i is a truss-work tower resting on a spud can
(or piles) and is moored by some 20-24 pre-tensioned cables. A buoyancy
chamber located below the mean water level may be used to relieve the spud
can or piles of some of the vertical loads. The first guyed tower has been
successfully installed in the Lena field of the Gulf of Mexico.

T-joint Y -joint K-joint Heavy wall

can joint
D T joint

Fig. 1.2 Simple tubular welded joints.

a) Simple plane joints; b) Multiplane joints.
Section 1.1.2

1.1.2 Joints
Offshore steel structures are commonly composed of thin tubular members
because their closed sections provide buoyancy and high torsional rigidity,
minimum surface for painting and corrosion attack, simplicity of shape and
pleasing appearance. In submerged parts of the structures, circular tubes
are preferred because they result in smaller hydrodynamic forces than mem-
bers with square cross-sections. However, fabrication is easier for the latter
type. Above the splash-zone, hollow rectangular sections or other sectional
shapes may be used.

Colu
shell
a)
I I
I I I

Fig. 1.3 Welded joints of circular tubular members.

 Section 1.1.2

Possible ringstiffener/bulkhead

Fig. 1.4 Transition components for a) small diameter tubes and b) large dia-
meter tubes. Possible vertical T-shape stiffeners are not shown.

Welded Cast
Fig. 1.5 Difference in layout of a) welded and b) cast tubular joints.

Fig. 1.2 a shows typical configurations of tubular joints for members

lying in one plane. In Fig. 1.2 b more complex three dimensional situations
are displayed. Depending on the relative diameters of the members and their
plate thicknesses, stiffening of the joint may be used. The simplest form of
stiffening is to increase the plate thicknesses in the joint area. Other possi-
Section 1.1.2

Fig. 1.6 Various types of welded joints.

a) Between tubes with rectangular cross sections, b) and c) between
plates, d) attachment welds.

bilities include the use of internal bulkheads and stiffeners as shown in Fig.
1.3. Fig. 1.3 a shows a layout applicable when members of very different sizes
are to be joined. Fabricating joints with internal stiffeners obviously requires
a minimum space and thus a minimum diameter of the tubes.
Sometimes, a transition component is introduced between the member
and the joint itself. This may be done to increase the diameter or t o change
 Section 1.2.1

the cross-sectional shape as shown in Fig. 1.4 a. Ring-stiffeners may be intro-

duced at the juncture between the circular tube and the transition compo-
nent.
Cast joints may be used instead of joints built-up by welding, Fig. 1.5.
The advantage is that the geometry may be smoothly shaped to keep stress
concentrations low. In the connection between the column and pontoon in
Fig. 1.3 b, a cast piece was used to reduce stress concentrations and avoid
welds in the highly stressed region. However, costs and proneness to brittle
fracture are disadvantages that should be considered.
Rectangular members may be joined as shown in Fig. 1.6 a, possibly
with internal stiffening. Such joints tend to be planar joints or complex joints
in planes which make right angles to each other. Members having equal widths
and lying in one plane can be effectively joined as shown in Fig. 1.6a. Joints
between rectangular tubes may offer advantages with respect to analysis and
fabrication.
Various joints between plates are shown in Fig. 1.6b and c. Other struc-
tural details may have to be introduced in offshore structures for different
reasons. Holes for penetrating pipes, water drainage, attachment of anodes,
etc. are examples of such details, Fig. 1.6 d.

1.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

1.2.1 General remarks
In general, a structure is designed so as to serve its function with an adequate
safety and economy. For instance, the main layout (pontoons, columns,
deck) of a floating platform as shown in Fig. 1.7 used in drilling operations,
is determined by the requirement for a stable platform having a large deck-
load capacity combined with limited motions, sufficient mobility and overall
strength.
To fulfill most effectively the requirements of structural strength, it
may be necessary to introduce bracings or other members. The local layout,
i.e. the plate thicknesses, use of brackets etc. and materials, are determined
on the basis of strength, fabrication and inspection, and maintenance require-
ments.
Strength criteria refer to failure modes such as rupture by overloading,
or to fatigue failure of individual structural components or by the progressive
failure of the system. Rupture may occur as an unstable fracture or a ductile
buckling.
Section 1.2.1

Fig. 1.7 Semi-submersible drilling plat form.

Unstable fracture, which reveals itself as a fishbone pattern (Fig. 1.8a),

is primarily avoided by proper selection of material qualities, depending upon
ambient temperature, plate thickness and triaxiality of the stress pattern
(Refs. / 1/, 120. A ductile collapse occurs by excessive yielding or buckling
(Fig. 1.8 b) under a single extreme load.
A fatigue failure is caused by the cumulative effect of many load
cycles (Fig. 4.8). The region surrounding the origin of the fatigue fracture
has a smooth, silky appearance. As the crack progresses, the texture becomes
rougher. Careful examination of this smooth part frequently reveals con-
centric rings or beach marks around the fracture nucleus. On a microscopic
level, lines corresponding to each load cycle or group of cycles may be ob-
served (Fig. 4.8).
Design criteria for ductile collapse and fatigue may be stated more
explicitly in terms of stresses (load effects) caused by the external loads
on one hand and the capacity of the structural components on the other.
Before stating these criteria, a brief description of loads and load effects is
provided. A full discussion is given in Chapter 2.
 Section 1.2.2

Fig. 1.8 Appearance of overload failures.

a) Unstable fracture surface (Ref. 131); b) Ductile collapse of a cylin-
der (Ref. 141).

1.2.2 Loads and load effects

Loads on platforms mainly consist of two categories:
- Functional loads due to steel weight, ballast, deck loads, and the reac-
tion forces: Buoyancy for floating platforms, and foundation reactions
for fixed ones. These loads are quasi-static (slowly varying over time).
- Environmental loads due to waves, currents and wind. The correspond-
ing reaction forces are primarily inertia forces due to the dynamic
wave and wind forces, mooring forces due to steady currents together
with wind forces for floating platforms, and foundation reactions for
fixed platforms.
Section 1.2.2

The forces and stresses due to external loads are commonly determined
by separately calculating their local and global effects. For instance, the
effect of the distributed hydrostatic pressure on the pontoon plate, stiffeners
and frames of the semi-submersible in Fig. 1.7 are determined by considering
the direct pressure on the pontoon plates. In addition, the hydrostatic pressure
yields a resultant load per unit length of the pontoons , i.e. the buoyancy,
which will balance the own weight of the platform.
The global behaviour of most types of platforms, such as semi-submer-
sibles and jackets is determined by using a frame model of the platform.
The functional loads are directly applied t o the frame. The wave (and wind)
loads fluctuate in a stochastic manner. However, experience has shown that
the extreme effects (stresses, forces) due to waves can be determined accu-
rately enough by the so-called design wave method. The wave forces are
then determined with the platform in a regular extreme wave of appropriate
length and height. In practice, several design wave load conditions (wave
height/-length, direction) have to be applied to obtain the maximum forces
and stresses in each member or joint.
Fig. 1.9 a shows how the stress may vary at a weld joint in an offshore
structure. In welded structures it is the stress reversal o r stress range, Ao, that
causes the crack to grow. Normally, the effect of the sequence of the rever-
sals is not accounted for. Therefore, the stress history in Fig. 1.9 a may be re-
presented by the number of cycles, ni associated with each stress range inter-
val [noi; Aoi + A(Ao)] in a time period T, as shown in Fig. 1.9 b.
If the time period is long e.g. several years, a probability density func-
tion fA,(Ao) may be defined on the basis of relative frequency and informa-
tion of the type given in Fig. 1.9 b.

Time Stress r a n g e Ao

Fig. 1.9 Fatigue load effects.

a) Stress history; b) Frequency of stress ranges.
 Section 1.2.3

where No is the number of stress cycles in the period T. For many marine
structures, fA,(AO) can be closely represented by the Weibull distribution:

where: h = Aoo /[ lnNo 1'' = the scale parameter (1.3)

Aoo = expected maximum stress range in the period T
p = the shape parameter
0 is a good indicator for the relative importance of the stresses inducing
fatigue and those inducing overload in the structure. This is because P indi-
cates the relative magnitude between the stress occurring once in the lifetime
of the structure and stresses occurring, say, lo4 times within the same life.
The Weibull distribution Eq. (1.2) has been generally verified, but the
parameters p and h (or Aoo) have yet to be determined.
For a wide class of semi-submersible platforms, P varies in the range
1.0 to 1.2. If Aoo is determined conservatively by a design wave approach,
0 can be assumed equal to 1.0. Hence, when the extreme wave load effect,
i.e. the stress oo, at a weld joint has been determined as mentioned above, the
extreme stress range Aoo is obtained as 2u0.
The value of the shape parameter 0 is further discussed in Sec. 10.6.2.
More information regarding P and Auo is available in Refs. /5/and / 6 / .

1.2.3 Ultimate strength design check

As previously indicated, the occurrence of unstable fracture due to over-
loads is avoided by proper selection of material properties, weld layout,
welding procedures etc.
Criteria for ultimate ductile failure are usually expressed by a load
effect Q, in terms of a stress resultant or stress, due to the various types of
loads, and the associated strength R of the structural component. The charac-
teristic strength, R,, is required to be greater than the characteristic load
effect, Q,, by a certain safety factor 7
Section 1-2.4

The characteristic value of the strength R, is determined as a value

which R will exceed in 95-98% of the cases. Characteristic values of the
functional loads are specified values, and characteristic values of environ-
mental loads correspond to an occurrence on the average once every 100
years. The safety factor y is introduced to ensure that failure does not occur
too frequently, due to the inherent uncertainties in Q, and R,. For, e.g. a
brace in axial tension or compression, the design check in terms of stresses,
is simply (Ref. / 1/) :

where o, and o,, are the load effect (axial stress due to external loads) and
the strength, respectively. For tensile stresses o,, = Re (yield strength). For
compressive stresses o,, decreases with increasing slenderness ratio, A, due to
buckling. Here, h is L/ri, where L and ri are the buckling length of the brace
and radius of inertia of its cross section, respectively.
In many cases a more general design check than Eq. (1.4) must be
applied. For instance, when a brace is subjected to both axial stresses due to
an axial force (0,) and bending moments (ab), the design check for a semi-
submersible drilling platform may be stated as (Ref. /I/):

k o, + ob < Y1 Re
- where k = Re/oUa

The stresses o, and ob are obtained for an extreme load condition, i.e. by a
design wave approach.
For production platforms, slightly different formats for design checks
are applied (Ref. 121).

1.2.4 Fatigue design check

The fatigue phenomenon.
Fatigue fracture goes through three stages: initiation, slow growth, and onset
of unstable fracture, see Refs. 171 and 181. Fatigue cracks usually originate
at the surface. Once a crack is initiated, it grows slowly as the stress cycles
are repeated, even if the stress level is below yield. In offshore structures the
cyclic stress variations are primarily caused by waves and wind loading. When
the crack size becomes critical, an unstable fracture occurs.
In welded structures fatigue cracks almost always start at a weld defect,
and the growth period accounts for more than 90 percent of the fatigue life.
The crack growth depends on the stress conditions at the crack tip as
further discussed in Secs, 3.2 and 4.1. The crack grows when opened by ten-
sile stresses. Under a compressive loading the two surfaces may be forced into
 Section 1.2.4

b
V)

E
*-'
V) v, - - : R e

v
e Time

Fig. 1.10 a) Stress variation due b) Stress variation due to external load-
to external loading. ing and extreme residual stresses.

contact and can then transmit forces without activating the notch at the
crack tip. It is still a matter of discussion whether a compressive stress (i.e.
below the time axis in Fig. 1.10a) should be considered to contribute to the
fatigue damage. In the presence of residual tensile stresses it is the combined
stresses due t o fabrication and external loads that matter. Residual stresses
adjacent to welds are commonly assumed to be tensile and amount to yield
stress level.
In the case of a one dimensional stress condition, the yield stress repre-
sents the upper limit of stress, and a constant amplitude loading will then
result in stress variations adjacent to a weld, as shown in Fig. 1.10 b. In this
case Ao will be the significant parameter to describe the time variation of the
stress. In weldments with careful stress relief treatment and in cast nodes
where initiation will contribute to the fatigue life, the mean stress om may
also be a fatigue load parameter.
The fatigue crack propagates in a direction normal to the maximum
principal (tensile) stress. This has been observed by comparing fractured
structures and calculated stress distributions.
Fatigue crack growth follows different laws depending upon the level
of the stress reversals. We therefore distinguish between:
- low-stress, high-cycle fatigue
- high-stress, low-cycle fatigue

Fatigue failures that occur after only 1O4 to lo5 cycles are usually
denoted low-cycle. The endurance in high-cycle fatigue is usually several
millions cycles. Since only the latter phenomenon has been of real concern
in offshore platforms t o date, this section will be concerned with high-cycle
fatigue.
Section 1.2.4

The fatigue capacity of a welded joint subjected to constant amplitude

uniaxial loading, is expressed in terms of an SN diagram.
For welded structures the SN-curve is independent of the yield strength.
This is because welded joints contain crack-type defects and the fatigue life
consists of crack growth, which is independent of the yield strength.
The crack growth depends on the very local cyclic stress at the crack
tip. Hence, fatigue is governed by the geometry, especially any change in the
geometry which introduces a concentration of the stress flow. The geome-
trical effects associated with the weld profile and inevitable weld defects
are normally accounted for in the SN (capacity) data. Other geometrical
effects should be considered in the calculation of local stress ranges, see Fig.
1.1 1. The effect of geometry on the local stress is further discussed in Secs.
4.6.3 and 10.2.4, and in Chapter 8 for tubular joints.

Plate
a)

Ring I
stiffen-

LA A-A LA A -A
b

Plate thickness Crack o r

undercut

c)

Fig. 1.11 Stress concentrations due to macroscopic changes of geometry.

Order of magnitude of concentrator: a) Plate widthlmember dia-
meter; b) Fraction of plate widthlstiffener height; c) Plate thick-
ness.
 Section 1.2.4

Failure criterion - variable amplitude loading.

The failure criterion is commonly expressed by the Miner-Palmgren hypo-
thesis as

where the cumulative damage, D, is determined on the basis of the number of

cycles, ni, in the local stress range interval between Aoi and A U ~ +Ni~ .is the
number of cycles to failure at stress range A u ~ +according
~ , ~ to the SN-curve.
S is a constant of magnitude between 0.5 and 1.O.

Design check.
The fatigue design check may be performed with a different degree of refine-
ment, namely :
1. Judgement, more or less qualitative, based on experience.
2. Calculation of acceptable fatigue life based on the SN Miner-Palmgren
approach.
3. Fracture mechanics analysis.
As discussed earlier, the first approach should be used with caution, if
it is not supported by significant quantitative experience from similar cases.
Underestimation of the fatigue hazard has led to several accidents.
The second method may be expressed as:

Bearing in mind the uncertainties in the factors involved in Eq. (1.8),

the acceptable cumulative damage A is chosen as a value smaller than 6 to
ensure an adequate margin of safety.
Eq. (1.8) may be approximated by assuming that ni is represented by
Eqs. (1.1 a) and (1.2) and by using an SN-curve of the form

The result for the damage:

where No is the number of cycles in the design life of the structure (e.g. 20
or 50 years), Aao is the expected maximum value of the stress range in the
design lifetime, and I'( ) is the gamma function.
Clearly, Eq. ( 1.lo) is based on approximations and should be used with
caution.
Section 1.2.5

The format expressed by Eq. (1 .lo) may be reformulated as

which resembles Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6) for the ultimate limit state (ULS) check.
The principal differences are that Eq. (1 .l Oa) refers to an extreme stress range
due to wave and wind loading, while Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6) involve extreme
stresses due to functional as well as environmental loads. Furthermore, Eqs.
(1.5) and (1.6) refer t o nominal stresses in braces due to beam theory while
the stress range in Eq. (1 .lOa) includes the magnification due to local changes
in the geometry. Finally it is noted that Oo will depend on the shape para-
meter, p, of the distribution of stress-ranges, and hence the total load history.
As in the ULS check, a characteristic value of Ni is applied in Eq. (1.9).
Usually, SN-curves corresponding to a probability of 97.5% of survival are
used. ni in Eq. (1.8) is taken as the expected long-term distribution. The
value of A is chosen such that the probability of failure due to the uncertain-
ties of ni and Ni in Eq. (1.8) is acceptably small. In practice, A lies between
0.1 and 1.0.
The third approach by fracture mechanics may be viewed as a refine-
ment in the determination of Ni in Eq. (1 3).

1.2.5 Progressive failure design check

Progressive failure may develop after a local damage if the structure has little
reserve strength. The initial damage may be ductile collapse due to collision
or other abnormal loads; or it may be a fracture due to fabrication faults, or
a fatigue fracture. Since it can obviously take some time before such damage
is detected and repaired, the structure ought to survive a certain period of
time in the damaged state.
The philosophy applied by e.g . the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate
(NPD), Ref. 121, for production platforms is that system failure should not
occur due to local damage. The design check is accomplished by assuming a
certain degree of damage, as specified in the code, and primarily applying
an ULS type criterion to check that there is adequate strength to resist the
loads acting on the structure in the damaged condition. The loads used in
the residual strength check depend upon the anticipated time to repair.
As repairs are often only possible in the summer, the structure should survive
a winter storm. The NPD specifies environmental loads that occur once in
100 years. However, the required safety factors are less than in the ordinary
ultimate strength check and generally equal to 1.O.
 Section 1.3.1

The "Alexander L. Kielland" accident initiated progressive strength

criteria for semi-submersibles and other mobile platforms classified by Det
norske Veritas. Semi-submersibles are hence required to have adequate
reserve strength after the failure of any one brace. In this case environmental
loads with an annual occurrence and a safety factor of 1.2 are applied.

1.3 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF DESIGN CRITERIA

In this section the influence of fatigue criteria on layout, dimensions, local
detailing of structural components and on materials selection will be dis-
cussed.

1.3.1 Semi-submersibles
In the design of semi-submersible platforms for exploratory drilling opera-
tions in the North Sea (Fig. 1.7), the overall layout is determined on the
basis of requirements to floatability/stability, limited motion and strength
for resisting progressive failure.
The scantlings of the deck, columns and pontoons are governed by
ultimate strength criteria. For the braces the situation is different as fatigue
criteria may be important. The procedure will normally be first to determine
the plate thickness of the braces so that the ultimate strength requirement
in Eq. (1.6) is fulfilled, and thereafter check for fatigue. The typical locations
investigated, by applying formulas like Eq. ( 1.1O), are :
- the brace to column connections
- possible transitions in cross-section properties
- longitudinal or transversal stiffeners on the braces
- cut-outs for equipment, port holes etc.
- attachments for equipment

If the fatigue criterion is not satisfied, one or more of the following

remedies may be applied :
- change of overall layout to reduce the fatigue loading
- increase of overall plate thickness in the brace or at areas with high
local stresses, or introduction of stiffeners
- make the local geometry more smooth, e.g. by applying:
brackets at hard points
fully penetrated welds rather than fillet welds
grinding butt welds and the toes of fillet welds
Section 1.3.1
Deck

I
?

- Column

0 - -
-

A - W a v e length

I I

Fig. 1.12 Semi-submersible platform subjected to a regular beam wave.

To illustrate that the overall layout may have an important effect

on the fatigue loads and hence the susceptibility to fatigue cracking, con-
sider the platform shown in Fig. 1.12. Extreme waves occurring once in 100
years, may be 30 m high, and about 400 m long with a wave period of 16 s.
Waves that induce fatigue occur more frequently, and have lengths of 100 m
to 220 m and periods of 8 to 12 s.
The extreme stresses in platforms do not necessarily occur for extreme
waves, hence, the condition shown in Fig. 1.12 can often be the most critical
for the horizontal braces in semi-submersible plat forms. The length of the
wave in Fig. 1.12 is 100 m, and occurs quite frequently, so in this case the
amplitude of the stresses, occurring many thousand times, will not be very
much less than the one occurring once during the lifetime. Therefore, the
fatigue criteria rather than ultimate strength criteria will dominate for these
braces.
However, the significant change of main dimensions required to achieve
reduced fatigue loads introduces other disadvantages, e.g. regarding the
strength of the deck. This approach is therefore practised rarely in semi-
submersibles, though in other types of platforms, such as jackets, the choice
of layout to limit fatigue loads is of more interest (Ref. 191).
If it is assumed that an increase in plate thickness affects the nominal
stress level and not the stress concentration, then an increase in plate thick-
ness by a factor of a will reduce the fatigue damage, D, by a factor a-0.75m,
where m lies between 3 and 5. Hence doubling the plate thickness, results
in a D which is between 20% and 8% of the reference value. The reduction
will be greater if the possible effect of increased plate thickness on the stress
concentration is considered. If larger plate thicknesses are introduced for
 Section 1.3.1

fatigue reasons, it is also natural to use steel with a lower yield strength, Re.
This is because the fatigue strength does not depend upon the yield strength,
and the ultimate strength criterion, Eq. (1.6), will be satisfied by a lower Re
when o, and ob are reduced by increased thicknesses. Also, steels with lower
yield strengths usually have better weldability. The extra steel weight in
braces does not represent a serious penalty because their centre of gravity
is low. However, increased thicknesses themselves may cause weldability
problems, and imply more costly fit-up, welding and welding procedures.
By smoothing the geometry as shown in Fig. 1.13, the stress concen-
tration factors (SCF's) are reduced. A reduction of SCF to SCFIa implies a
reduction of the fatigue damage from D to D/am.
According to recent fatigue codes (Ref. /8/), grinding of the weld toe
implies a reduction of D by about 50%. However, grinding should preferably
not be used as a design measure but rather kept as a last resort of improve-
ment after fabrication when for any reason tlus would be necessary. Such a

G r o u n d flush

Im l m proved
M
l m proved

l m proved Improved

P l a t e a i s continuous
l m proved through p l a t e b

Fig. 1.13 Improvement of fatigue life by changes of geometry.

a) Butt weld, b) fillet weld, c) plates, d) plane plates in a 3-D joint.
Section 1.3.1

measure might be accepted by the authorities, but the benefit might not make
up for the costs. Different methods for improving the fatigue strength of
welded joints are discussed in Chapter 6.
When fatigue requirements, with A in Eq. (1.8) equal to 1.O, are im-
posed on braces in actual semi-submersibles which have been designed to
fulfill ULS requirements, the results have been increases of plate thicknesses
by as much as 50%, local smoothing of brace-column connections by brackets
and cut-outs (Fig. 1-13), and improvements of the weld geometry and quality.
As the requirements have been tightened recently, changes on existing
platforms have also been undertaken, obviously at much higher costs than
when implemented during the initial design and fabrication.

1.3.2 Tension leg platforms

For tension leg platforms (Fig. 1.1 b), fatigue criteria in particular may in-
fluence the layout and scantlings relating to the pontoon-column connec-
tions. In the Hutton platform in the North Sea, fatigue requirements with A
in Eq. (1.8) equal to 1.O, were governing for in-board sections of the column
shell and the pontoon (Ref. /lo/). As in the case of semi-submersibles, it was
found that relatively short waves, with periods of 10 to 12 s, were equally
important as the extreme 100 year wave of greater length. The fatigue crite-
rion led to a 10% increase of steel weight of a hull designed according ULS
criteria. In addition, fatigue considerations implied careful design of geome-
trical transition areas and weld connections together with restrictive fabri-
cation procedures and control.
A special design feature that evolved from the fatigue analysis was the
introduction of a cast steel transition piece as shown in Fig. 1.3 b. The objec-
tives of this were to :
-improve the stress concentration
- move critical welds away from the hot spots
- solve the geometrical problem of tapering the curved pontoon to the
column shell.
- improve the SN weld class in the area

The cast joint improved the fatigue life by a factor of 9 compared t o

a conventional welded joint.

1.3-3 Jackets
In the design of the Mau jacket platform offshore New Zealand (Ref. 11I/), the
fatigue criterion was found to increase the weight of the jacket by about 4%.
 Section 1-4.1

For North Sea jackets in up to 180 m water depths, such as the Murchison
jacket (Ref. /12/), fatigue governs plate thicknesses in some joints. For most
platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, fatigue criteria are not governing because
the wave climate is dominated by rarely occurring hurricanes, which induce
large extreme loads, but few stress reversals. However, for the Cognac plat-
form in 300 m of water, fatigue had some influence on the design of some
tubular joints due to dynamic magnification of the response (Ref. 191).
In the first two cases mentioned above, the A in Eq. (1.8) was set
equal to 1 .O, in the latter to 0.5. If A is reduced to 0.1 for joints where
fatigue is governing, then the plate thickness must be increased by 30-50%.
Increasing the thickness may cause fabrication problems and stiffeners may
have to be used.

1.4 LESSONS LEARNED FROM FATIGUE FAILURES

1.4.1 General remarks
We learn more from failures than successes. The phenomenon which is today
known as fatigue was itself discovered prior to 1850 by observing railway
axles failing without apparent cause. The understanding of the phenomenon
was brought a big step forward by Wohler's intensive and systematic studies
in the 1850's. Many times afterwards the fatigue phenomenon has been more
or less rediscovered for various types of structures, i.e. bridges, ships, aircraft
and offshore platforms.
In the popular literature, Kipling was presumably the first to exploit
the dramatic possibilities of fatigue. In "Bread Upon the Waters" in 1895
he described how the Grotkau lost a propellor due to a fatigue crack in the
tailshaft. Kipling went out of fashion, but public interest in fatigue was re-
viewed in 1948 by Nevi1 Shute's "No Highway", a few years before the three
Comet aeroplane disasters, which were initiated by fatigue cracks.
We can still learn from fatigue failures. For instance, the appearance
of the crack surface may provide information about the rate of crack propa-
gation. On the microscopic level the distance between striations, which are
marks set up by each load cycle, may give such insight. In case of variable
amplitude loading, beach marks on the crack surface may also give clues to
the load history and crack propagation rate.
Another source of information is the location of crack initiation,
which may be roughly determined from the beach mark pattern (Fig. 4.8).
Both the shape and size of the weld defect initiating the crack and the sur-
rounding geometry may contribute to the understanding of how the failure
has been affected by factors relating to design and fabrication.
Section 1.4.2

Only in relatively few cases has the physical cause of the failure, e.g.,
the type of cracking (hydrogen induced, lamellar tearing, fatigue, stress corro-
sion, brittle fracture) been determined. This information can only be revealed
when there is access to the fracture surface. The crack appearance on the
plate surface does not even allow judgement as to whether the crack is fatigue
or otherwise.
Where it is possible for repairs to be effected in situ, failures are fre-
quently not removed from the installation for investigation, so that either
no specific cause is recorded, or where the cause is stated, its veracity must
be open to question. In certain cases, removal of the failed parts for investi-
gation may enhance the existing hazard or create a new one. In any case,
establishing the causes of failures frequently requires quite extensive and
laborous investigations in competent laboratories, together with reanalyses
of fatigue loading etc.
Some case histories and more general experiences regarding fatigue
failures are briefly described in the following section.

1.4.2 Fatigue failures

Semi-submersibles and jack-ups.
An early example of fatigue damage occurred in the original "Sedco 135",
a triangular semi-submersible drilling rig, illustrated in Fig. 1.14 a, which
began working in the Gulf of Mexico in 1965. By the end of 1967 fatigue
failures were experienced in an aft horizontal brace in the same type of rigs
operating in the North Sea, the South China Sea, the Canadian Pacific Ocean,
and offshore Australia. The North Sea case is particularly illustrative, because
the axial stress in the failed horizontal member was recorded during the few
months before failure. The stress concentration factor measured on the proto-
type was 4.7 for the critical cylinder-to-flare knuckle transition. A cumula-
tive fatigue damage calculation using curve X in AWS Code Dl .l-72 yields a
Miner-Palmgren damage ratio of 2.18 for the North Sea platform (Ref. 1131).
By using the mean value of more recent SN data, the expected damage ratio
is found to be nearly an order of magnitude less than shown in Ref. 1131.
Recognizing the scatter in fatigue life estimates, the above results imply a
reasonable correlation between calculated and actual performance. However,
abnormal weld defects or other deficiencies may also have contributed to the
failure. This failure occurred in 1967 in a platform designed a few years
earlier, at a time when fatigue design checks were not routine, and also be-
fore the severity of the fatigue loading of the North Sea was fully recognized.
Other examples of occurrences of cracks which were published early,
appear in Refs. / 141 and / 151.
 Section 1.4.2

In May 1979 the jack-up drilling rig "Ranger I" (Fig. 1.14b) collapsed
in the Gulf of Mexico (Ref. /16/). The accident occurred because a crack
initiated and propagated in the aft leglstiffener weld and stiffenerlmat fillet
weld. The cracks were coincident with the leg/mat bulkhead and structural
bulkheads. This suggests that considerable rigidity in this region resulted in
stress concentration. The approximately 500 mm long fatigue crack appa-
rently developed at position 270' and to a lesser degree at position 90° in
the course of the lifetime of the structure, and led to the collapse of the leg,
with the subsequent falling down of the aft deck, and bending and separation
of the forward legs. Crack indications were also observed near the same loca-
tions on the forward legs. The fatigue crack already existed when the plat-
form entered a shipyard for repairs three months before the accident, but
remained undetected. The rules of the Classification Society involved, were
amended subsequent to the accident, demanding non-destructive testing of
critical connections of support legs at periodic intervals.
In March 1980 the accomodation platform "Alexander L. Kielland"
(Fig. 1.14 c) with 2 12 men onboard capsized in the North Sea (Ref. 1171).
The primary reason for the accident was the failure of a brace mainly due to
a fatigue crack starting from a hydrophone support, followed by a rapid,
unstable fracture. The fillet welds between the hydrophone support and the
brace had a poor shape. Inspections had been performed during fabrication
as well as during operation without discovering the 70 mm long cracks present
already at the time of fabrication. Fatigue life calculations have been carried
out based on Miner's rule as well as on the Paris equation, and the fatigue life
of the brace could be verified within reasonable limits of uncertainty. Frac-
ture mechanics analysis showed that the crack growth in the brace had accele-
rated very quickly from the initial stage. With a through-thickness crack of
about 30 mm length, the remaining life of the brace was found to be less
than one year. Cracks were observed at hydrophone supports in other rigs of
similar design during inspections after the accident.
The failure of this brace was rapidly followed by the failure of other
braces supporting column D. The subsequent loss of column D led to flooding
and capsizing within 20 min.
It is noted that also the design of this platform was conceived in the
1960's when fatigue design checks were not as routinely done as they are
today. However, when the actual platform was built in 1975-76, the general
practice in the offshore industry regarding fatigue design check was different.
But no fatigue checks had been made for "Alexander L. Kielland".
Besides the above cases, where members actually parted, several cases of
Section 1.4.2

/I
Forward

69
A f t horizontal

,Plate o f brace D 6
\

marks

Drainage
/hole

rnm

F i l l e t weld

Fig. 1.14 Mobile platforms suffering fatigue failures.

a) "Sedco 135" (Ref. 1131); c) "Alexander L. Kielland" (Ref. 1171).
 Section 1.4.2

F r a c t u r e i n a f t leg
- m a t connection
Fig. 1.14 b) "Ranger I" (Ref. /16/).

cracks have been detected in semi-submersible and jack-up platforms (Refs.

/18/ and /19/). Most cracks have been repaired without further examination
and circulation of information. For instance, Lloyds' list contains only one
of the many cracks detected at brace-leg connections, manholes etc. during
the extraordinary surveys carried out especially on rigs in the North Sea
after the "Alexander L. Kielland" accident. This incident was, however,
widely published in the press.
There are incidents that ought to have been reported and investigated,
but were not. For instance, it is known that in a number of semi-submer-
sibles, weld failures were so extensive that the safe operation of the rig was
in jeopardy (Ref. / 181).
Section 1.4.2

Jackets.
A case of partial failure of a fixed offshore platform in the North Sea is
reported by Harrison (Ref. 1201). A plan view of the platform, a tubular
structure with four legs joined by sundry tubular bracing members, is illu-
strated in Fig. 1.15 a. The failure involved the complete failure of three
joints between the diagonal bracing and the main legs situated at a level
approximately 0.6 m below the lowest astronomical tide level. Fig. 1.15 a
shows the location of the fractures and cracks. At corners A8, A9 and B9, the
300 mm dia. 12 mm thick bracing tubes were completely detached from the
legs, the failures having occurred through the bracing tubes and initiated
at the toes of the tube-to-leg welds. At corner B8 the fracture had occurred
in the leg material so that a disc of the leg had come off with the bracing.
Cracks were also found at the crossing points of the diagonal members ini-
tiating at the toes of the welds. The welds between the bracing tubes and the
legs were nominally full penetration welds made from the outside and built
up with external fillets of about 10 mm leg length. Observations of the
fracture surfaces revealed that the fractures were initiated at the outside
circumference at the weld toe, by low stress-high cycle bending in the vertical
plane. Underestimation of vertical wave loads seems to be a cause of the
failure. Unusually large amount of marine growth surrounding the members,
which had not been accounted for, was the main underlying cause. The
marine growth amounted to 200 mm at the time of failure, so that the origi-
nal 300 mm dia. bracing tubes were increased t o 700 mm. Taking the marine
growth into account, the fatigue life was calculated t o 4.5-5.5 years.
Ref. /2 1/ reports recent Findings of fatigue cracks at two levels (-6 m,
- 20 m) in the horizontal conductor frame of an eight-leg platform in 110 m
water depth, Fig. 1.15 b. Two reasons were found for the premature appear-
ance of these cracks: Firstly horizontal wave forces had been fully considered
in the original design but only limited allowance had been made for vertical
forces, which were now found to be significant. Secondly, the original ana-
lysis used low stress concentration factors. A reanalysis was performed based
on the new SN T-curve proposed by DOE for tubular joints, and up-to-date
knowledge about loads and stress concentration factors. Good correlation
was obtained for many of the cracked joints.
Other incidents of fatigue crack propagation are referred to in general
terms, for instance, in Refs. 1181 and 1231. Because these cases have been
investigated less, our knowledge is incomplete and yields little information
for the present purpose.
The files of the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate reveal that 163

.., a---Aeue--m,.aes. --
I"' "- ".-
A -- " --e"""w"+m*
 Section 1.4.2

Fracture

Fracture
plane

\ = Crack

.-------.
-----
---------

Crack
-
.--
------.
-----
--------

Fig. 1.15 Jackets suffering fatigue damage.

a) Horizontal truss-work of West Sole jacket (Ref. 1201); b) Hori-
zontal conductor frame in eight leg platform (horizontal plane)
(Ref. 1211); c) Typical cracked tubular joint.

cracks, fairly evenly distributed over the water depth, were detected in 27
North Sea jackets in the four-year period 1980-83. The actual number of
cracks may be greater, as only 5-10% of the nodes are inspected in a four to
five years cyclus. The cause of the cracks is hard to judge, but they are most
Section 1.4.2

likely due to fabrication defects. Most cracks were found to be non-propagat-

ing. In another survey (Ref. 1231) only 3 out of 33 cracks were reported to
propagate. Also, most cracks are shallow and are easily repaired by grinding.
Finally, most cracks affect secondary structures, such as the conductor frame
in Fig. 1.15 b.
A particular case worth noting is of a crack that was initiated and grew
from a sharp dent caused by collision. In another case, a severe offset and
poor weld between components which were assembled offshore, led rapidly
to failure.
Finally it is observed that malfunction of the corrosion protection
system may lead to reduced plate thicknesses, and hence increased crack
growth, or accelerated crack growth due to corrosion-fatigue. Such mal-
functions of impressed current corrosion protection systems have been
experienced (Refs. 1231 and 1241).

Other structures.
Fatigue failure experiences in other structures such as ships, bridges, towers,
etc., may provide useful insight into the fatigue problem for offshore plat-
forms.
Due to the greater structural redundancy in ships, fatigue damage has
generally less severe consequences than in offshore structures. However,
the economical losses may be considerable. It has been found that fatigue
cracks are a dominating type of damage in ships, the total number being
larger in oil tankers than in other types of ships (Ref. 1251).
A very interesting survey of damages in large tankers is given in Ref.
1261, where types and frequency of damages are related to hull areas and
types of constructional details. Most damages occur in the midship part.
Cracks in brackets, at bulkheads and at notches dominate, see Fig. 1.16 a.
No case was found where a crack could be related to an internal weld defect,
although a rather large number of internal planar defects had been found by
NDT. The cause of the surface defects observed was bad workmanship, which
in many cases could be traced back to difficult working conditions for the
welders (bad access). In some cases poorly designed structural details with
excessive stress concentration had been the cause of cracking. Most cracks
were initiated at structural discontinuities. Improvement in design practice
had reduced the earlier experienced rate of such cracks.
Another extensive investigation by the American Ship Structure Com-
mittee is reported in Ref. 1271.
Over a long period Commission XI11 of the Int. Institute of Welding
 Section 1.4.2

Longitudinal
stiffener, h,

i Cracks I\.

Side
shell

Fig. 1.16 Cracks in ship details.

a) Longitudinal-transverse stiffener connection, b) bracket in trans-
verse frame.

has collected information about fatigue failures in welded structures and

their interpretation. Conclusions are drawn in Ref. 1281. The major part of
failures are initiated at details of classes F, F2 and G according to Ref. 171.
Details concerned are amongst others butt welds with backing bars, trans-
verse and longitudinal fillet welded attachments, and load carrying transverse
fillet welds. Incorrect design dominates as a primary reason, although other
reasons such as bad workmanship and unexpected sources of fatigue loading
may contribute to the failure. In particular, vortex shedding induced by a
moving fluid has caused cyclic loading, and hence fatigue damage in bridges,
offshore platforms, etc. Attention is drawn to the very high frequency in-
volved. Fatigue failures can therefore occur, even if the damaging conditions
are experienced only for short periods during either fabrication or delivery.
It is further worth mentioning that fatigue cracks are rarely reported to start
from internal weld defects.
Several cases of fatigue failures in bridges are presented in Ref. 1291.
A primary cause seems to be secondary stresses due to local bending, which
have not been designed for. Large fabrication defects or cracks make up the
next largest category of cracked members and components. Cracks occurring
in planes parallel to the tensile stresses considered in the design, may not be
Section 1.4.3

detrimental to the performance of the structure, provided they are discovered

and repaired before turning perpendicular to the tensile stresses produced
by the loads on the structure. In several cases the defect was due to poor
quality welds which were produced before non-destructive test methods
were well developed. A large number of these cracks occurred because the
component was considered a secondary member or attachment, so no weld
quality criteria were established, nor were nondestructive test requirements
imposed on the weldment . For some bridges an increased traffic intensity
also increased the failure likelihood.

1.4.3 Implications of service failures

Design precautions.
Fatigue crack growth especially occurs when the loading is predominantly
dynamic, local stresses are relatively high, high-strength steels are applied,
and when crack-type fabrication defects are likely. In some situations the
design check may easily be overlooked, even if one or more of these factors
are present. Some examples of such situations will be mentioned in the
following.
For instance, it should be noted that fatigue damage may be accumu-
lated in temporary phases of the platform, such as during towing. In fact
some components may be more stressed in temporary phases than in the
in-service condition. Vortex-shedding phenomena may especially lead t o signi-
ficant fatigue loads.
Fatigue may occur even in components which are not introduced in
the structure for strength purposes, such as installation lugs etc.
Cracks may grow even in areas where the stresses due to the external
loading are predominantly compressive, due to the presence of tensile resi-
dual stresses.
Fatigue depends critically on stress concentrations, and every effort
should be made to make geometrical transitions smooth and locate welds
outside the areas of the highest stress concentrations. Use of cast components
may facilitate this objective.
Fillet welds have often been the cause of fatigue failures because of
underdimensioning of the throat thickness, and improper weld shapes.
The local geometry (alignment of plates, shape of weld profiles, size of
weld defects) depends to a large extent on the execution of fabrication.
The designer should have a realistic understanding of geometrical tolerances
and the use of them in the design calculations and specifications for fabri-
cation, see Fig. 1.17.
 -
t
I
Unrealistic
v
Unrealistic
r
- Realistic

Realistic
Section 1.4.3

Un-
realistic
Stiffener
% 'plate

Section A-A
Realistic
Stiffener
Gap

Section A-A

Fig. 1.17 Geometric tolerances.

a) Plate connection, b) stiffened plate.

It is important t o limit the susceptibility to cracking during fabrication

and afterwards, including lamellar tearing, by specification of adequate
materials properties and fabrication procedures, to achieve good weldability.
Choice of a simple layout is important because it simplifies the fabrication
and inspection, and thus reduces the probability of defects.
In some cases the design check is done simply by copying previous
design practice. However, great caution should be exercised when this prac-
tice is employed, since environmental conditions, material qualities, fatigue
accept criteria etc. may differ, compared with previous cases.
The designer should not focuse just on the direct satisfaction of the
design criteria, but should consider other factors that could affect the fatigue
risk indirectly. For instance, choice of layout is important for the access
during fabrication. Good access is a necessary condition to avoid welding
defects, as shown in Fig..l .l8. Also, overhead welding is more difficult and
prone to faults than downhand or horizontal welding.
Obviously access is also necessary to accomplish inspection. It is espe-
cially noted that some regulations and codes for fatigue design include fatigue
acceptance criteria, which are dependent upon accessibility. Specification
of fatigue prone areas which should be scrutinized during inspection, con-
stitutes a part of the design documentation.
Section 1.4.3

Stiffener

Fig. 1.18 Difficult access for the welding stick may increase the suscepti-
bility to welding defects.
a) Steel-plated structure; b) Tubular joint.

Fabrication precautions.
Clearly, the fabrication should closely follow the specifications. However,
brackets and stiffeners are sometimes chosen with more material than speci-
fied at the ends, because it might ease fabrication by reducing the welding
deformations (Fig. 1.19). Such liberty in interpretation of the specifications
might have a significant effect on the stress concentrations, and is not re-
commended.
Stiffener

Fig. 1.19 Deviation between a) specified and b) as-fabricated details.

The design specifications do not define all the factors that influence
the fatigue strength. For instance, start-stop positions of welds are decided
during fabrication. As weld defects frequently occur at start-stop points,
they should be located outside areas with high dynamic stresses as far as
possible. In general, the quality of workmanship plays an important role for
the fatigue life.
 Chapter 1. References

Precautions during operation.

During operation the main aspect of fracture control involves reliable detec-
tion of cracks, judgement of their significance and the decision to repair.
The time to failure of a cracked structure must be assessed by a fracture
mechanics approach, or by experimental investigations. Repair of any damage
must be carefully planned with due consideration of possible defects and
stress concentrations. Repair welds, particularly when made under water or
in other difficult circumstances, are unlikely to be better than those that
have failed. Repaired cracked welds often fail again after a relatively short
period. Sometimes some form of reinforcement is applied, but this often has
the effect of moving the point of failure from one location to another.

REFERENCES

1. "Rules for Classification of Mobile Offshore Units", Det norske Veritas, Oslo, 1981.
2. "Regulations for the structural design of fixed structures on the Norwegian Conti-
nental Shelf' (with guidance notes), Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, Stavanger,
1984.
3. "The Alexander L. Kielland Accident", NOU report 1981:11, (in Norwegian with
English summary), Oslo, 19 8 1.
4. Cottrill, A.:
"Crumpled Frigg Jacket Begins to Recover its Lost Buoyancy': Offshore Engineer,
May 1975.
5. Marshall, P.W.and Luyties, W.H. :
"Allowable stresses for fatigue design", Proc. BOSS Conf., MIT, 1982.
6. Odland, J.:
"Response and Strength Analysis of Jack-up Platforms", Norwegian Maritime Re-
search, Vol. 10, No. 4,1982.
7. Gurney, T.R.:
"Fatigue of Welded Structures", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1979.
8. "Guidance on Design and Construction", 1977, with Amendment No. 8, Fatigue,
Department of Energy, London, 1984.
9. Kinra, R.K. and Marshall, P.W. :
"Fatigue Analysis of the Cognac Platform", Paper No. 3378, Proc. Offshore Techno-
logy Conference, 1979.
Chapter 1 . References

10. Ellis, N.:

"Hutton Tension Leg Platform. Structural Design and Configuration", Proc. "Ocean
Structural Dynamics Symposium", September 8.-10. 1982.

1 1. Kallaby, J. and Price, J.B.:

"Evaluation of Fatigue Considerations in the Design of Framed Offshore Structures",
Paper No. 2609, Proc. Offshore Technology Conference, 1976.
12. Hallam, M.G. et al.:
"Dynamic .and Fatigue Analysis of Murchison Tower Structure", Paper No. 3163,
Proc. Offshore Technology Conf., 1978.
13. Marshall, P.W. :
"Basic Considerations for Tubular Joint Design in Offshore Construction", Int. Con-
ference on Welding in Offshore Construction, The Welding Institute, Newcastle,
26-28 February 1974.

14. "Stricken rigs highlight checking weaknesses", Offshore Engineer, March 1975.
15 . "Mobile platform, SPM repairs completed for Argyll Field", Ocean Industry, June
1978, p. 63.

16. U.S. Coast Guard Marine Casuality Report No. USCG 16732193621, May 1981.
17. Moan, T. et al.:
"Analysis of the fatigue failure of the Alexander L. Kielland", ASME Winter Annual
Meeting, November 1981.
18. Burgoyne, J.H. et al.:
"Offshore Safety", Report of the Committee, HMSO, March 1980.

19. Carlsen, C.A. et al.:

"Lessons Learned from Failure and Damage of Offshore Structures", 8th ISSC,
Gdansk, 1982.

20. Harrison, J.D. :

"Partial Failure of a Fixed Offshore Platform", Int. Inst. of Welding, Doc. XIII-708-73,
1973.
2 1. Green M.B. :
"Experience with Fatigue Analysis and Inspection Results", Paper No. 4524, Proc.
Offshore Technology Conference, 1983.

22. "Safety and Offshore Oil", Committee on Assessment of Safety of OCS Activities
et al., National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington D.C., 1981.
23. Sollie, T.:
"Safety and Quality Assurance of Fixed Offshore Installations. In-service Experiences
and Prospects after some 10 Years of Involvement", 6th European Maintenance Con-
gress, Oslo, June 1982.
 Chapter 1 . References

24. "Repairs to North Sea Offshore Structures - a Review", UEG Report UR 21, London,
1983.
25. Petershagen, H.G. et al.:
"Report of Committee 111.1",8th ISSC, Gdansk, 1982.
26. Kjellander, S. and Persson, B.:
-
"Hull damages further investigation and significance of weld defect", (in Swedish),
STU-report 76-3948 and 77-4205, March 1980.
27. Jordan, C.R. and Knight, L.T.:
"Further survey of in-service performance of structural details", Ship Structure
Committee Report No. 294,1980.
28. Harrison, J.D.:
"Lessons from Service Fatigue Failures", The Welding Institute Research Bulletin,
Vol. 21 .,March 1980.
29. Fisher, J.W.:
"Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges. Case Studies". John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1984.
 CHAPTER 2

LOADS ON OCEAN STRUCTURES

StAle Fines
A.S VERITEC, Oslo

ABSTRACT
The theory of stochastic processes is extensively used for the description of
waves and the associated structural response, and is briefly summed up.
Also some elements of the theory of dynamic systems are discussed, since
dynamic amplification of the structural response of offshore structures may be
significant. The theory of regular and irregular waves and the hydrodynamic
forces on offshore structures caused by the waves are described, using the
deterministic as well as the stochastic approach. Finally the different methods
for arriving at a long time distribution of stress ranges are discussed and
illustrated by examples taken from elements of offshore structures.

LIST OF SYMBOLS
- cross-sectional area
- water particle acceleration
- amplitude
- damping coefficient
- drag coefficient
- inertia coefficient
- added mass coefficient
- parameter in Weibull distribution of individual wave heights
- diameter
- parameter .in Weibull distribution of individual wave heights
- water depth
List of symbols

DAF - dynamic amplification factor

modules of elasticity
expected value of x
force
frequency
acceleration of gravity
individual wave height
parameter in the Weibull distribution of significant wave heights
parameter in the Weibull distribution of significant wave heights
significant wave height
moment of inertia
spring stiffness
Keulegan-Carpenter number
stability parameter
surface roughness height
wave number
wave length
member length
mass
mass per unit length
n'th order spectral moment
cumulative probability distribution of the parameter x
probability density distribution of the parameter x
autocorrelation function
Reynold's number
Strouhal's number
energy spectrum
individual wave period
peak period
zero-upcrossing period
transfer function
time
volume
water particle velocity
reduced velocity
stochastic process
stochastic process
vertical distance from still water level, positive upwards
parameter of the JONSWAP wave spectrum
 Section 2.1

parameter of the JONSWAP wave spectrum

parameter in the Weibull distribution of significant wave heights
logarithmic decrement of structural damping
spectral width parameter
parameter, relating wave heights and stress ranges
water surface elevation
kinematic viscosity of water
damping ratio
density of water
standard deviation
stress
stress range
time interval
phase angle
angular frequency
peak angular frequency
natural angular frequency

2.1 GENERAL
An offshore structure will be subjected to a number of loads during its life-
time. These loads may be categorized as:
Permanent loads, which are gravity loads that will not be removed, such
as the weight of the structure, weight of pennanent ballast and equipment
and external hydrostatic pressure of permanent nature.
Live loads, which are loads associated with the operation and normal use
of the structure, such as stored materials, equipment and liquids, operation
of cranes, helicopters and fendering and mooring of vessels.
Deformation loads, which are associated with imposed deformation,
such as prestressing and temperature.
Environmental loads, which are loads due to wind, waves, current, ice,
snow, earthquake and other environmental actions.
All loads that are varying in magnitude and/or direction will cause stress
variations in the structure and may lead to fatigue damage. The live loads
and the environmental loads are especially important in this connection.
The live loads may be the dominating contributors to fatigue damage for
equipment like cranes etc ., whereas the environmental loads, and the wave
loads in particular, are dominating for the main part of the load carrying
structure.
Section 2.1

The aim of this chapter is to present methods that may be used to

calculate the long-term distribution of stresses induced by wave and current
loading. This distribution may then be used to estimate the fatigue life as
discussed elsewhere in this book.
The calculation procedures that are followed in practical cases may
vary in detail. In general the method will depend on the type of structure,
the accuracy required, the wave and current data available and the computer
facilities and software at hand. The present chapter aims at presenting the
general calculation principles rather than all details of the various methods.

The calculation usually includes the following steps:

Step 1. Establishment of long-term statistics of waves and currents, i.e.
description of how the waves and currents are assumed to vary
throughout the lifetime of the structure.
Step 2. Representation of these distributions by sets of defined wave and
current conditions with associated probabilities of occurence.
Step 3. For each of the defined environmental conditions: Calculation of
external hydrodynamic loads acting on each member of the structure
considered.
Step 4. For each of the defined environmental conditions: Calculation of
internal cross-sectional forces and stresses due to the external loads
established in step 3. This calculation is normally based on elastic
theory .
Step 5. Etablishrnent of long-term distributions of stresses based on the
results of step 4 and the probabilities of occurence of each environ-
mental condition.

The waves and the associated structural response have a stochastic

(non-deterministic) nature. The theory of stochastic processes is therefore
extensively used for their description. A basic knowledge of the theory will
be helpful to anyone dealing with this subject. The theory is therefore briefly
discussed in Section 2.2.
The natural frequencies of many offshore structures are so close to the
frequencies of the environmental loads that the dynamic amplification of
the structural response can be significant. Some elements of the theory of
dynamic systems are therefore presented in Section 2.3.
 Section 2.2

2.2 STOCHASTIC PROCESSES

The theory of stochastic processes is treated in a number of textbooks, see
for instance Refs. / 11, /2/ and 131. Some basic elements of the theory are
given in the following.

Fig. 2.1 Time history of a stochastic process.

The basic nature of a stochastic process may be understood by con-

sidering the time history of such a process, as shown in Fig. 2.1. The value of
the process at time t is denoted by x(t). The value of x at any chosen time
t = to cannot be precisely predicted, we may, however, be able to find the
probability that x(to) will be within certain limits. As we are unable to
describe the process precisely as a function of time (as we can for a deter-
ministic process) we instead describe the process by its statistical properties,
e.g. mean value, -standard deviation etc. A process is said to be stationary if
these statistical properties do not vary with time. Many processes may be con-
sidered as stationary provided the time interval in question is short enough.
The sea surface elevation, for example, is normally considered to be stationary
within time intervals of three to six hours. Only stationary stochastic pro-
cesses are considered in the following.

The probability density function of x, p(x) is given by:

p(x) dx = prob(x < x(t) < (x + dx))

The cumulative distribution function is given by:

X
P(x) = 1p(x) dx
-00

The expected value of the process is given by:

Section 2.2

The expected value is equal to the mean value of the process. In some
cases, the co-ordinate system can be chosen so that the mean value is zero.
The sea surface variation about the mean water level is an example. A zero
mean value is assumed in the following.
The autocorrelation function is defined as:
R,(T) = E[x(t) x(t +r)]
where T is a freely chosen time interval. When the mean value is equal to zero,
the autocorrelation function for T = 0 is equal t o the variance of the process:

ox is the standard deviation of the process.

The one-sided spectral density or energy spectrum is related to the auto-
correlation by
00
sX(w)= 1 J R ~ ( T )e- i o r , d r (2.6)
-00

where w is angular frequency. A stationary stochastic process may be con-

sidered as being composed of infinitely many harmonic components, each
with different frequency. The energy of a harmonic wave is proportional to
the square of its amplitude. The energy spectrum shows how this energy is
distributed on the various frequency bands, Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2 A stochastic process x(t) and its energy spectrum S(w).
The spectrum shows how the energy of the process is distributed on
the various frequency bands. The energy within a band Ac;,is equal
to that of a sine wave with amplitude ai.
 Section 2.2

The moments of the energy spectrum are defined as:

The zero order moment gives the area under the spectral curve. This repre-
sents the total energy of the process. The zero order moment is also equal
to the variance of the process:
mo = ox2 (2.8)

The spectral width parameter is defined by:

-I

It varies between zero and one. When E is close to zero, the spectrum is narrow
and a time history of the process is relatively smooth and regular, Fig. 2.3.
When E is close to one, the spectrum is broad and a time history is more
irregular in shape.

Broad band

Fig. 2.3 Probability density of maxima. A broad band process has many local
maxima and minima. The maxima (amplitudes) are Rice distributed.
A narrow band process has no local maxima. All maxima are positive
and follow the Rayleigh distribution.

Many of the processes encountered in engineering may be assumed

to be Gaussian with zero mean. The
,. probability density function is then
Section 2.2

The amplitudes of this process are distributed according to the Rice distri-
bution with the following probability density function:

The corresponding cumulative probability function is :

where the error function erf(x) is defined as

For E = 0 the density distribution of the amplitudes may be written

,,

This is the Rayleigh distribution. It is a good approximation to the Rice

distribution for small values of E and is much used due to its simple formula.
The corresponding cumulative distribution function is:

The average zero crossing period of a narrow-band process may be approxi-

mated by

The most probable highest of N successive peaks is then given by

 Section 2.2
In many engineering problems we encounter linear systems, i.e. systems
where the relation between the input or exitation x(t) and the output or
response y(t) is described by a linear differential equation with constant
coefficients. An example of such a system may be the wave loading on an
offshore structure, where the ocean wave forces may be regarded as the
exitation and the stresses in a point of the structure as the response.
It was mentioned above that a stochastic process could be considered
as being composed of infinitely many harmonic components. If one such
component of the exitation process is given by (real part understood)

then the component of the response process at the same frequency is given by

T(u) is the transfer function. From Eq. (2.19) we see that the exitation and
response components are proportional. If we consider the above example
with wave forces and stresses, the system will be linear if Hooke's law is
valid, but non-linear if plastic effects are significant.

It was mentioned above that the value of the energy spectrum at a given
frequency was proportional to the square of the amplitude of the harmonic
component at that frequency. Eq. (2.19) above shows that the amplitudes of
the exitation and the response are related through the transfer function. The
energy spectrum of the response process is thus given by (Fig. 2.4)

We will often be primarily interested in some specific properties of the

response process, e.g. the most probably largest value within a given time
interval or the distribution of response amplitudes. The procedure below
can then be followed.
- Establish the energy spectrum of the exitation process.
- Find the transfer function of the system, for example by calculating
the response to harmonic exit ation (Eq. (2.1 9)).
- Calculate the energy spectrum of the response (Eq. (2.20)).
- Calculate the desired properties of the response process by use of
Eqs. (2.7)- (2.17).
Section 2.3.1 - 2.3.2

Fig. 2.4 The transfer function T(w) relates the exitation spectrum S,(o)
I I
and the response spectrum Sy(w). Sy(w) = T(w) 2 S,(w).

2.3 DYNAMIC EFFECTS

2.3.1 General
Dynamic loading is loading which varies appreciably with time, such as wave
loading. The response of structures t o dynamic loading is generally dependent
not only on the magnitude of the loading but also on the time history of the
loading .
Many load-time histories are irregular, i.e. they are stochastic processes.
It was mentioned in the preceding section that such processes could be con-
sidered as composed of infinitely many harmonic components. Provided
that the relation between the acting loads and the corresponding structural
response is linear, the response to each loading component can be considered
separately. The response of structures subjected to random loading can thus be
found by studying the response to harmonic loading. The theory of dynamic
analysis is treated in a number of textbooks, e.g. Refs./3/,/4/and/5/, and is out-
side the scope of this book. The basic formulas for a single-degree-of-freedom
system (SDOF system) are given in the following. Although a detailed analysis
of most structures requires a much more complex dynamic model, an SDOF
model may be used for simplified calculations in many cases.

2 -3-2 Single-degree-of-freedom system

A SDOF system consists of a mass, a linear spring and a viscous damper, Fig.
2.5. Consider first a system consisting only of a mass and a spring. The spring
produces a force
 Section 2.3.2

Force

Fig. 2.5 Single-degree-of-freedom system. K = spring stiffness, M = mass,

C = viscous damping.

The behaviour of the system when no external forces are acting is described
by
M a y = -K.y (2.22)

A solution to this equation is

where C 1 and C2 are constants and WN is the natural angular frequency of

the system

The natural period is given by

The viscous damper produces a force which is proportional to the velocity

and directed against it:
FD = -C 9 (2.26)
Incorporating this force in the above equations would have modified the
natural period, but for most offshore structures the damping is so small that
its effect on the natural frequency can be neglected.
Section 2.3.3

The damping is normally expressed in terms of the demping ratio

where C , is the critical damping, given by

c c =2 , / R

Assume that an external force

x = a, * c o s o t
is acting on the system. The behaviour of the system is then described by

The solution to this equation is

The amplitude (displacement) of the response is given by

--
ay - ax DAF
K
where DAF is the dynamic amplification factor
1
DAF = -
J(1 -522)2 + (2.E
where
a="
ON

The phase angle between the exitation (applied force) and the response
(displacement) is

Eqs. (2.33) and (2.34) are plotted in Figs 2.6 and 2.7.

2.3.3 Physical properties used for dynamic analysis

Mass.
In addition to the structural mass one must also consider the added mass for
submerged or partly submerged bodies. The added mass represent hydro-
dynamic forces acting on the body from the surrounding water, and for most
practical purposes one can model this effect as a certain amount of water
that is fixed t o the body and thus has to follow its motions. The added mass
is discussed in more detail in Sec. 2.5.
 Section 2.3.3

Fig. 2.6 The dynamic amplification factor (DAF) as a function of w/wN.

WN = natural frequency, = damping ratio.

Fig. 2.7 The phase angle @ is the phase lag between the exitation x(t) and the
response y(t). O N = natural frequency, 5 = damping ratio.

Damping.
The damping types of major significance for offshore structures are structural
damping, hydrodynamic damping and, for bottom-founded structures, soil
damping.
The structural damping is due to internal damping in the structural
material, and to friction and slippage in structural joints.
The hydrodynamic damping is of two types: One is due to the forma-
tion of surface waves (radiation damping) and the other to viscous effects.
The soil damping is due to the formation of waves in the ground and
to internal damping in the soil.
Section 2.3.4

2.3.4 Natural frequencies of common structural elements

The natural frequency of some common structural elements is given by
WN = 2 ~ f N- = a~ * dme1T rad/s (2.35)

where: EI = the bending stiffness of the section

1 = the length of the beam
m = the mass per unit lengthof the beam
aN = a numerical constant, see Fig. 2.8.

Cantilever or "clamped-free" beam

a, = 3.52

a Sinlply supported or "hinged-hinged" beam

a,= I?= 9.87

-
-
-
"Free-free" bean1 or floating ship
a1
a l = 22.0
a2 = 61.7
a2 a3 = 121.0
a4 = 200.0
a3 as = 298.2

$c- a, "Clamped-clamped'' beam has same

frequencies as "free-free" a , = 22.0

"Claniped-hinged" beam may be considered

a
as half a "clamped-clamped" beam for even

Fig. 2.8 The value of the numerical constant a~ in Eq. (2.35) for some
common structural elements.
 Section 2.4.1 - 2.4.2

2.4 WAVES
2.4.1 General
Two different methods are commonly used t o describe ocean waves. The sea
may be regarded as composed of discrete o r individual waves, each described
by its height H and period T (Fig. 2.9) (discrete wave method). Alternatively,
the sea may be described in terms of the statistical properties of the sea sur-
face elevation (stochastic method). In both methods, the calculation of wave
kinematics is based on regular wave theory.

Fig. 2.9 A time history of the irregular sea surface. TI ,T2,. . ., T5 are indivi-
dual wave periods. H I , H z , . . ., H 5 are individual wave heights.

2.4.2 Regular waves

Fig. 2.10 Regular waves. H = wave height from crest to trough, L = wave
length, d = water depth, SWL = still water level, q = free water sur-
face profile.

Regular waves are a train of two-dimensional periodic waves which may be

divided into individual waves of identical form. The most important para-
meters for description of regular waves are given in Fig. 2.10. The simplest
description of the wave form is given by the linear wave theory (AIRY wave
theory), by which the surface profile is given by a sine function
Section 2 -4.2

where: ~ c=
, 2n/T = angular frequency
T = wave period
k = 27rlL = wave number

The wave kinematics beneath a linear wave are given by Eqs. (2.37)
through (2.43) below. Due to the simplicity of these equations, the theory
is well suited for simplified calculations. The linear wave theory is also a
building stone in the description of irregular waves (Sec. 2.4.3). The water
particle motion is illustrated in Fig. 2.1 1.

Surfuce profile

Wave length

Water particle velocity

horizontal
a) component
=H
2
. fl
L
. T=+f
cosh(2n d/L)
1 . cos(wt) (2.39)

vertical w=-H . g * T . sinhl2n(zkd)/L1 sin(~t) (2.40)

b, component 2 L cosh(2n d/L)

Water particle acceleration

horizontal - g o n * H . co~h[2n(z+d)/L_I.~~~(,~)
a) component ax - L c o s h ( 2 ~ d/L) (2.41)

b)
vertical az = - x R H . 5inh[?n(z + d)/LI . cos(wt) (2.42)
component L cosh(2n d/L)

Su bsurjace pressure

H = wave height g = acceleration of gravity

L = wave length z = distance t o water particle from
T = wave period SWL, positive upwards
d = water depth w = angular frequency
k = wave number p = density of water
7 = water surface elevation
 Section 2.4.3

SWL
I

I I d

Fig. 2.11 Particle orbits according to linear wave theory.

A number of wave theories have been developed in addition to the

linear. The Stoke wave theories, the Cnoidal wave theories, the stream func-
tion wave theory and the solitary wave theory are commonly used for design
purposes (Refs./6/,/7/). The range of application of the various theories is
shown in Fig. 2.1 2.

TI'
CJY 0.003

depth waves ~ 8 J ~ ~
0.003 0.03 0.3
d
p
Fig. 2.12. The area of validity of various wave theories (Ref. 171).

2.4.3 Irregular waves

A real sea does not possess the regular characteristics of a regular wave, but
has an irregular form as shown in Fig. 2.9. The wave periods of such a sea-
state are defined as the time between successive upcrossings through still
Section 2.4.3

water level, whereas the wave heights are defined as the difference between
maxima and minima values within the wave periods.
In a short time interval (hours), the statistical properties of the sea-
state may be considered t o be constant, and the sea is termed stationary.
The theory of stationary stochastic processes (Sec. 2.2) is used to describe
such a seastate. The following terms are used in the description:
- The zero upcrossing period T, (average wave period) is the average
value of the wave periods as defined by Fig. 2.9.
- The significant wave height Hs is the average of the highest third of
the wave heights as defined by Fig. 2.9.
- The wave spectrum S(w) is the energy spectrum of the sea surface
elevation.

Wave spectra can be obtained by analyses of recorded wave-time

histories. For design purposes the model wave spectra are normally used,
which are analytical expressions describing the spectral shape. The spectra are
then described by statistical parameters like Hs and T,. A number of such
spectra have been developed. The most commonly used in the North Sea are:
The Pierson-Moskowitz (PM) spectrum defined by
2 1 w.TZ -5 1 ueTz-4 (2.44)
S(o) = Hs T, - (- ) exp [- - ( ---) ]
8r2 27~ 7~ 27~
The JONSWAP spectrum, defined by
(=W , - 1 ) 2

The parameters a, up and 7 are functions of Hs and T,, as shown in

Table 2.1. The peak angular frequency up is the frequency at maximum value
of S(o).
The PM spectrum is applicable to a fully developed sea, i.e. when the
growth of waves is not limited by the size of the generation area. This will
be the case for the major part of the time in the North Sea. Thus the PM
spectrum may be used for most fatigue analyses.
The JONSWAP spectrum applies when the growth of the waves is
limited by the size of the generation area. This is the case for extreme wave
conditions in the North Sea. The PM and JONSWAP spectra are illustrated
in Figs. 2.13 and 2.14.
 Table 2.1 The parameters of the JONSWAP spectrum as functions of Hs and T, (Ref. 181).

Significant wave height (m) HS (m)

'02. 2.0- 2.5- 3.0- 3.5- 4.0- 4.5- 5.0- 5.5- 6.0- 6.5- 7.0- 7.5- 8.0- 8.5- 9.0- 9.5- 10.0- 10.5- 11.0- 11.5- 12.0- 12.5 130- 13.5 14.0- 145-
is/ 2.49 2.99 3.49 3.99 4.49 499 5.49 599 6.49 6.99 7.49 7.99 849 8.99 9.49 9.99 10.49 10.99 11.49 11.99 12.49 12.99 13.49 13.99 14.49 14.99
- - . -- .- - . -.-.- - - -- -- - .. - -
4.0- 5.490 5.970 6.330 6.600 6.890
4.99 0.0138 0.0201 0.0277 0.0359 0.0485
0.1800 0,1810 0.1820 0.1830 0.1850
. --. .--- ..-. . .. .- -.--. .-- -- - --- - -. - --.- -
-- -- --- -- - - - .. - -2
I -
5.0- 4.130 4.910 5.400 5.770 6.070 6290 6.490 6.680 6.830 6.960
5.99 0.0064 0.0094 0.0129 0.0171 0.0219 0.0267 0.0323 0.0390 0.0455 0.0523
1
0.1440 0.1460 0.1470 0,1480 0.1490 0.1490 0.1490 0.1500 0.1500 0.1500
- .- .. ~~ --- - - .-.- - - -.. . ---
6.0- 1.260 3.370 4.280 4 . m 5.210 5.530 5.770 5.840 6.170 6.320 6.490 6.610 6.730 6.870 6.960
6.99 0.0036 0.0051 0.0069 0.0092 0.0113 0.0142 0.0170 0.0180 0.0239 0.0274 0.0323 0.0363 0.0410 0.0475 0.0523
0,1110 0.1200 0.1220 0.1240 0.1240 0.1250 0.1250 0.1260 0.1260 0.1260 0.1270 0.1270 0.1270 0.1280 0.1280
. -

7.0- 1.090 1.650 3.620 4.240 4.690 5.040 5.280 5.490 5.540 5.870 6.020 6.150 6.300 6.410 6.510 6 . W 6.690 6.770 6.880 6.960
7.99 0.0032 0.0042 0.0055 0.0067 0.0083 0.0102 /0.0119 0.0138 0.0143 0.0185 0.0210 0.0235 0.0269 0.0299 0.0329 0.0359 0.0394 0.0427 0 . M O 0.0520
0.0960 0.0980 0.1050 0.1060 0.1070 0.108010.1080 0.1080 0.1090 0.1090 0.1090 0.1090 0.1100 0.1100 0.1100 0.1100 0.1100 0.1100 0.1110 0.1110
8.0- 1.210 1.960 3.460 4.040 4.460 4.800 5.020 5.220 5.440 5.590 5.730 5.850 5.960 6.110 6.210 6.300 6.380 6.470 6.540 6.610 6.680 6750 6840
8.99 0.0035 0.0044 0.0052 0.0062 0.0074 0.0088 0.0100 0.0114 0.0133 0.0148 0.0165 0.0182 0.0199 0.0227 0.0248 0.0269 0.0290 0.0316 0.0339 0.0363 0.0390 0.0419 0.0460
0.0850 0.0880 0.0920 0.0930 0.0940 0.0950 0.0950 0.0950 0.0960 0.0960 0.0960 0.0960 0.0960 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0980
--. - -
9.0- 1.000 1.230 1.770 3.230 3.810 4.230 4.480 4.770 4.960 5.120 5.330 5.470 5.580 5.690 5.800 5.890 5.980 6.110 6.190 6.270 6.340 6.410
9.99 0.0029 0.0036 0.0043 0.0050 0.0058 0.0067 0.0075 0.0087 0.0097 0.0107 0.0123 0.0136 0.0147 0.0160 0.0175 0.0188 0.0202 0.0227 0.0244 0.0261 0.0280 0.0299

10.0
11
I
0.0750 0.0760 0.0780 0.0820 0.0830 0.0840 0.0840 0.0850 0.0850 0.0850 0.0850 0.0860 0.0860 0.0860 0.0860 0.0860 0.0860 0.0870 0.0870 0.0870 0.0870 0.0870
1.020 1.230 1.560 2.700 3.220 3.650 4.230 4.440 4.710 4.870 5.010 5.150 5.260 5.420 5.540 5.640 5.730 5.810 5880 5960
10.99 0.0030 0.0036 0.0041 0.0047 0.0050 0.0055 0.0067 0.0074 0.0084 0.0092 0.0100 0.0109 0.0117 0.0132 0.0143 0.0154 0.0165 0.0176 0.0186 0.0199
0.0680 0.0690 0.0700 0.0730 0.0740 0.0750 0.0760 0.0760 0.0770 0.0770 0.0770 0.0770 0.0770 0.0780 0.0780 .00780 0.0780 0.0780 0.0780 0.0780
.. -- - -- -. --- -.--.
11.0- 1.010 1.180 1.450 1.920 2.930 3.500 3.910 4.130 4.380 4.580 4.730 4.870 4.970 5.110 5.230 5.360 5.480 5.540
11.99 0.0029 0.0035 0.0040 0.0044 0.0048 0.0053 0.0660 0.0064 0.0070 0.0079 0.0085 0.0092 0.0098 0.0106 0.0114 0.0126 0.0136 0.0143
1 0.0620 0.0630 0.0640 0.0650 0.0670 0.0680 0.0690 0.0690 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0710 0.0710
12.0. 1.260 1.540 2.050 3.020 3.450 3.760 4.000 4.270 4.420 4.550 4.650 4.810 4.950 5.090
12.99 0.0036 0.0041 0.0045 0.0048 0.0052 0.0057 0.0061 0.0068 0.0073 0.0078 0.0082 0.0090 0.0099 0.0105
0.0580 0.0590 0.0600 0.0620 0.0630 0.0830 0.0640 0.0640 0.0640 0.0640 0.0640 0.0650 0.0650 0.0650
- -
13.0 1.040 1.140 1.320 1.680 2.150 2.830 3.360 3.710 3.920 4.100 4.250 4.300 4440
13.99 First number: y 0.0030 0.0034 0.0038 0.0043 0.0045 0.0047 0.0051 0.0056 00060 0.0064 0.0068 0.0070 0.0073
Second number: a 0.0530 0.0540 0.0540 0.0550 0.0560 0.0570 0.0580 0.0580 0.0590 0 . 0 5 ~0.0590 0,0590 0.0580
14.0- Thud number: fp 1.190 1.290 1.570 2.030 2.670 3.120 3.440 3.650 3.780
14.99 0.0035 0.0037 0.0042 0.0045 0.0047 0.0048 0.0052 0.0055 0.0067
0.0500 0.0500 0.0510 0.0520 0.0530 0.0536 0.0540 00540 0.0550
15.0- 2.900
15.99 0 0048
I 1
0 0500
Section 2.4.3

Fig. 2.13 Pierson-Moskowitz wave Fig. 2.14 JONSWAP wave spectra.

spectra.
Hs = 1 0 m , T, = 10s.
- - - - - - Hs = 8 m , T z = 9.5 S.

The spectral moments are defined as (Eqs. (2.7), (2.8))

00
m, = J w n *S ( o ) dm (2.46)
0
Specifically, the zero order moment

represents the total wave energy of the seastate.

In a stationary seastate, the sea surface is normally taken to be Gaussian
distributed with zero mean and a variance o2 = mo.
If the wave spectrum is assumed to be narrow-banded, the wave ampli-
tudes will follow the Rayleigh distribution, see Sec. 2.2. It can then be shown
 Section 2.4.4

that also the wave height will follow the Rayleigh distribution The probabi-
lity density function of wave heights following the Rayleigh distribution
(Eq. (2.14)) is thus given by

The cumulative distribution of wave heights is correspondingly

P(H) = 1 - exp [- ( l21

2&
Still assuming the wave heights to be Rayleigh distributed, we have:
For the significant wave height

For the zero upcrossing wave period

For the most probable largest value of N wave heights

2.4.4 Long-term wave statistics

As mentioned in 2.4.3, the statistical properties of the sea are assumed to be
constant within a short time interval and the parameters Hs and Tz may be
used to describe a seastate. The duration of a seastate is normally taken as
3 hours. A long-term observation of the sea may be performed by recording
the parameters Hs and T,. Typically, the sea surface is observed for 20
minutes each third hour, and Hs and T, are estimated for each observation
period. This may be done from the observed wave record directly using the
definitions of Hs and Tz given in 2.4.3 (zero crossing analysis) or by calcu-
lating the wave spectrum and applying Eqs. (2.50) and (2.5 1). The pairs of
observed Hs and Tz values thus obtained may be divided into classes and the
probability of each pair written in a matrix as shown by Table 2.2. This
is called a wave scatter diagram. Also, the cumulative distribution of long-
term significant wave heights may be found from the observations. This
distribution is normally well described by the Weibull distribution

Q ,Hc and y are the parameters of the distribution.

 Section 2.4.4

Table 2.2 Scatter matrix representative for the Central North Sea.

PROBABILITY I N PARTS P E R
THOUSAND

, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
AVERAGE Z E R O UPCROSSING P E R I O D , T, (s)

The distribution gives a straight line if plottet on a Weibull probabi-

lity paper. The distribution shown by Fig. 2.15 is representative for the dis-
tribution of significant wave heights in the Central North Sea.

Assuming that the significant wave height is Weibull distributed with

Ho = 0 and that the individual wave heights in a seastate are Rayleigh distri-
buted, it can be shown that the long-term distribution of individual wave
heights also follows a Weibull distribution:

where C and D are functions of y, and Hc and y are parameters in the long-
term distribution of significant wave heights.
The relation between y, C and D is given in Table 2.3.
 e(+hs>k.
' 9I ,//- , Q CtL)

- Section 2.4.4
L I
2
t I -
b
>ti5
I
L
,

- H
10
z 3
,

Fig. 2.15 Long-term distribution of significant wave heights Hs representative

for Central North Sea. Weibull parameters:y = 1.49, Hc = 2.7, H, = 0.

Table 2.3 Parameters of the Weibull distribution of

individual wave heights.
Section 2.4.4

The number of waves exceeding a given individual wave height in one

year is given by

where No is the total number of waves in one year. The above equation is
shown by Fig. 2.16.

Fig. 2.16 (left) Wave exceedance diagram showing the number of waves ex-
ceeding a given wave height in one year.

Fig. 2.1 7 (right) Simplified long-term exceedance diagram distribution of wave

heights. Hl is the 100 year wave height. Nl is the num-
ber of waves in 100 years. Log Nl Z 8.72 for North Sea
conditions.

The directional distribution of waves may be represented by a set of

long-term distributions of waves, each representing a sector of wave approach
directions.
A useful approximation to the long-term distribution of individual
wave heights may be obtained by setting D = 1.0 and H, = H l o O/(ln N1 o )
in Eq. (2.55). HI is the most probable largest wave in 100 years and N l o 0
is the total number of waves in 100 years. This gives for the number of waves
N exceeding a wave height H (Fig. 2.17)
log N
H = H, (1 - )
log N10 0
 Section 2.5.1 - 2.5.2

2.5 HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES

2.5.1 General
Three wave force regimes are normally identified. These are termed the drag,
the inertia and the diffraction regimes.
Flow separation and viscous effects are of major significance in the
drag regime. In the diffraction regime, the incident wave undergoes significant
diffraction or scattering, whereas flow separation is of minor significance.
In the inertia regime neither flow separation nor diffraction are dominating.
Offshore structures are grouped according to the nature of the acting wave
forces. Small-volume bodies are bodies for which drag and inertia forces
are dominating, whereas large-volume bodies are bodies for which diffrac-
tion effects are significant. Examples of large-volume bodies are ships and the
caissons of concrete gravity plat forms. Examples of small-volume bodies are
jacket structures and the shafts of concrete gravity platforms.

2.5.2 Loads on small-volume bodies - Morison's equation

The hydrodynamic forces on structures in the drag and inertia regimes are
normally calculated by Morison's equation. Normally, Morison's equation
is applicable when the wave length L is more than five times the diameter
of the structural member D.
The hydrodynamic force per unit length on a body expressed by
Morison's equation is:

Froude-Krylov added mass force drag force

force

where: A - is the cross-sectional area of the body

A, - is a reference area
a - is the component of the water particle acceleration normal to
the member axis
C
, - is the added mass coefficient
a, - is the relative acceleration between water particle and member
normal to member axis
CD - is the drag coefficient
v, - is the water particle velocity relative to the member normal to
the member axis
D - is the diameter of the member exposed to the sea
p - is the density of seawater.
Section 2.5.2

The Froude-Krylov force is the sum of the hydrodynamic pressures

acting on the surface of the body, not including the pressure disturbance due
to the presence of the body. This latter effect is included by the added mass
force.
The term p C, A, is called the added mass. It is often considered as
an amount of water that is "fixed" to the member. This is not a correct
interpretation of the phenomenon, although it may serve to give an under-
standing of the nature of the acting forces. The added mass force is due t o
the relative acceleration between the water and the body. In general it is
dependent on the flow conditions and the location of the body. The added
mass is wave-frequency-dependent for bodies at or close to the surface,
whereas it is independent of frequency for deeply submerged bodies provided
their dimensions are small relative to the wave length.
The drag force is the viscous force acting o n the body.

The sum of the Froude-Krylov force and the added mass force is called
the inertia force. For a fixed body, a, = a and v, = v. If we set A, = A, we
may write

The inertia coefficient is defined as

For three-dimensional cases, the equation is written

where F is the force, V is the volume of the body, and A is the cross-sectional
area of the body. The coefficients CM and CD are generally dependent on the
shape of the body, the flow conditions and the body surface roughness.

Circular cylinders.
For a circular cylinder, CM and CD are found to be functions of the following
nondimensional parameters:
v, D
Reynolds number Re = -
v
v, T
Keulegan-Carpenter number KC = -
D
Surface roughness = k/D
 Section 2.5.2

where: v, - is the maximum wave-induced velocity

v - is the kinematic viscosity of water, = 1.1 1 x 10-6 m2 /s
T - is the wave period
k - is the surface roughness height. For North Sea conditions a
range of roughnesses from 0.005 m to 0.05 m may be appropri-
ate, depending on the precautions taken to reduce the growth.

Inertia and drag coefficients should preferably be found by testing in

full scale or model scale. Full-scale testing is difficult to perform, expecially
in waves, and it is difficult to obtain the relevant conditions in a model.
Thus, there are still large uncertainties associated with the values of the
coefficients.

Fig. 2.18 The drag coefficient CD of circular cylinders in steady flow.

Re = Reynolds number, D = cylinder diameter, k = roughness height.
Ref. / 191.

In steady flow the drag coefficient is a function of Re and k/D only,

see Fig. 2.18. Drag coefficients obtained from full-scale tests in waves, are
shown in Fig. 2.19. The results show considerable scatter. The mean curve
indicated by a dotted line may be used in design. However, the designer
should try to consult the latest research work available.
The inertia coefficient has a theoretical value of 2.0 based on potential
flow theory. Full scale and model tests have given lower values. However,
it is common design practice to use the theoretical value of 2.0.
Section 2.5.3

Mean C D

KC --
Fig. 2.19 Drag coefficient CD as a function of KC. Full-scale test data,
Ref. 11 11.

Non-circular shapes.
Drag and inertia coefficients of sharp-angeled bodies are normally taken t o be
independent of Re. Drag coefficients for members of various cross-sectional
shapes are given in Fig. 2.20. The added mass per unit length for various
members is given in Fig. 2.21, and Fig. 2.22 gives the added mass of some
three-dimensional bodies.

2.5.3 Loads on large-volume bodies

When the body is not small compared to the wave length, the incident wave
generally undergoes scattering or diffraction. This effect is normally con-
sidered to be significant when the cross-sectional diameter of the body is
larger than one fifth of the wave length. The viscous wave forces acting on
such structures, i.e. the drag forces, are normally of little significance.
In this case the calculation of wave forces may be based on the poten-
tial flow theory. This theory describes the flow kinematics of an ideal fluid,
i.e. a fluid without shear stresses. The pressure at every point of the structure
is calculated and the wave force is found by integrating the pressure over the
surface of the structure. This normally requires the use of numerical methods
programmed in a computer. An analytical solution, i.e. the McCamy and
Fuchs theory, is available for vertical cylinders standing on the bottom
and penetrating the surface. The inertia force term in Morison's equation is
calculated, using the equivalent inertia coefficient in Fig. 2.23.
 Section 2.5.3

-+'m[-l 01 I
Sect~onshape CD

2.0
0
.

i - 0 . 1 7 0.6

-' -[-I I. = 0.33 0.5 a

D 2.0

-0 1.5

Fig. 2.20 Drag coefficients of cylinders of infinite length, Ref. 1101.

SHAPE

-1
ADDED MASS
PER U N I T LENGTH
MOTION

--
-
CIRCLE pnc
2 . 1
ll+-2b-i

T
2a RECTANGLE
a/b

10
1.00pna2
1.14
a/b
1
0.5
1.51pna2
1.70 "
5 1.21 " 0.2 1.98 "
b- 2b 4 2 1.36 " 0.1 2.23 "
(Wendel 1950)
DIAMOND 2 0.85 "
ELLIPSE 9ab2
I, 1 0.76 "
c-.)
0.5 0.67 "
0.2 0.61 (Wendel1950)

I-BEAM - c

PmJ
2 0'
... ...
REGULAR
P L Y
n = 3
4
0.654 qaz
0.787

1.000 M (Wendel 1950)

n SIDED

Fig. 2.21 Added mass per unit length of cylinder, Ref. / 1 11.
SPHERE 4 0nR3

ELLIPSOID OF k q pnb3
(Wendel 1950)

REVOLUTION

(Sarpkaya 1960, Yu 1945)

-
-;u--
h
I
FLOATING
CYLINDER

( B a i 1977)

FLOATING RECTANGLE 4 -

1 .o
(Sarpkaya 1960) 1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.6 ( B a i 1977, Flagg a n d NemMn 1

Fig. 2.22 Added mass of three-dimensional bodies, Ref. / 1 11.

 Section 2.5.4

Fig. 2.23 McCamy and Fuchs theory for a vertical circular cylinder standing
on the bottom and penetrating the free surface.

2.5.4 Deterministic calculation of response to hydrodynamic loads

In a deterministic calculation of hydrodynamic loading, the structure is
loaded with a regular wave described by the wave height H, the wave period T
and a suitable wave theory. A design current may be included. The direction
of the current is normally assumed to be in the direction of wave propagation,
and the velocities due to wave and current are added vectorially.
The calculation of hydrodynamic forces is performed according to the
methods described in 2.5 -2 or 2.5.3, whichever is applicable. Depending on the
nature of the relation between wave height and response, various methods may
be used to find the variation of the hydrodynamic force and the associated
response throughout the wave cycle.
When the relation between the wave height and the response is strongly
non-linear, the response-time history may be defined by calculating the
response for various positions of the wave relative to the structure (Fig. 2.24).
The number of positions chosen depends on the required accuracy.
For structures where the relations between wave height and response
are linear, e.g. large volume structures, a simplified method may be used. The
response-time history at a given point in the structure may then be assumed
to vary as a harmonic function, and the wave surface elevation is expressed
by the linear wave theory

The response, .y(t), is calculated for two positions in the wave, defined
by t = to and t = to + T/4. The response may then be expressed as
Section 2.5.5

Fig. 2.24 Calculation of the response for various positions of the wave relative
to the structure. q(t) = wave surface elevation, y(t) = structural
response.

where

The method may also be used when the relation between the wave
height and response is non-linear, provided a linearization is carried out. This
is done in the same manner as described for stochastic analysis, cf. Sec. 2.5.5.

2.5.5 Spectral method for calculation of response to hydrodynamic loading

The spectral method applies the theory of stochastic processes for calculation
of the response to hydrodynamic loading, see Section 2.2. For a particular
seastate, the spectrum of a response variable is found by combining the wave
spectrum with the transfer function relating the wave amplitude t o the ampli-
tude of the response, Eq. (2.20). By integrating the response spectrum, the
variance of the response and the spectral moments can be calculated. These
calculations will normally be performed numerically. Particular care must be
taken to ensure that the frequency grid used for the integration of the response
spectrum is appropriate. Furthermore, attention should be given to the
selection of integration points in the vicinity of any irregularities in the
response spectrum to ensure that an accurate integration is achieved. Having
established the response spectrum, the various statistical properties of the
response, such as probability distribution of response amplitudes and maxi-
mum probable response, can be calculated using the formulas given in Sec. 2.2.
 Section 2.5.5

The transfer functions can be found by two different methods: The

regular wave approach and the time history simulation method.

Regular wave approach.

The value of the transfer function at frequency w may be found by calcula-
ting the response due to a simple harmonic wave with height H and period
T = 27rlw. The transfer function value is then the ratio between the response
amplitude and the wave amplitude, see Eq. (2.19). This procedure is repeated
for a number of frequencies thus yielding a number of points on the transfer
function. The spacing between the points should be sufficiently small to
ensure that the transfer function is adequately described.
The above procedure implies the assumption that there is a linear
relation between the wave height and the response for a given wave period.
This is generally not true. Non-linearities can be introduced due to various
effects, the most significant being the non-linear drag term in Morison's
equation. A linearization must therefore be carried out.
The drag term may be written as
FD = KD ~ ( t ) ( ~ ( t ()
where

We consider a regular component of the water particle velocity, (Eq. (2.40)):

v(t) = vo sin(wt) (2.65)
If the drag term is expanded in a Fourier series and higher order terms are
neglected, we obtain (Fig. 2.25)

Nonlinear force

Fig. 2.25 The non-linear drag force in harmonic waves and various lineariza-
tion techniques.
Section 2.5.5

The above linearization renders the same energy dissipation per wave
cycle as the non-linear force. It is recommended when dynamic effects are
significant. If it is required that the maximum non-linear drag force shall be
equal t o the maximum linearized force, we get
FD(t) = KD vo ~ ( t )
The stochastic linearization is obtained by assuming that the particle
velocity at a given point is normally distributed and finding the function
that minimized the mean square approximation error to the non-linear drag
force :
FD(t) = KD J$ uv ~(t)

where a, is the standard deviation of the water particle velocity.

In all the linearization techniques mentioned above, the transfer func-
tions obtained will be functions of the wave height used for the calculation.
It is thus essential that an appropriate wave height is used when calculating
the linearized transfer functions.

Time history simulation.

An alternative method of stochastic analysis is t o calculate the structural
response to a time history of the hydrodynamic forces. The distribution
of response amplitudes may then be found from statistical analysis of the
time history of the response.
Time histories of the wave-induced velocities and accelerations may be
constructed from the wave spectrum by use of linear wave theory and the
Montecarlo simulation technique, see e.g. Ref. 1121. The hydrodynamic
forces are calculated at discrete time steps and the structural response at each
time step is calculated by use of a numerical integration procedure, see
Ref. /13/ and 1141. A time history of the response is thus obtained. The
distribution of response amplitudes within the seastate considered may then
be obtained by a counting of the amplitudes directly from the time history,
e.g. by use of the rainflow technique (Ref. / 1 51) or similar procedures. Alter-
natively, the response spectrum may be calculated and if found t o be narrow-
banded, the distribution of response amplitudes are found by use of Eq. (2.15).
The advantage of the time history simulation technique is that all
non-linearities may be taken into account in a proper manner. However, the
calculation of the transfer function by Equation (2.20) also involves a line-
arization process which is basically appropriate only for the seastate for which
the simulation was done.
 Section 2.5.6 - 2.5.7

2.5.6 Slamming
Members in the splash zone will be hit by the rising surface when a wave
passes. This will cause an impact force, called slamming,on horizontal mem-
bers, as their whole length may be hit by the wave surface simultaneously.
The slamming force per unit length may be calculated as

where : Cs = the slamming coefficient

vs = the velocity of the water surface. It is usually taken as the
vertical particle velocity at the time of the impact.
As the slamming force is impulsive, dynamic amplification must be
considered when calculating the response.
Ref. 1161 recommends the following values for horizontal circular
cylinders fixed at both ends:
Slamming coefficient : C, = 3.0
Dynamic amplification factor: 1.5 for ends and 2.0 for midspan
.The member will respond with a dampened oscillation to each slam.
Ref. 1171 recommends that each slam is associated with 20 linearly decaying
oscillations. It also states that only waves with propagation directions + l o
degrees to the normal of the member axis need be considered.

2.5.7 Vor tex-induced oscillations

A structure with a bluff trailing edge sheds vortices in a subsonic flow. Periodic
forces are generated in the structure as the vortices are shed alternately from
each side of the structure. The oscillating forces can cause large amplitude
oscillations and thus high stresses in elastic structures. This phenomenon is
a major problem for submerged parts of risers and conductors and also for
antennas, stacks, etc. exposed to wind.
The vortex shedding frequency is:
v
f" = s t 5
where: St = the Strouhal number
v = the flow velocity normal to the member axis
D = the member diameter
The Strouhal number is in the range of 0.12-0.14 for sharp edged
members and approximately 0.2 for circular cylinders.
Section 2.5.7

Large amplitude resonant oscillations may occur when the frequency

of vortex shedding is close t o the natural frequency f N . This is expressed
by the reduced velocity

The nature of the oxcillations is complex and model or full-scale tests

are normally needed to determine the response of a particular structural
configuration.

Vortex induced oscillations occur in several regions of the reduced

velocity. Ref. 1181 recommends the following calculation procedure for
circular members in a uniform current:
1.0 < vR < 3.5 : The cylinder oscillates in the direction of the flow
(in-line oscillations).
3.5 < vR < 10: The cylinder oscillates in the direction normal to
the flow (cross-flow oscillations).
The amplitude of oscillation is a function of the stability parameter Ks :

where: m = mass per unit length, including added mass

6 = logarithmic decrement of structural damping = 2 .rr $,
p = fluid density
D = cylinder diameter
The relation between Ks and the maximum oscillation amplitude
is given by Figs. ( 2 . 2 6 ) and ( 2 . 2 7 ) . The cylinder oscillates with its natural
frequency.
Large amplitude oscillations of sharp-edged members in steady flow
have been observed when vR > 5.
The effect of vortex shedding in waves is not well known, and no
generally recommended design procedure is available at present.

EXAMPLE 1:Vortex-induced oscillations of a free span of a pipeline.

A submarine pipeline with a 25 m long free span (Fig. (2.28)) may undergo
vortex-induced oscillations due to the presence of a bottom current. The steel
pipeline has a concrete coating and is carrying oil. Calculate the stress range in
the pipe produced by the oscillations.
 Section 2.5.7

-First instability
r e g i o n , V R < 2.2

In-iine motion

I
Second instability
r e g i o n , V R > 2.2

Fig. 2.26
Max. amplitude of in-line
motion, Ref. 1181.

For a simply supported beam in fitst mode,

is equal to 1.16. For a cantilever beam in
fist and second mode, the 7-value is equal
to 1.31 and 1 .SO respectively.

Fig. 2.27
4
Max. amplitude of cross-
I I I 1 I I
flow motion, Ref. / 181.

Fig. 2.28 Free span of a pipeline.

Section 2.5.7

Characteristics of the pipeline:

Steel pipe Outer diameter = 0.273 m
Wall thickness = 0.015 m
Moment of inertia = 1.02 m4
Concrete coating Thickness = 0.005 m
Density = 3000 kg/m3
Oil Density = 800 kg/m3

Based on the above data, the following values have been calculated:
Total pipeline diameter Df = 0.283 m
Mass of steel pipe m, = 96.1 kg/m
Mass of concrete coating m, = 12.7 kg/m
Mass of internal oil m, = 37.0 kg/m
Added mass ma = 64.5 kg/m
The added mass is taken equal to the mass of the water displaced by the
pipeline, i.e. the added mass coefficient is 1.O. Total mass:

So Eution.
The pipeline is assumed t o be simply supported at both ends. The first natural
frequency is calculated as (Eq. (2.35))

Substituting the values above, and taking E = 2.1 10' ~ / mwe~ get
,

The reduced velocity determines the current velocity at which oscillations will
occur:
VR = -
v
f, * D
In-line oscillations, 1 . instability region:
1.0 < vR < 2.2 * 0.23 m/s < v < 0.5 m/s
In-line oscillations, 2. instability region:
2.2 < v, < 3.5 =+ 0.50 m/s < v < 0.79 m/s
Cross-flow oscillations:
3.5 < vR * 0.79 m/s < v
 Section 2.5.7

The oscillation amplitude is a function of the stability parameter Ks (Eq.

(2.72)). Substituting 6 = 0.05 and p = 1025 kg/m3, we get

Figs 2.26 and 2.27 give the maximum oscillation amplitudes as functions
of Ks :
In-line oscillations. 1. region: A = 0.13 Df
In-line oscillations, 2. region: A = 0.16 Df
Cross-flow oscillations: A = l.lO*r*Df
The mode-shape parameter y is taken as 1.16 according to Fig. 2.27.

The following expression is used for relating the stress amplitude at the
center of the span and the oscillation amplitude (Fig. 2.29):

Fig. 2.29 Moment corresponding to assumed mode-shape.

This gives the following maximum stresses:

In-line, 1. region: om, = 20 MPa for 0.23 mls < v < 0.50 m/s
In-line, 2. region: om, = 25 MPa for 0.5 m/s < v < 0.79 m/s
Cross-flow : om, = 200 MPa for 0.79 m/s <v
The stress ranges may be taken as
Ao = 2o,,
The span will oscillate with its natural frequency for all types of oscillation.
The number of oscillations per hour is therefore:

N1 hour = 3600 0.80 = 2880.

Section 2.6.1 - 2.6.2

2.6 LONG-TERM STRESS RANGE DISTRIBUTION

2.6.1 General
This section outlines three different methods for arriving at a long-term
distribution of stress ranges:
- Deterministic analysis
- Stochastic analysis
- Simplified analysis

A deterministic analysis is based on a relatively simple description of

the environmental data and the associated loads. Non-linear wave height-
stress relations are easily taken into account and the calculation procedure
is easy to follow. It should be used with great care when dynamic ampli-
fication is significant, as this effect is difficult to account for in a proper
manner.
A stochastic analysis requires a more complex description of the
environmental data and loads, and a more detailed knowledge of these pheno-
mena is required. Non-linear effects are not so easily taken into account as
in a deterministic analysis. A time history simulation may be performed,
but this may be very expensive for complex structures. Dynamic effects
are taken care of more properly in a stochastic analysis than in a deterrni-
nistic analysis.
A simplified analysis based on a simple description of both the environ-
mental data and the associated response, may be a valuable tool in the early
design phase.

2.6.2 Deterministic approach

A deterministic approach to calculate the long-term stress distribution is
based on the deterministic method of wave force calculation given in Sec.
2.5.4. It involves the following steps:
i) Selection of major wave directions.
A few wave directions, typically 4-8, are selected for analysis. The
total number of waves is distributed between these major direc-
tions. Major wave propagation directions should be included, as well
as directions causing high stresses in major structural elements. Ad-
vantage may be taken of structural symmetry, as identical waves
propagating in opposite directions may cause equal stress ranges in
many structures.
 Section 2.6.2

ii) Establishment of long-term distributions of waves.

For each wave direction considered, a long-term distribution of wave
heights must be established, such that the total number of waves reach-
ing the structure during the time considered is the sum of the waves
from the directions considered. For a given direction the long-term
distribution of wave heights is represented by a set of regular waves,
which adequately describes the directional long-term wave distribution.
Special care should be taken to properly describe the range of wave
heights which gives the highest contribution to the fatigue damage.
The wave period to be associated with a given wave height is normally
taken as the most probable period for that wave height.

iii) Calculation of stress ranges.

For each wave thus identified (direction-height-period), the stress
range is calculated, using one of the methods given in Sec. 2.5.4. If
the stress range is found by placing the wave at various positions
relative to the structure (Fig. 2.24), the positions should be chosen
with great care in order to estimate the maximum and minimum
stresses and the resulting stress range as accurately as possible.
iiii) Establish stress distribution.
The long-term stress distribution for each wave direction is established
using a methodology as shown in Fig. 2.30.

Fig. 2.30
Calculation of a stress range exceedance
diagram from a wave height exceedance
diagram. Aoi is the stress range induced in
a given wave direction by wave height Hi.
Log N

79
Section 2.6.2

EXAMPLE 2 : Long-term distribution of stresses in a riser span, deterministic

analysis.

Fig. 2.3 1 Jacket platform with riser clamped t o the platform leg.
The span between -1 5.0 m and -25.0 m is considered in Example 2.

Consider a riser clamped to the leg of a jacket platform (Fig. 2.3 1). The long-
term distribution of stress ranges at the center of the span is wanted. As the
only aim of this example is to show the principles of the calculation, we
introduce the following simplifying assumptions:
- The span is considered as fixed in both ends.
- Wave kinematics are calculated by the linear wave theory.
- All waves are assumed t o approach from one direction.

The span has the following characteristics :

Length 1 = 10m
Riser outer diameter D = 0.27 m
Riser wall thickness t = 0.0 15 m
Moment of inertia I = 9 . 8 . 1 0 ' ~ m4

Solution.
According to Eq. (2.35) the first natural period of the span, fN1, is calculated
to 0.17 s, which is low enough t o make dynamic amplification insignificant
(cf. Fig. 2.7).
 Section 2.6.2

The wave force intensity is denoted F(z). The moment at the center of the
span (z = -20 m) is given by

and the maximum bending stress at the center of the span

The linear wave theory gives the same maximum wave force in both directions,
thus:
A a = 20,,- -- M .D
I
The wave data are given by the wave diagram in Fig. 2.16 for individual wave
heights with Hc = 2.7, Ho = 0 and y = 1.49. Each height used in the analysis
must be associated with a wave period. This is taken as the most probable
wave period for the given wave height. For North Sea conditions, the following
relation may be used :

The long-term distribution of individual wave heights is given by Eq. (234)

-
L'nc %!I
where Hc = 2.7 and C and D are respectively 0.462 and 0.928 for y = 1.49,
cf. Table 2.3.
ii A

The number of waves exceeding a wave height H per year is given by

N = No[l -PL(H)] >
-0 t
d
where No is the total number of waves in one year, taken as NO = 106.72.

The following waves are now selected for analysis:

H = 3.0m T = 7.2 s log N = 5.74
H = 5.0m T = 8.7s log N = 5.14
H = 7.0m T = 9.8 s log N = 4.57
H = 9.0m T = 10.8 s log N = 4.00
H = 11.0m T = 11.7s log N = 3.45
H = 15.0 m T = 13.1 s log N = 2.35
H = 20.0 m T = 14.6 s log N = 1.OO
Section 2.6.2

The wave forces are calculated by Morison's equation (Eq. (2.5 7)) ,
F = -1* p 0 C D * D * $ + p e C M --•
n * a~ ~
2 4
The coefficients CD and CM are taken as 1.0 and 2.0, respectively.

As an example, consider the wave: H = 1 1.0 m, T = 11-7 s.

The angular frequency is

Applying linear wave theory (Fig. 2.1 I), the wave number k is given by
(Eq. (2.38))

where g = 9.8 1 m/s2 and the water depth d is LOO m. The equation is solved
numerically, giving
k = 0.0296 m-'

Setting x = 0 at the center of the riser, the horizontal wave-induced water

particle velocity is given by (Eq. (2.39))

and the horizontal wave-induced acceleration (Eq. (2.4 1))

When linear wave theory is used, one can simplify the calculations by separat-
ing drag and inertia forces. The moment due to the drag forces alone is given

yielding
MD ( a t ) = MD ,
, sin2 ( a t ) = 4596 sin2( a t ) (Nm)
The moment due to inertia forces is calculated in the same manner:
 Section 2.6.2

yielding
MI(mt)= MI, -cos(wt)= 1306*cos(wt)(Nm)

The total moment:

M(wt) = MDm, sin2 ( a t ) + M
I
, cos(wt)

Maximum value of M(at) occurs for dM(wf)= 0, whichgives (Fig. 2.32)

d ( 4

The maximum moment is thus:

,
M = 4596 sin28 1.BO + 1306 cos 8 1.go = 4689 Nm

and the resulting stress range:

Ao= M D= 4689 0.27 = 12.9 MPa
- 0

I .
9.8 1 o -~

sin* [at)

Fig. 2.32 Drag force FD ,inertia force FI and total force F, Example 2.

The procedure above is repeated for all waves selected for the analysis.

For each wave height analysed, the corresponding number of waves exceeding
that height is found by Eq. (2.56) or Fig. 2.1 6. Since the calculation proce-
dure implies a unique relation between wave heights and stress ranges, the
number of exceeding stress ranges is found in a similar manner. The final
results are shown in Fig. 2.33.
Section 2.6.3

0 2 4 6 LogN
Fig. 2.33 Deterministic analysis of long-term distribution of stress ranges,
Example 2.
Left: Number of cycles (N) exceeding given wave heights, forces
and stress ranges in one year.
Right: Stress range exceedance diagram, one year.

2.6.3 Stochastic approach

A stochastic approach for calculating the long-term distribution of stress
ranges is based on the stochastic methods of wave force calculation described
in Sec. 2.5.5. It involves the following steps:
i) Selection of major wave directions. The same considerations as dis-
cussed for the deterministic analysis should be made.
ii) For each direction select a number of seastates which adequately
describes the long-term distribution of waves. Associate a duration to
each seastate.
iii) For each seastate calculate the short-term distribution of stress ranges
using the methods described in Sec. 2.5.5.
iiii) Combine the results for all seastates in order to find the long-term
distribution of stress ranges.

EXAMPLE 3: Short-term distribution of stresses in a riser span, stochastic

analysis.
As explained above, steps iii) and iiii), calculation of the long-term distri-
bution of stress ranges is done by combining the short-term distributions for
a number of seastates. The calculation below shows how a short-term distri-
bution is obtained.
 Section 2.6.3

The same riser span is considered as in Example 2. The short-term distribution

of stress ranges within a given seastate is wanted. The same assumptions as
used in the above example will be applied.

Solution.
The seastate is described by: Hs = 5 m, Tz = 7.5 s, duration = 3 hours.

A Pierson-Moskowitz wave spectrum is assumed, Eq. (2.44) :

The first step in the analysis is to establish the transfer function relating
wave heights and stresses. This is done by calculating the stresses for a set of
regular waves with different periods. The calculation is performed in the
same manner as in the deterministic analysis. The transfer function for a given
wave period is then calculated according to Eq. (2.19). As mentioned in
Sec. 2.5.5, the relation between wave heights and wave forces is non-linear
due to the drag term, and the calculated transfer function is thus a function
of the wave heights used.
We have for the most probable wave period for a given wave height, as ex-
plained in Example 2 :

For periods higher than 16 seconds, the formula gives wave heights higher
than the 100 year wave height (= 29 m). The wave height 29 m is thus used
for all periods longer than 16 seconds.
The transfer function may be expressed by

where a,,,(w) is the maximum stress caused by the wave at frequency w .

Consider again the wave H = 11 m, T = 11.7 s, w = 0.539. In the deterministic

analysis we found that

M, (w = 0.539) = 4698 Nm, a,, (w = 0.539) = 6.9 MPa.

Section 2.6.3

The transfer function is thus

The procedure is repeated for a set of wave periods within the range 3-25
seconds. The result is shown in Fig. 2.34.

Fig. 2.34 Transfer function relating stress and wave surface elevation.

This transfer function is now combined with the wave spectrum defined
previously in order to obtain a stress spectrum for each seastate, Eq. (2.20):
So(4 = ( T(w) l2 S?)(W)
The stress spectral moments are found by numerical integration of Eqs.
(2.47) and (2.48) :

00

-(MPa
m2 = J w2 ~ , ( w ) dw = 35.74 1 2
0 S

The average stress cycle period is thus, Eq. (2.1 6)

and the number of cycles within the seastate

The stress spectrum obtained is narrow-banded and the Rayleigh distribution

 Section 2.6.4

is used to describe the stress amplitudes. The probability of an arbitrary

amplitude exceeding a level o l is thus, Eq. (2.1 5)
n

2.6.4 Simplified long-term distribution

A simplified long-term distribution of stress ranges may be obtained from the
simplified wave height distribution, Fig. 2.17, and a general knowledge of
the relation between wave height and response for the considered structure.
The wave height H is given by Eq. (2.56):
log N
H = Hloo (1 - 1
log N1oo
The relation between wave height and stress range is assumed to be of the
form
Aa= C * H ~ (2.73)
The long-term distribution of stress ranges may then be expressed as
log N )K
Aa = Aaloo (1 -
log N1oo
where Auloo is the stress range induced by the 100 year wave.

The value of the parameter K is dependent on the type of structure and

the environmental conditions (wave height - wave period relation). For North
Sea conditions, the following values may be appropriate:
Jacket structures 1.6 < K < 1.8
Concrete gravity structures 1.3 < K < 1.6
Semi-submersibles ~ . O < K < 1.3

The above method should be used with care. The choice of the para-
meter K should preferably be based on the. results of a detailed analysis
performed for a similar structure. This may be done by a curve-fitting proce-
dure whereby Eq. (2.74) is fitted to the known distribution.

EXAMPLE 4: Long-term distribution of stresses in a platform, simplified

analysis.
Consider a semi-submersible platform as shown in Fig. 2.35. An analysis
of the stresses induced by the 100 year wave has been performed and resulted
in a stress range Aaloo = 80 MPa. A preliminary estimate of the long-term
Section 2.6.4

JOINT

Fig. 2.35 Semi-submersible platform.

distribution of the stress ranges in the indicated welded joint is wanted for a
first evaluation of fatigue damage.

Solution.
The platform is intended to operate in the North Sea. The mean wave period
is assumed to be 6 seconds, i.e. the number of waves in 100 years is:

The stress ranges are assumed to follow Eq. (2.74):

ACJ= Aaloo (1 -log N )K

log N1oo
where N is the number of stress cycles exceeding Ao. Previous analyses have
shown that K = 0.9 is a reasonable value. We therefore get for the long-term
stress distribution
log N)o9
n o = s o - ( 1 ----
8.72
Note that a lower value of the parameter K will result in generally higher
stressranges. A'
 Chapter 2. References

REFERENCES

1. Newland, D.E. :
"Random Vibrations and Spectral Analysis", Longman, London, 1975.
2. Bendat, J.S. and Piersol, A.G. :
"Random Data: Analysis and Measurement Procedures", Wiley-Interscience, 1971.
3. Langen, I. og Sigbjsrnsson, R.:
"Dynamisk Analyse av Konstruksjoner", TAPIR, Trondheirn, 1979.
4. Clough, R.W. and Penzien, J. :
"Dynamics of Structures", McGraw-Hill, 1975.
5. Meirowich, L. :
"Elements of Vibration Analysis", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
6. Skjellbreia, L. and Hendrikson, J.:
"Fifth Order Gravity Wave Theory", Proc. Seventh Conference on Coastal Engineering,
The Hague, 1961, pp. 184-196.
7. Dean, R.G.:
"Evaluation and Development of Water Wave Theories for Engineering Application",
Vols. I and 11. U.S. Army, Coastal Eng. Research Center, 1974.
8. Houmb, O.G. and Overvik, T.:
"Parameterization of wave spectra and long term joint distribution of wave height
and period". Proc. Conference on Behaviour of Offshore Structures, Trondheim, 1976.
9. Heideman, J .C., Olsen, O.A. and Johansson, P.I. :
"Local Wave Force Coefficients", Civil Engineering in the Oceans IV, ASCE, 1979,
pp. 684-699.
10. "Dynamics of Marine Structures", CIRIA Report UR 8, London, 1977.
11. Sarpkaya, T. and Isaacson, M.:
"Mechanics of Wave Forces on Offshore Structures", Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
New York, 1981.
12. Harnrnersley, J . and Handscomb, P.:
"Monte Carlo Methods", Methuen, London, 1964.
13. Houbolt, J.C.:
"A Recurrence Matrix Solution for the Dynamic Response of Elastic Aircraft",
J. Aeronaut. Science, Vol. 17, 1950.
14. Newmark, N.M. :
"A Method of Computation for Structural Dynamics", J . Eng. Mechanics Div., Vol.
85, ASCE, 1959.
15. Dijk, G.M.:
"Statistical Load Data Processing", National Aerospace Laboratory, Amsterdam,
1971.
Chapter 2. References

16. Det norske Veritas:

"Rules for the design, construction and inspection of offshore structures", Appendix
B, 1977.
17. Det norske Veritas :
"Rules for the design, construction and inspection of offshore structures", Appendix
C, 1977.
18. Det norske Veritas :
"Rules for submarine pipeline systems", Appendix A, 1977.
19. British Standard CP3. Code of basic data for the design of buildings. British Standard
Institution, London 1972.
 CHAPTER 3

FRACTURE MECHANICS AS A TOOL

IN FATIGUE ANALYSIS

Knut Engesvik
SINTEF,Trondheirn

ABSTRACT
This chapter deals with the basic theory of fracture mechanics with emphasis
on its application in fatigue analysis. The fundamentals of fracture mechanics
are presented. The relationship between the stress intensity range and crack
growth is used to evaluate the development of cracks under variable loading.
This approach is related to ordinary SN-curves.

NOMENCLATURE
General rule
Random variables are denoted by capital letters, while their realizations are
denoted by the corresponding small letters.

Operators and special notations

E( - expectation operator
e - within (the interval)
Symbols
The symbols are generally explained where they first appear. The most
frequent symbols and their meaning are listed below.

Roman letters:
a - crack depth, minor half axis of semielliptical crack,
half crack length of through crack
a, - critical a
Chapter 3. Nomenclature

af - final a
initial a
crack aspect ratio (shape)
crack growth rate
major half axis of semielliptical crack
constant, crack growth coefficient
Young's modulus
probability density function (pdf') of X
basic crack shape factor
stress gradient factor
front free surface factors
finite thickness factor
finite width factor
total correction factor
energy release rate
influence function
Rice's J-integral
stress intensity factor
mode I stress intensity factor
mode I1 stress intensity factor
mode 111stress intensity factor
critical stress intensity factor
elastic stress concentration factor
stress intensity factor range
threshold stress intensity factor range
weld leg length
crack growth exponent
crack growth exponent, number of cycles
number of cycles t o failure
initiation part of Nf
propagation part of Nf
polar coordinate
crack tip plastic zone size
radius, stress ratio; R = omin/omaX
plate thickness
plate thickness
plate width
 Chapter 3. Nomenclature

Greek letters:
P - empirical constant
r( - gamma function
8 - polar coordinate, weld flank angle, parameter in
Weibull distribution
v - Poisson's ratio
g - parameter in Weibull distribution
P - radius, notch tip radius, weld toe radius
(7 - nominal normal stress
o(x) - crack surface stress distribution
Oc - critical stress
amax - maximum stress
Omin - minimum stress
OX ,OY,OZ- normal stresses referred to a specified
coordinate system
OY
- monotonic, uniaxial yield stress
Ao - stress range
Affeq - equivalent stress range
4 - constant amplitude fatigue limit
7XY - shear stress in X-Y-plane
TXZ - shear stress in X-Z-plane
7Y Z - shear stress in Y-Z-plane
4 - angle

Abbreviations:
CA - constant amplitude
COD - crack opening displacement
EPFM - elastic-plastic fracture mechanics
fcg - fatigue crack growth
IF - influence function
LEFM - linear-elastic fracture mechanics
SCF - stress concentration factor
Section 3.1 .1

3.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF FRACTURE MECHANICS

3.1 .1 Introduction
Fracture mechanics seeks to define the local conditions of stress and strain
around a crack, in terms of the global parameters of loads, geometry, etc.,
under which the crack will extend (Fig. 3 .I).

Local condltlons

- magnitude and
d i s t r i b u t i o n of
stresses/strains

G l o b a l conditions

- material properties
- geometry; - e x t e r n a l
- crack (shape, size)
- Loading i.e. n o m i n a l s t r e s s
-
Fig. 3.1 Linear-elastic fracture mechanics linking global conditions with local
crack-tip response.

Various approaches have been employed in the analysis of fracture

problems, leading t o the introduction of various fracture mechanics para-
meters, e.g. G, J, COD, K - all being interrelated. The most popular among
these parameters has been the stress intensity factor, K . In fact, a fundamental
principle of linear-elastic fracture mechanics is that the stress field ahead of a
.sharp crack can be characterized in terms of this single parameter, K.
Fracture mechanics can be subdivided into two general categories,
namely linear-elastic (LEFM) and elastic-plastic (EPFM). This section will
be restricted to LEFM, its analytical basis and the practical evaluation of the
stress intensity factor.
,1 .. - -4 - , \ - Icclrrt
~ttr (rlr - Section 3.1.2

3.1.2 Analytical basis of LEFM

Crack tip stress field
The basis of LEFM is an analysis of the elastic stress field at the tip of a crack.
A crack in a solid can be stressed in three different modes, as illustrated in
Fig. 3.2. The superposition of the three modes describes the general case of
cracking. Mode I is technically the most important, as it is the most common
mode, particularly in fatigue.

I mode I
opening mode
mode I1
s l i d i n g mode
mode111
t e a r i n g mode

Fig. 3.2 The three modes of cracking.

Now, consider a through thickness sharp crack in a linear elastic iso-

tropic body subjected to mode I loading. Such a two-dimensional crack is
shown schematically in Fig. 3.3. An arbitrary stress element in the vicinity of
the crack tip with coordinates r and 8 relative to the crack tip and crack plane
is also shown.
The stresses and displacements at any point near the crack tip can be
derived, using theory of elasticity and complex stress functions. The elastic
stresses near the crack tip (r/a -4 1) for the mode I case are as follows:

8 sin -
cos - 8 cos3 8
r x =~f i 2 2
uz = TXZ = TYZ = 0 for plane stress (3.1 d)

uz = v[ox + oy]
for plane strain
Txz = Tyz= 0
Section 3.1-.2

Fig. 3.3 Schematic illustration of the elastic stress-field distribution near

the tip of a crack (Mode I deformation).

where: K = KI = mode I stress intensity factor

r, 8 = polar coordinates, as shown in Fig. 3.3
v = Poisson's ratio - -

Similar expressions exist for the other modes.

It is seen that the crack tip stress field is singular, with singularity of
the type r-1'2 . This is a common feature of the crack tip stress field, regardless
of mode of deformation.
Strictly speaking the stresses are defined by a series of terms involving
+
r and 8 , but close to the crack tip (i.e. for r a) only the first (i.e. singular)
term is significant since the others involve higher-order terms in r.

The stress intensity factor concept

From Eqs. (4.1 a-c) it is seen that the elastic stresses close t o the crack tip
depend on r, 8 and K only. It is also noted that the distribution of stresses
around the crack tip depends only on the values of r and 8, while their magni-
tude at any given position (r, 8) depends only on K. Thus, the distributions
of stresses at the crack tip are invariant with respect t o loading and geometry.
The effect of these global parameters are incorporated in K. Hence, the whole
stress field at the crack tip is known, when K is known.
 noCclz. - $OI"~Y.
Section 3.1.2

It is important to realize that the value of K is not dependent on the

material or on the coordinates r and 8. However, it depends on external load,
external geometry, and crack geometry (size and shape). Hence, K provides
a link between the very localized crack tip response and the more global con-
ditions (Fig. 3.1 ).
It also follows that combinations of external load, external geometry
and crack geometry resulting in the same K, yield identical stress fields in
the crack tip region, i.e. the same local response. This representation of the
stress field around a crack tip by the stress intensity factor is a basic concept
of fracture mechanics.
An obvious advantage of the fracture mechanics approach to fatigue is
the ability to incorporate the pertinent external loading variables (alternating
stress and loading configuration) and geometry factors (flaw size, -shape, and
component geometry) into a single-term parameter, such that data (e.g. for
-
crack growth) are applicable to a wide variety of loading and geometry
configurations other than those from which they were initially obtained.
This allows a correlation of test results from different specimen geometries,
and also a correlation between e.g. test results and service failures.
K should not be confused with the elastic stress concentration factor
'-I< F Kt, which is the ratio of the maximum stress to the nominal stress at a notch.
Hence, Kt is a scaling factor for the nominal stress, while K acts as a scaling
factor for the crack tip stress field. For this reason, K is called a stress field
parameter. Furthermore, Kt is a descriptive parameter relative to notches
(stress concentrations), while K characterizes conditions at cracks (stress
singularities). Kt is-incapableof treating cracks, as Kt=-, regardless of external
loading and geometry, i.e. it is incapable of discriminating between the various
loading and geometry configurations influencing the crack-tip response.
The numerical value of Kt depends on the type of loading (i.e. tension,
bending) and external geometry (including notch geometry), while the value
of K depends on the loading (type and level), external geometry, crack geo-
metry (size and shape) and mode of crack displacement.
K used without a mode subscript I, I1 or I11 normally refers to mode I.

Limitations of LEFM
LEFM is based on a linear-elastic analysis of the stresses at the crack tip, and
inherently takes no account of plasticity. Hence, LEFM is not strictly correct
as r + 0.Since infinite stresses cannot exist in a physical body, and as ductile
materials will always show some plasticity at the tip of a crack, the elastic
solution (Eq. 3 .l) should be modified to account for crack tip plasticity.
Section 3.1.3
In general, crack tip plasticity can be assessed, and the effect taken into
account through a correction term. If, however, the plastic zone size (rp)
at the crack tip is small relative to local geometry (for example, rp/t and
rp/a<O. 1,where t is thickness), little or no modification to the stress intensity
factor K is needed. Thus an important restriction to the use of linear-elastic
fracture mechanics is that the plastic zone size at the crack tip must be small
relative to the geometrical dimensions o f the specimen or part.
In the majority of fatigue situations (at least for high-cycle fatigue)
cracking will occur under quasi-elastic conditions. In other words, the size
of any plastic zone at the crack tip will tend to be small compared with the
crack length, and it is possible and adequate to calculate the conditions
around the crack by linear elastic stress analysis. The reason for this is three-
fold. Firstly, the load (i.e. nominal stress) level is low or moderate, and the
crack tip stresses are proportional to the nominal stresses, according to linear
elasticity. Secondly, the triaxiality of the crack tip stress field acts to reduce
plasticity. Thus, crack tip plastic zones are smaller in plane strain than in
plane stress. Thirdly, the cyclic plastic zone size is known to be only about
one quarter the size of the monotonic plastic zone.
Hence, crack tip plasticity usually does not invalidate the practical
application of LEFM to problems involving plane strain and cyclic plasticity,
as e.g. in high-cycle fatigue.

3.1.3 Evaluation of stress intensity factors

Introduction
The application of fracture mechanics principles bears largely upon the stress
intensity factor. An essential part of the solution of a fracture problem in
linear-elastic fracture mechanics is the establishment of the stress intensity
factor for the crack problem under consideration. Since the introduction of
fracture mechanics, much effort has been put into the derivation of stress
intensity factors, and a variety of methods have been developed to approach
the problem.
Stress intensity factor solutions are now available for a wide range of
geometrical configurations, both two- and three-dimensional, and many
solutions have been collected 11, 2, 31. Solutions are also available, for in-
stance, in the series of Special Technical Publications by the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), in the series entitled Fracture, edited by
Liebowitz 141, and in the series entitled Mechanics o f Fracture, edited b y
Sih 1st. The methods, both theoretical and experimental, of obtaining these
solutions have been reviewed by Cartwright and Rooke 161, Liebowitz (Vol.
 Section 3.1.3

I1 of Ref. /4/), Sih (Vol. I of Ref. 151) and Kobayashi 171. Numerical methods
have also been reported recently /8/.
In practical problems, structural geometries and loadings are often so
complex that the available stress intensity factor solutions are inadequate.
Evaluation of the stress intensity factor for the actual problem using standard
methods may be prohibitively expensive in both time and money. Thus there
is a need to develop simpler methods which will be cheap and easy to use even
if less accurate than most standard methods. Many simple methods have been
suggested, and their relative merits are discussed in 191.
In the following, some techniques for obtaining approximate engineering
estimates are treated.
Tables for the conversion of units related to stress and stress intensity
are given in Appendix 3 .A.

&perpositton methods
Superposition is probably the most common and simplest technique in use for
obtaining stress intensity factors. Complex (load-geometry) configurations are
considered to be a combination of a number of separate simpler configurations
with separate boundary conditions and which have known stress intensity
factors. The stress intensity factors for the simple configurations are then
added to obtain the required solution. Errors from using superposition can
arise when the complex configuration being analysed cannot be precisely
built up from configurations with known stress intensity factors.
An illustration of the use of this technique is shown in Fig. 3.4 191.

a b c

Fig. 3.4 Superposition of stress intensity factors.

Section 3.1.3

The stress intensity factor for the configuration shown in Fig. 3.4a, is the sum
of the stress intensity factors for the two simpler configurations shown in
Figs. 3.4b and 3 . 4 ~ .
Another important application of superposition, the analysis of pin-
loaded lugs is shown in Fig. 3.5. By using the procedure shown, opening
mode stress intensity factors for non-symmetrical loadings can be found by
adding the more easily obtainable results for simpler symmetrical loadings.

Fig. 3.5 Superposition for a pin-loaded hole with radial cracks.

The stress intensity factor for a crack in a loaded body may be deter-
mined by considering the crack to be in an unloaded body with applied
tractions on the crack surface only (Fig. 3.6). These surface tractions are
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to those evaluated along the line of
the crack site in the uncracked configuration. This method of determining
stress intensity factors is important in the use of the influence function
method (See later section).
Thus, application of the principle of superposition leads to an important
result about the equivalence o f stress intensity factors resulting from external
loading o n a body and those resulting from internal tractions on the crack
surface.
When employing superposition, it is important to be aware of the
particular restrictions pertaining to the superposition of stress intensity
factors.
1) The stress intensity factors to be superposed must correspond to the
same mode of crack deformation (I, I1 or 111).
 Section 3.1.3
Load

Stress f r e e crack S t r e s s over Crack surface

crock site=cj(x) tractions=-d(x)
(a1 (b) (c >
Fig. 3.6 Superposition showing the equivalence of K(K, = Kc) for general
loading and crack surface tractions;
a) initial cracked configuration;
b) uncracked configuration;
c) initial configuration with applied loading removed.

E.g. components that contain cracks may be subjected to one or more

different types of mode I loads such as uniform tensile loads, concentrated
tensile loads, or bending loads. The stress-field distributions in the vicinity of
the crack tip that is subjected to these loads are identical and are represented
by Eqs. (3.1 a-f). Consequently, the total stress-intensity factor can be
obtained by algebraically adding the stress-intensity factors that correspond
to each load. However, some components may be subjected to loads that
correspond to various modes of deformation. Because the stress-field distri-
butions in the vicinity of a crack are different for different modes of deforrna-
tion (Section 3.1.2), the stress-intensity factors for different modes of defor-
mation cannot be added. Under these loading conditions, the total energy-
release rate, G, rather than the stress-intensity factor, can be calculated by
algebraically adding the energy-release rate for the various modes of defor-
mation.
Section 3.1.3

2) Problems with compressive forces/stresses.

Although stresses may be combined linearly, even when the loading
over a portion of the crack length tends to close the crack, the stress intensity
factors cannot without further restrictions. This breakdown of the linear
superposition occurs since stress singularities, and therefore stress intensity
factors, do not exist for crack closing forces.
Stress intensity factors of cracks can be superimposed for loads that
either tend to open or to close the crack along the entire crack front only if
the combined loading state opens the crack along the entire periphery. Thus,
the crack surfaces in the final configuration must be separated along their
entire length, although there may be some overlap of the crack surface, or K1
may be negative, in some of the ancillary configurations. If overlap does occur
in an ancillary configuration, it must be ignored in evaluating the ancillary
stress intensity factor, otherwise the results of the superposition will be
invalid.
3) Boundary problems.
A configuration containing a crack may have several boundaries, e.g.
holes, other cracks or sheet edges, which influence the stress intensity factor.
Using the method of superposition a solution is obtained by separating the
configuration into a number of ancillary configurations, which have known
solutions.
Each ancillary configuration will often contain only one boundary,
which interacts with the crack. The interaction of several boundaries is usually
neglected in the compounded solution /9, 101, and thus is a source to error.
Errors due to neglecting boundary - boundary interactions depend on:
- nearness/closeness of boundaries,
- boundary shape,
- number of boundaries.
E.g. consider the configurations shown in Figs. 3.7 - 3.9. These repre-
sent widely different boundary effects, namely a pair of boundaries of infinite,
finite or zero radius of curvature in the path of the crack.
Consider again the configuration shown in Fig. 3.7. Figure 3.10 shows
the appropriate ancillary configurations. Comparison of Figs. 3.7 and 3.1 0
shows that we require c = b and d = b, + e.
Studies of configurations as the above, show that:
- The errors of the compounded solution increases with increasing crack
length, i.e. as the crack tip approaches the boundaries.
- At a fixed crack length errors tend to increase with increasing boundary
radius, i.e. boundaries with large radii of curvature will have an effect
over a larger distance than boundaries with small radii of curvature.
 Section 3.1.3

Fig. 3.7 Eccentric crack in a finite width sheet subjected to a uniaxial

tensile stress.

Fig. 3.8 Crack between two holes in an infinite sheet subjected to a uniaxial
tensile stress.

Fig. 3.9 Three collinear cracks in an infinite sheet subjected to a uniaxial

tensile stress.
Section 3.1.3

Fig. 3.10 Crack near the edge of a half plane subjected to a uniform tensile
stress; ancillary configuration for Fig. 3.7 (d 2 c).

- Errors increase with the number of boundaries. E.g. increasing the

number of collinear cracks in Fig. 3.9 would increase the solution error.

The basic compounding equation for calculating the resultant stress

intensity factor K,, neglecting boundary interactions might be expressed as:

where K, is the stress intensity factor for a crack in the presence of a single
boundary B,, and K is the stress intensity factor in the absence of all boun-
daries.
This compounding technique has been extensively used on aerospace
problems. However, the methodology has general applicability and potential
for providing engineering estimates of K for complex configurations. The
technique has been used in very local as well as more global applications,
e.g. to cracks in stiffened sheets /11/. This might be of interest in the assess-
ment of residual strength in a structure, and closely related to considerations
on inspection and structural reliability.

The influence function method

Considerable effort in analytical fracture mechanics is devoted to the com-
putation of K for complex stress/geometry combinations of actual cracked
structures. Traditional approaches have been to use literature solutions or
to obtain numerical solutions of K with a finite element or boundary-integral
equation model of the cracked structure. There are inadequacies in both of
these approaches for a large class of problems. Literature solutions lack gene-
rality, while repeated two or three-dimensional numerical stress analyses of
 Section 3.1.3

cracked idealizations are costly, time-consuming and subject to errors due to

poor program performance or user inexperience. To reduce errors and mini-
mize cost, a method involving the use of influence coefficients or influence
functions (h) to compute K has been shown to provide a viable alternative for
many geometries. The influence function (IF) method has also been labeled
the weight function or Green's function method. This method of determining
stress intensity factors is applicable to a wide variety of problems, and has
been used for two- as well as three-dimensional elastic crack problems 1121.
Fig. 3.1 1 illustrates the elastic superposition principle which is the
basis of the IF method. The superposition reduces the K solution of an
arbitrary crack problem to the solution of:
1) the problem without the crack (i.e. uncracked problem), and
2) a crack problem in which only the crack face is pressurized so as to
cancel the uncracked stresses ( o(x) in Fig. 3.1 1) that would exist across
the crack locus in the absence of the crack.

Influence functions are used to solve this second, pressurized crack

problem.
To solve the pressurized crack problem, and hence the original problem,
consider the differential load o(x)dx (assuming constant thickness), which
causes a differential increment of K given by

so that the stress intensity factor is given by

K = LdK(x) = $ h(x,geo.)o(x)dx (3.4)

La
where La is the straight crack face boundary parallel to the x axis. h( ) is the
influence function. Equivalent forms can be written for KI, KII and KIII.
Thus, the methodology consists of the following steps:
1) The reduction of the actual problem into two (or more) simpler
problems, i.e. employing elastic superposition of (loadlgeometry)
configurations (See Section on "Superposition methods").
2) Determination and specification of the uncracked stress field, i.e. the
distribution of stress along the crack site in the uncracked body, which
is a non-singular elasticity problem.
3) Obtaining the appropriate influence function for the actual (i.e. the
pressurized) crack problem.
Section 3.1.3

(Compressive
L o a d i n g on
(Tensile stress
a c t u a l crack face)
on c r a c k f a c e

Fig. 3.1 1 The reduction of a problem into two simpler problems, ( 1) and (2)
for computations of stress intensity factor.

An influence function h is simply the K value arising from a unit point

load at some position, usually on the crack face. Thus h is independent
of loading, and depends only on the crack face position and structural
geometry.
The influence function can be accurately obtained from relatively
simple loading conditions and applied t o complex stress fields.
Sources of influence functions are found in e.g. 11, 2, 31. Methods of
computing influence functions are treated in e.g. 16, 12, 131. Some
exact and approximate influence functions are given in / 121.
 Section 3.1.3

The influence function method is exact providing that the correct

influence function is used. However, it is often possible to construct
approximate influence functions, so avoiding the need to use more
time-consuming and costly methods.
4 ) Integration according to Eq. (3.4). Thus, once the uncracked stress
field and the influence function are known, obtaining a stress intensity
factor is reduced to a simple summation procedure which can be
done numerically, graphically or analytically depending on the form of
the influence function.

The reader is reminded of the restrictions pertaining to the superposition

of stress intensity factors (See Section on "Superposition methods"). E.g. for
cracks in residual stress fields care must be taken to ensure that the crack
surfaces are separated along their entire length. If they are not, crack surface
contact conditions must be included in the influence function.
Thus, one can see that the major advantage of the IF method is the
markedly reduced amount of stress analysis. Once h has been determined
for a geometry, K can be calculated for any crack size and shape from the
"uncracked" stress field. Through the use of elastic superposition, the IF
method properly accounts for stress redistribution as the crack dimensions
increase due to propagation through the structure. Thus, there is no need
to include the crack explicitly in the stress analysis for each crack size.
To illustrate the utility of Eq. (3.4), consider the center-cracked
plate under symmetric loading shown in Fig. 3.12. For the case of uniform
stress of an infinite plate (a/b + O ) , the stress intensity factor is given by

where a is the half crack length and uo is the applied uniform stress. It has
been shown 1121 that, for any symmetric stress field, o(x) = o(-x), the in-
fluence function for the infinite plate is given by
1
0 < x < a defines -La
2
Eqs. (3.4) and (3.6) reduce to Eq. (3.5) for the case of constant o(x) = oO.
Thus, we see by example that the IF method can correctly quantify
the crack-induced redistribution of the uncracked elastic stress field.
Section 3.1.3

Fig. 3.1 2 Center-cracked plate under symmetric stress.

A practical hybrid method

Introduction
This method is basically an influence function - and a superposition method.
It employs available solutions for two- and three-dimensional crack problems.
From these the influence of different factors affecting K are separated and
used to "compose" an estimate of K in an actual case 114-20/.

General expression for K

K may be conveniently expressed as:
K= o 6 . F
where :
F = FE*FS'FT*FW*FG
FE = basic crack shape factor
FS = front face factor
FT = back face or finite thickness factor
FW = finite width factor
FG = stress gradient factor
 Section 3.1.3
The basic crack shape factor - FE.
This factor takes into account the effect of crack front curvature, i.e. crack
shape. A good approximation is obtained through the expression:

which pertains to point A in Fig. 3.1 6.

The front free surface correction factor - FS .

This factor accounts for a free surface at the "mouth" of the crack (Fig. 3.13),
and depends on:
- crack opening stress distribution (Fig. 3.14)
- free surface shape (Fig. 3.14,.15)
- crack shape
- position on crack front
The influence of crack shape might be approximated as:

which pertains to point A in Fig. 3.16. FS might be estimated as:

Fs = Fb fS
where :
F i = FS(o(x),B) from Fig. 3.14.

The finite thickness correction factor - FT .

This factor (also called "the back free surface correction factor") accounts
for the effect of a finite plate thickness, i.e. a free surface ahead of the crack
front (Fig. 3.13b and c). It dependson:
- crack geometry (size, shape)
- bending conditions (free, restrained) during cracking
- crack opening stress distribution
- position on crack front
Approximate values of FT are given in Fig. 3.16.

The finite width correction factor - FW.

This factor accounts for a free surface ahead of the crack front of a through
crack (Fig. 3.13a). The following expression yields a good approximation
of this effect :
Section 3.1.3

a) "Through" crack

b) "Edge" crack

I 1

C) "Surfacen crack

Fig. 3.13 Plate cross-section with various crack geometries.

Free surfaces and related correction factors.
 Section 3.1.3

Fig. 3.1 4 Influence of free surface shape (Fig. 3.15)

and crack stress distribution on FS.

Fig. 3.1 5 Free surface shape parameters.

Section 3.1.3
 Section 3.2.1
The stress gradient correction factor - FG.
This factor (also called "the geometry correction factor") accounts for non-
uniform crack opening stresses, i.e. stress field gradients at the crack locus.
The gradients may be due to e.g. non-uniform applied stress (such as bending)
or stress concentration caused by detail geometry. This stress gradient should
not be confused with that which occurs at the crack tip. FG represents a
more global condition than the crack tip, but may account for a local stress
distribution, which is not acknowledged by a strength of materials analysis.
Estimates of the gradient effect on K might be extracted from known
solutions to crack problems / 14, 151.
Some approximate expressions for FG pertaining to welded joints are
given in Section 3.2.1 .

3.2 FRACTURE MECHANICS APPLIED TO FATIGUE PROBLEMS

=Ji #Wbm%a ef crack growth
Introduction
Numerous relations for predicting the growth rate (da/dN) have been pro-
posed. These may be divided in two main categories, i.e. theoretical and semi-
empirical "laws".
The theoretical laws might be further grouped according to the different
approaches employed in developing them. Many attempts have been made
to deduce a law of fatigue crack growth (fcg) theoretically, but none of the
proposed expressions has a general applicability. It is anticipated that such
an expression will be a complicated one if it is to have general validity. For
the technical problem of fcg the simple knowledge that da/dN is a function
of AK will often be sufficient. Therefore, the crack propagation relationship
is more often deduced from test data.
Semi-empirical laws might be viewed as empirical fitting to available
data, and each is legitimate insofar as it represents the data. As to the use
of such relations, the questions will always be:
- are the data on which the relation is based of relevance, i.e. do the
material and testing conditions represent reality?
- is the precision of fit sufficient for the purpose for which the law will
be used?

Broek /21/ concludes that there is little basis for arguments about the
usefulness of the various empirical expressions proposed. The scatter in
Section 3.2.1

actual data implies that many empirical expressions may have certain merits,
i.e each one may be found reasonably satisfactory in a limited region or
for limited sets of data. Therefore no particular expression for da/dN vs AK
will have significant advantages over another. A best polynomial fit may be
the most suitable in view of computer processing.

Crack growth rate relations

Fig. 3.17 shows a schematic crack growth rate curve, with three distinct
regions indicated, i.e. the well-known threshold-, intermediate-, and failure
regions.
I I

"TWO-STAGE" MECH. CONT. MECH.

Log aK
Fig. 3.17 Schematic crack growth rate curve showing sigmoidal variation
of fatigue crack propagation rate da/dN with the alternating stress
intensity (AK). A&h is the threshold stress intensity for crack
growth, and Kc the stress intensity at final failure (terminal K).
 Section 3.2.1

Some of the most common crack growth relationships are given in the
following, together with comments indicating how they adapt to the general
sigmoidal shape of the crack growth rate curve (Fig. 3.17).

Region B : -,

\JJ

Regions A and B :
= C~AK* - A K ~ )
dN

Regions B and C - R-effect explicitly accounted for:

Regions A, B and C - R-effect explicitly accounted for:

The relationship (3.1 8) is particularly useful in the absence of available crack

growth data.
In the above expressions:
da/dN= crack growth rate, i.e. crack growth per cycle
AK = stress intensity factor range = 4C ( 3 .F
AKth = threshold-value of AK
Kc = critical value of K, triggering fast fracture
R = stress ratio = omin/omax = Kmin/I<max
OY
= yield stress
E = modulus of elasticity
C and m = crack growth parameters
Section 3.2.1

The Paris' equation

The simplest relation, in mathematical terms, is the Paris-equation (Eq.
(3.1 3)), where C and m are "constants" for a particular material and particular
testing conditions. This equation provides an adequate description of the
behaviour only for the mid-range (i.e. region B) of growth rates (typically
10*-10-~ mmlcycle). The complete variation of da/dN with AK is more
complicated , being roughly sigrnoidal in form (log-log plot), and bounded
at extremes by values of AKth and Kc (Fig. 3.17).
Since K incorporates the various geometrical factors (e.g. joint- and
crack-geometry), Eq. (3.13) may be regarded as a law of crack propagation
relevant to any geometry of cracked body provided factors not related to AK,
such as material and environment, correspond t o the C and m values applied.
For purpose of integration, limits t o the AK regime over which this
equation can operate, must be set at the threshold and final fracture condi-
tions, and regions A and C assumed to be vertical (Fig. 3.1 8).

Crack
growth None
I
Log A K

Fig. 3.1 8 Idealized crack growth rate curve.

It is observed that the Paris-equation is conservative in region A, and

non-conservative in region C . Usually, most of the fatigue life is spent propa-
gating cracks in regions A and B. Very little fatigue life is left when a crack
 Section 3.2.1

enters region C. Thus, the Paris-relation will in general yield conservative

results, i.e. computed life < actuallreal fatigue life.
In such a simple relation as Eq. (3.13), only the primary parameter
aK is explicitly taken into account. All the secondary parameters (e.g. materid
properties, frequency, mean st= and R, environment) enter the computa-
tions implicitly through the constants C and m . Fatigue crack growth is in-
fluenced by so many uncontrollable factors that a large scatter has to be
expected in practice. This is also observed on plots of da/dN vs AK, as they
exhibit a wide scatter band.
Several attempts have been made to find an empirical relationship
between C and m. In general, the proposed relations are of the kind:

where A and B are constants for the particular type of material. Experimental
results on steels tested in air at R * 0, confirm that log C and m are linearly
related in plane strain fcg. Gurney 1291 analysed several published crack
propagation results and found as a best fit relationship (considering results
for structural - and high strength steels together):

Stress concentrations and stress intensities for welded joints */

Some results are available for calculation of stress concentrations and stress
intensities of welded joints. They may be used to obtain:
- an approximate solution, where this is sufficient
- a first estimate, pending a more elaborate and accurate analysis
- a fairly accurate solution, if the actual case resembles closely one of
the underlying cases.
Some of the published results are given in the following.

Transverse butt welds.

With the overfill in the shape of a circular arc, and W = T (Fig. 3.19), the
corresponding value of the stress gradient factor FG for a crack initiating at
the weld toe is 1301:

where: (next page)

Section 3.2.1

Fig. 3.1 9 Transverse butt weld with circular arc overfill.

q = log (1 1.584 - 0.0588 $)/log (200)

@ = obtuse toe angle (degrees)
This equation is reasonably valid over the range 135O < 4 < 180".

Transverse load-carrying fillet welds.

The value of AK for a crack at the weld root of a cruciform joint may be
expressed as /3 1/ :
Ao(A, + A,&)&-=
AK = W 2 w (3.22)
1 +--T
22

+
where: w = II T/2 (Fig. 3.20)
Ao = nominal stress range in the main (longitudinal) plates
2a = length of internal weld root crack

Restrictions :
0.2 < Q/T < 1.2
0 < a/w < 0.7

9FI-
Weld t o e c r a c k

Weld r o o t c r a c k
Fig. 3.20 Transverse load-carrying fillet welds.
 Section 3.2.1

Transverse non-load-carrying fillet welds (Fig. 3.211.

Fig. 3.21 Transverse non-load-carrying fillet welds.

For alTG0.05 1301:

where: Q = weld leg length

T = thickness of main plate
t = thickness of attachment plate
a = crack depth
= t/T
k = 1 -0- log Pllog 4.49
q = 0.054p + 0.2255
For 0.05 < a < 0.325 it can be assumed that there is a linear relation
T
between log FG and log (2a/T) passing through FG = 1 .O at a/T = 0.325, and
the value of FG from Eq. (3.25) at a/T = 0.05.
An approximate formula for predicting FG automatically is 116,171:

where: (next page)

Section 3.2.1

FG = stress gradient correction factor (Section 3.1.3)

SCF = elastic stress concentration factor at the weld toe
a = non-dimensionalized crack length (a/T or a/W)
d = stress gradient correction factor decay coefficient
q = stress gradient correction factor decay exponent

The constants in the decay function (Eq. 3.26) are given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Constants for the FG decay function.

Weld detail d 9

Typical stiffener geometry ) / 161 0.3602 0.2487

Average cover plate detail ) / 161 0.1473 0.4348

Typical gusset plate geometry 2, / 17/ 1.158 0.6051

1) a = a/Tf (Figs. 3.22,3.23)

2) a = a / W f (Fig.3.24)

Another rapid, but more precise method of obtaining FG is treated in

116, 171.

I I
a . Section b.Plan view

Fig. 3.22 Detail geometry for transverse stiffener.

 Section 3.2.1

F i [ l e t weld
T Cover p l a t e

F Lange I-Fat igu

crack

a Section

I
b . P l a n view

Fig. 3.23 Detail geometry for cover plate.

Groove weld

Point of
W,/2 t r a n s i t ion d
Flange tangency

Symne t r y ' Web

Fig. 3.24 Detail geometry for gusset plate.

From Eq. (3.26) it is seen that

FG = SCF (= Kt) (3 -27)
when: a = a = O
i.e. at the surface. This has general validity. Thus, knowledge of the SCF
provides important information about K close to the surface. Hence, to
obtain a first estimate of K, by employing the FGdecay-function in Eq.
(3.26), an estimate of the SCF is needed. Ref. 116, 171suggest the following
equations:
Section 3.2.1

Stiffeners: (Fig. 3 -22)

SCF = 1.621 log (A)+ 3.963
Tf

Cover Plates: (Fig. 3.23)

T
SCF = -3.539 log (K) + 1.981 log (A)+ 5.798 1161 (3.29)
Tf Tf
Gusset plates: (Fig. 3.24)
SCF = -1.115 log(&) + 0.5370log(L) +
wf wf
0.1384 log (s)
w
+
f
+
(a) 0.2848
T
Tf
0.6801 1171 (3.30)

where: Tf = flange thickness

TCp = cover plate thickness
Tgp = gusset plate thickness
Wf = flange width
Wgp = gusset plate width
Q = weld leg size
R = radius of circular transition at end of groove-welded gusset
plate
L = attachment length
In evaluating FG at welded structural details, the crack is usually taken
to be the through (or edge-) type (a/2c = 0). However, it is worthwhile noting
that FG varies with crack shape, and in welded joints the shape is often
different from that of a straight crack. Hence, Fig. 3.25 has been developed
using through and circular crack Green's functions for a crack in an infinite
solid. This figure shows that the values for FG diverge as the stress decay
becomes more rapid. The limiting ratio, Y, for a concentrated load at the
crack origin is estimated t o be 0.548. This number represents twice the
deviation from 1.0 recorded between the uniform and linear stress cases.
Hence, FG related to a straight crack front yields conservative (too
high) K-values, compared with FG for a curved front.
The crack shape significantly influences K (Section 3.1.3), and thus
the fatigue life. Therefore, the fatigue designer employing fracture mechanics
techniques should seek for relevant shape relations. In order to predict cyclic
changes in crack shape, the shape of the surface crack is modelled with a
finite number of degrees of freedom. Most often a semi-elliptical shape is
 Section 3.2.1

Through Embedded
Crack crack
penny
shape shaped Ratio

Stress Y
distribution

1.o
a 1 .ooo 1 .ooo 1 .ooo
5. r
rn

0.363 0.281 0.774

b 0. 548

Fig. 3.25 Comparison of stress gradient correction factors FG for various

crack shapes and stress distributions 11 81.

assumed, described by the half-axis ratio, or the aspect ratio a/2c. Predictions
of the (a/2c)-evolution during crack growth might be done empirically or
theoretically. Empirical a-c-relations may be based on measurements on the
fractured surface of welded joints (without parameterization of the influen-
cing factors). Some of the published crack shape relations are given in the
following. These are valid only for the specific welded joint considered,
i.e. with the actual geometry, loading, material, and welding method. How-
ever, lacking relevant data they provide easy-to-use practical information, if
available for a case similar to the actual case.

Gusset specimens (Fig. 3.26)

4a lower bound
20a a < 1 mm
upper bound
20aoe3 a > 1 mm

Stiffener specimens (Fig. 3.2 1)

2c = 2.59 [mml
 Section 3.2.2

Fig. 3.26 Gusset specimen.

(Stiffener specimens cont .)

2c = -0.27 6.34a+a < 3 mm
a/2cxO aZ3mm

2.8a lower bound

12 a upper bound

i 3.2.2 Estimation of fatigue life

Crack initiation
One might generally subdivide the fatigue life in a crack initiation period (Ni)
and a crack growth period (Np), ending with failure, i.e.

As is further discussed in Chapter 4, the crack initiation period in

welded joints, that are not stress relieved, usually occupies a small part of the
total life, and is often neglected. In most cases it leads to small errors only, in
the conservative direction.

Cmck propagation
Having the means of determining the crack growth rate (Section 3.2.1), one
is able to make various estimates concerning crack growth, e.g. the time or
number of cycles required to grow a crack from one size to another:
 Section 3.2.2

This may be required when the structure is in service. E.g. a crack may
be detected and reported through the in-service inspection programme, and
decisions have to be taken whether this crack should be stopped, or allowed
to grow further, with due consideration to the actual material specification,
loading conditions, repair possibilities, and costs.

The crack propagation part of the fatigue life may be expressed as:

where : ai = initial crack length (depth)

af = final (critical) crack length (depth)

By inserting the relevant expressions for crack growth rate and stress
intensity, one is able to obtain an estimate of the fatigue crack propagation
life. Thus, by employing Eqs. (3.7,3.13) :

L . *. --- - ----- ---------- --- ----.I

&>

Constant terms need not be included in the integration, i.e.:

For constant amplitude loading, the integrand is further reduced, i.e.:

In the case of a very simple F-function the above integral may be

evaluated analytically, but generally numerical integration must be employed.
In cases where F does not depend on a (which are the exceptions),
Eq. (3.41) may be written as:
Section 3.2.2

This integral is easily evaluated analytically, i.e. :

Thus, for this simple case one obtains the following closed-form ex-
pression for the constant amplitude fatigue (crack propagation) life:

whenm # 2.

For structural steels and aluminium alloys 2 < rn < 6. For welded steel
joints 2.5 5 m 54.5. Thus, if ai 4 af, an approximate estimate of the constant
amplitude fatigue life is:
1-m/2
Np " -
ai
(3.45)
c Aom rmI2 P (m/2 - 1)
- , > ;-r ,.
&
,
-?
.

If the failure condition is brittle fracture, the critical crack length may
be estimated from Eq. (3.7):
-
Kmax - Omax * * F
which reads at failure:

and hence the critical crack length:

Remarks concerning fatigue life computations

Some words of warning to the novice within fatigue calculations, whether
based on fracture mechanics or not. The "correct" or "exact answers don 't
"

exist.
Results from deterministic fatigue calculations, as treated above, are
meaningful in a qualitative and relative sense, but must be used with care
and judgement when interpreted in an absolute sense. This is partly due to
the numerous uncertainties involved in a fatigue life computation, i.e. un-
certainties/weaknesses in the fatigue model, uncertainties linked with input
 Section 3.2.2

(material, loading and geometry) parameters due to e.g. lack or scarcity of

data, and - last but not least : the uncertainty incurred when trying to
predict - in a deterministic manner - an outcome of highly random nature.
One vital question might be: 'What is the prediction accuracy?'This
naturally depends on the computational accuracy, the accuracy of the fatigue
model, and the relevance and quality of input data. (Garbage in - garbage out!)
However, even if model - and statistical uncertainties were removed, how to
tackle randomness in a deterministic calculation?
- A "worst case"dpproach might lead to extremely conservative results
(with unknown reliability).
- A 'ymean-value'y-approach, i.e. employing mean values of the input
parameters, generally yields a fatigue life different from the mean
fatigue life.
In view of the above, it is of vital importance to bear in mind the
random nature of fatigue, and the many uncertainties involved, when working
with fatigue life computations.

Variable amplitude loading adds complexity to the problem of predicting

fatigue life; i.e. the definition of load/stress cycles - through cycle counting
methods (Chapter 4), and sequence or interaction effects (Chapter 4). The
most common approaches to the problem are given in the following.

Cy cle-by-cycle approach.
Crack length after n cycles:

Crack length increment (i.e. crack growth) in cycle "j":

where: ai = initial crack length

Cj = interaction coefficient, with value pertaining to cycle "j"
(a)= constant amplitude crack growth rate.
d N ~ ~
Thus, the interaction coefficient modifies the constant amplitude
growth rate to account for interaction, i.e. acceleration or retardation. Most
existing interaction models are retardation models. There is no proof that
Section 3.2.2

these models in general improve a fatigue life prediction. Hence, before taking
the step of including interaction in the computations, one should give close
consideration t o the stress history (irregularity factor, frequency and sign of
"overload" stress peaks, etc.), to decide whether significant interactions
are likely or not. Besides, neglecting retardation gives conservative results,
while accounting for retardation but not for acceleration might yield non-
conservative results.

Equivalent constant amplitude stress range approach.

In this approach a variable amplitude stress history is represented by an
equivalent constant amplitude stress range (Chapter 4) that causes the same
amount of fatigue damage, i.e. crack growth. This equivalent stress range may
be expressed as (Fig. 3.27a):

interval

Fig. 3.27 Stress range distribution (a) and histogram (b).

 Section 3.2.2

(3.5 1)

or as (Fig. 3.27b):

where: fA2(Ao) = probability density function of stress range (Ao)

fi = frequency of occurrence of stress range "i" (Aoi)
k = number of histogram class intervals
ni = number of cycles within interval "i"
NT = total number of cycles
Aoi = midpoint of histogram interval "i"
p = empirical or calibration constant
Special cases:
p = 3 -+ RMC (root-mean-cube) stress range
/3 = 2 -+ RMS (root-meansquare) stress range
fi = m = Slope of the crack growth equation a =C(AK)~
dN
+ no interaction

Interaction may be taken into account by adjusting P.

It is pointed out (Chapter 4) that:

- /3 = m is in effect a Miner-approach, in that crack growth increments
are added linearly, with no account of interaction.
- the approach has no sound theoretical basis, but is a very practical
empirical approach.

It is common practice to assume that the stress range Ao is Weibull

distributed, i.e.:

where: E= shape parameter of the distribution

0 = scale parameter of the distribution

The n'th moment of this distribution might be expressed as:

Section 3.2.3

where: r ( ) = gamma-function
Thus,
AU,, = {eo r ( i + p/g) = e { r ( i + pig)
The r-function may be approximated by simpler functions. The
following expression is a functional fit to the I'-function in the argument
range x c (3 .-6 .) ;
r(x) r 0.0076 exp (1.60 x ) + 1.26 (3.5 6)
and hence an approximate expression is:
Ao,, % 0 (0.0076 exp {1.6 x ) + 1.26)ltP (3.57)
where: x = 1 + PI,$.
i

\ *
\,
t d 2
"' I ' *

3.2.3 Fracture mechanics applied in the calculation of SN-curves

The Paris-equation for crack growth rate (Eq. 3.1 3) may be transformed to
the equation of an SN-curve through a simple integration. Thus, Eq. (3.41)
may be reformulated as:

where I is the integral in Eq. (3.4 1). This further yields:

and

The integral I depends on geometry (i.e. external- and crack-geometry),

and is only weakly dependent on stress through the critical crack size. This
influence is insignificant when af >> ai. Further, if initiation is absent or insig-
nificant, then Nf = Np and :

which is the equation of an SN-curve in the high-cycle region (N 5 lo4).

 Section 3.2.3

III
// Kmar=K c

(a) $-curve
m

/
/

-
/
,/
log C I
log AK

Log ad

(b) SN-curve

Log a 6
I

Fig.3.28 Relationship between a-

dN
and SN-curves.
Section 3.2.3
Equation (3.59) yields the following expressions:

where: m, C = exponent and coefficient in Paris' equation.

The close relationship between crack growth rate curves and SN-curves is
shown in Fig. 3.28 and Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Comparison of da/dN- and SN-curves.

Region da/dN-curve SN-curve

I Threshold region Fatigue limit region

(No - or intermittent (Infinite life)
growth)

I1 Intermediate region Finite life region

(Regular striation (Intermediate - and
growth. Paris' eq .) high-cycle region)

111 Failure region Lo w-cycle or static

(Fast fracture or failure region
yielding)
 Section 3.3
nrc 1
T 3.3 EXAMPLES
. # b ~of #36 c
f&~ ~ Sn R stress fleld.
Consider a crack extending through a tensile residual stress field (equal to
yield stress oy) under uniform tension, as shown in the figure. When a 4 by
Eq. (C. 1) in Appendix 3 .C yields:

tttt
Res i dua 1
stress

When a > b, from Eqs. (3.C. 1) and (3 .C.3) :

K = 1.122 ofia + $(oy-o) *fla(sin-':)* F():

where F(b/a) is given by Eq. (3.C.3).
Section 3.3

Example 2 - Estimation o f stress intensity factor related to a crack in a

transverse butt welded joint.
A crack is detected at the toe of the joint. Estimate K!

Data: i) Geometry.. . . - T = 20mm

- due t o specified requirement, 8 < 30' = 180'- @
- a = 1.0mm
- assumed crack shape, a/2c = 0.25
ii) Loading ... . - axial load, amax = 350 N/mm2

K = o*@*FSaFT*FE*FG Eqs. (3.7) and (3.8)

a/T= 1/20 = 0.05,+FT = 1.0 Fig. 3.16
FE = { I + 4.5945(0.25)1.65 }*.' = 0.82 Eq. (3.9)
q = log (1 1.584 - 0.0588 150)/log 200 Eq. (3.2 1)
= 0.19 , . /
FG = (5120)-'*I9 = 1.30 -, Eq. (3.21)
fs = 1 - 0.16(0.25) = 0.96 Eq. (3.10)
~k = 1.04 Fig. 3.14
Fs = 1.04 0.96= 1.0 Eq. (3.1 1)
KT = 350 4-0 1.0 1.0 0.82 1.30 Eqs. (3.7) and (3.8)

-
Example 3 Cracking in transverse stiffener weld.
Estimate K for a surface crack with depth 3 mm.

Data: i) Geometry . . . . - T = 40 mm
- assumed weld flank angle, 8 = 45"
- weld leg length, II = 20 mm
- a = 3mm
ii) Loading ... . - axial load, omax = 300 N/mm2
 Section 3.3

+
SCF= 1.62 1 log(20/40) 3.963 = 3.5 Eq. (3.28)
FG = 3.5 { 1 + 0.3602-' (3/40)OS2 13 ' r1 Eq. (3.26), Table 3.1
= 1.41
2c = 2.59 (3)OSg4 = 7.32 mm Eq. (3.33)
+= a/2c = 3/7.32 = 0.41

+
FE = { l 4.5945 (0.41)"~ }.'5 = 0.70 Eq.(3.9)
fs = 1-0.16*(0.41)= 0.93 Eq. (3.10)
F; = 0.98 Fig. 3.14
FS = 0.98 0.93 = 0.91 Eq. (3.1 1)
a/T = 3/40, -+ FT = 1.0 Fig. 3.16
KI = a - - * 0 . 9 1 - 1 . 0 - 0 . 7 0 - 1 . 4 1 Eqs.(3.7)and(3.8)
= 2.76 a = 829 ~ m m - ' .=~ 26.2 M P a r m
-

VB!
Let us assume that a very wide SAE 1020 plate is subjected to a constant
amplitude uniaxial cyclic loading that produce nominal stresses varying
from omax = 200 MPa to omin = -50 MPa. ,----6t;
What fatigue life would be attained if an initial through the thickness
edge crack were no greater than 0.5 mm in length? Kc = 104 MPafi.
Before we can solve this problem, several questions must be answered.
Namely,
- What is the applicable stress intensity factor expression for this com-
ponent and loading?
- What crack growth rate equation should be used?
 Section 3.3

- How do we integrate this equation?

- What value of AK will cause fracture?
- Does corrosion or temperature play an important part?

Let us assume that corrosive environment is not involved, and that

room temperature prevails. The Paris crack growth rate equation (Eq. 3.13) is
often a reasonable expression for region B (Fig. 3.1 7) crack growth behaviour.
Integration of the Paris equation involves numerical methods unless F from
Eq. (3.7) is independent of crack length. In an infinite plate with a single edge
crack loaded in uniform tension, F is constant and equal to 1.12. This is
approximately correct for a finite plate as long as the crack length does not
exceed about 10% of the width.

which is above threshold levels and hence the Paris equation is applicable.

The final crack length can be obtained by setting Kmax at fracture

equal to Kc, i.e.:

Eq. (3.48)

Constant amplitude fatigue life:

1 1 -

1 I A. A '
0.068)-~.~ - (0.0005)-~'~ Eq. (3.44)
, N~ = (-0.5) :6.9 10-I 2 ) ( 2 0 0 ) ~ (n)1.5 ( I . I 213

= 189 000 cycles

i.e. neglecting the negative
(m = 3 , C = 6.9 lo-' m / ( ~ ~ a J m ) ~, ,a = 200 MPa, of the stress cycle, )

Now let us assume that the fracture toughness Kc were incorrect by

a factor or divisor of 2, that is, Kc = 208 MPa T nor 52 MPa Jm. The final
r
fracture length from Eq. (3.48) would result in af = 270 mm and 17 mm,
respectively, and the corresponding fatigue life Nf from Eq. (3.44) in 198 000
and 17 1 000 cycles. Thus increasing or decreasing the fracture toughness by a
factor of 2 caused an increase or decrease in the final crack length by a factor
of 4, respectively. However, the corresponding changes in fatigue crack
growth life were less than 10%. If the initial crack length ai were 2.5 mm, the
life would be only 7.5 000 cycles, instead of 189 000 cycles for the original
problem with ai = 0.5 mm.
 Section 3.3

These calculations illustrate the importance of minimizing initial flaw -

or crack lengths to increase fatigue life, and that appreciable changes in
fracture toughness will alter final crack lengths, but produce small effects on
fatigue lives. Thus, Eq. (3.45) for a very long crack yields:

i.e. about 9% longer life than estimated above.

High fracture toughness in fatigue design, however, is still very desir-

able because larger crack lengths are easier to detect by inspection.

s. -
Consider a joint of the type in Example 3. How many fatigue loading cycles
can the joint endure without getting a "through crack", i.e. a crack that
completely penetrates the main plate?

Data: i) Geometry . . . . - plate thickness, T = 20 mm

- weld leg length, R = 10 mm
- weld flank angle, 8 = 45 degr.
- initial crack depth, ai = 0.1 5 mm
ii) Material . . . . - Paris eq. parameter, m = 3
iii) Loading . . . . - axia1,Ao = 2 0 0 ~ l m r n ~

C(Paris'eq.)= (1.315.10-') 2 8 . 3 1 ~=~5.8. 10-l2 Eq. (3.20)

B = 45 degr., -+ F: = 0.98 Fig. 3.14
+
SCF = 1.62 1 log (10120) 3.963 = 3.5 Eq. (3.28)

The computations are tabulated on the next pages. The fatigue life
integral I is evaluated numerically (Simpson).
This computation is too rough for general use, but shows the method.
Section 3.3

a (mm) a/T a/2c fS FS FT FE

a/2c from Eq. (3.33)

fs >> Eq.(3.10)
FT >> Fig. 3.16
FE >> Eq. (3.9)
FG >> Eq. (3.26) and Table 3.1
 ; - a;
Chapter 3. References
,--
I'-.- -- ,-.-.
-L- 7_A-

I = ' 0.5 (240 + 65) lo3 (0.5 - 0.15) lo-'

+ 0.5 (65 + 33) lo3 (1 .O - 0.5) lo-'
+ 0.5 (33 +
8.4)- lo3 (3.0 - 1.0) loe3 Eqs. (3.40)
+ 0.5 (8.4 +
5.5) lo3 (5.0 - 3.0) and (3.58)
+ 0.5 (5.5 + 2.5) lo3 (10.0-5.0)
+ 0.5 (2.5 +0.78)- 10' (20.0-10.0) lo-'

169.575
Np = 5.8 10-17 . .
(200)3 .
.nl.5
= 656 325 cycles Eq. (3.41)

, REFERENCES

1. Tada, H., Paris, P.C. and Irwin, G.R.:

The Stress Analysis of Cracks Handbook, Del Research Corporation Hellertown,
,Pennsylvania,1973.
2. Rooke, D.P. and Cartwright, D.J.:
Compendium of Stress Intensity Factors, London, HMSO, 1976.
3. Sih. G.C.:
Handbook of Stress Intensity Factors, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, Lehigh University,
1973.
4. Liebowitz, H. (Ed.):
Fracture (in 7 volumes). Academic Press, New York, 1968-70.
5. Sih, G.C. (Ed.):
Mechanics of Fracture (in 6 volumes). Noordhoff, Leyden, 1973.
6. Cartwright, D.J. and Rooke, D.P.:
"Evaluation of stress intensity factors", J. Strain Analysis, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1975,
pp. 217-224.
7. Kobayashi, A.S. :
Experimental Techniques in Fracture Mechanics. SESA, Connecticut, 1973.
Chapter 3. References

8. Luxmore, A.R. and Owen, D.R.J. (Ed.):

Proc. Int. Conf. Numer. Methods Frac. Mech., Swansea, 1978.
Luxmore, A.R. and Owen, D.R.J. (Ed .):
Proc. Second Int. Conf. Numer. Methods Frac. Mech., Swansea, 1980.
9. Rooke, DP., Baratta, F.I. and Cartwright, D.J.:
"Simple Methods of Determining Stress Intensity Factors", Engng. Fract. Mech.,
Vol. 14,1981, pp. 397-426.
10. Cartwright, D.J. and Rooke, D.P. :
"Approximate Stress Intensity Factors Compounded from Known Solutions", Engng.
Fract. Mech., Vol6,1974, pp. 563-571.
11. Rooke, D.P. and Cartwright, D.J. :
"The Compounding Method Applied to Cracks in Stiffened Sheets", Engng. Fract.
Mech., Vol. 8,1976, pp. 567-573.
12. Besuner ,P.M. :
"The Influence Function Method for Fracture Mechanics and Residual Fatigue Life
Analysis of Cracked Components under Complex Stress Fields", Nuclear Engng. and
Design, Vol. 43, No. 1,1977, pp. 115-154.
13. Labbens, R., Pellissier-Tanon, A. and Heliot, J. :
"Practical Method for Calculating Stress Intensity Factors through Weight Functions",
Mechanics of Crack Growth, ASTM STP 590,1976, pp. 368-384.
14. Engesvik, K.M. :
Analysis of Uncertainties in The Fatigue Capacity of Welded Joints, Dr. ing. disserta-
tion, Division of Marine Structures, The University of Trondheim, The Norwe'gian
Institute of Technology, Trondheim, 1981.
15. Albrecht, P. and Yarnada, K. :
"Rapid Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors", Journal of the Struct. Div., ASCE,
Proc. Paper 12742, Vol. 103, No. ST2,1977, pp. 377-389.
16. Zettlemoyer, N. and Fisher, J.W.:
"Stress Gradient Correction Factor for Stress Intensity at Welded Stiffeners and
Cover Plates", Welding Research Supplement, Vol. 56, No. 12, 1977, pp. 3934 - 398-s.
17. Zettlemoyer, N. and Fisher, J.W. :
"Stress Gradient Correction Factor for Stress Intensity at Welded Gusset Plates",
Welding Research Supplement, Vol. 57, No. 2,1978, pp. 57-s - 62-s.
18. Zettlemoyer, N. and Fisher, J.W. :
"Stress Gradient and Crack Shape Effects on Stress Intensity at Welded Details",
-
Welding Research Supplement, Vol. 57, No. 8,1978, pp. 246-s 250-s.
19. Maddox, S.J.:
"An analysis of fatigue cracks in fillet welded joints", Int. Journ. Fracture, Vol. 11,
No. 2, 1975, pp. 221-243.
 Chapter 3. References

20. Newman, Jr. J.C.:

"A Review and Assessment of the Stress-Intensity Factors for Surface Cracks",
Part-Through Crack Fatigue Life Prediction, ASTM STP 687.1979, pp. 16-42.
2 1. Broek, D. :
Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Noordhoff Int. Publ., 1974.
22. Paris, P. and Erdogan, F.:
"A Critical Analysis of Crack Propagation Lawsy', Journ. Basic Engng., Dec. 1963,
pp. 528-534.
23. Klesnil, M. and Lukas, P.:
"Influence of Strength and Stress History on Growth and Stabilisation of Fatigue
Cracks", Engng. Fract. Mech., Vol. 4,1972, pp. 77-92.
24. Forman, R.G., Kearney, V.E. and Engle, R.M.:
"Numerical Analysis of Crack Propagation in Cyclic-Loaded Structures", J. Basic
Engng., 89,1967, pp. 459-464.
25. Erdogan, F. and Ratwani, M. :
Int. Journ. Fract. Mech., 6,1970, p. 379.
26. Hartman, A. and Schijve, J. :
Engng. Fract. Mech., 1,1970, p. 615.
27. Schiitz, W. :
"Procedures for the prediction of fatigue life of tubular joints", Int. Conf. on Steel
in Marine Structures, Paris, 1981, pp. 254-308.
28. Austen, I.M. and Walker, E.F.:
Research Report PT/6795/8/77/A.
29. Gurney, T.R.:
An Analysis of Some Fatigue Crack Propagation Data for Steel Subjected to Pulsating
Tension Loading, Report 5911978/E, The Welding Institute, March, 1978.
30. Gurney, T.R.:
Fatigue of Welded Structures, 2nd ed., Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979.
3 1. Frank, K.H. and Fisher, J .W.
:
"Fatigue Strength of Fillet Welded Cruciform Joints", Journal of the Structural
Division, Vol. 105, No. ST9,1979, pp. 1727- 1740.
32. Yarnada, K. and Hirt, M.A.:
"Fatigue Crack Propagation from Fillet Weld Toes", Journ. Struct. Div., ASCE, Vol.
108, No. ST7, July 1982, pp. 1526-1540.
33. Albrecht,P.:
Fatigue Strength of Welded Beams with Stiffeners, Ph.D. dissertation, Lehigh Univ.,
1972.
Appendix 3 .A

34. Rolfe, S.T. and Barsom, J.M.:

Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures. Applications of Fracture Mechanics,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977.
35. Lawrence, Jr. F.V., Mattos, R.J., Higashida, Y. and Burk, J.D.:
"Estimating the Fatigue Crack Initiation Life of Welds'', Fatigue Testing of Weldments,
ASTM STP 648,1978, pp. 134-158.
36. Tada, H. and Irwin, G.R.:
"K-value Analysis for Cracks in Bridge Structures", (Rough draft review copy),
Fritz Engineering Lab. Rept. No. 399.1, June 1975.

APPENDIX 3.A CONVERSION TABLES

Stress in tensity factor

M P a 6 ksifi ~ m m - ~ kp
' ~ mm-3'2

MPa 6 1 0.9101 3 1.623 3.223 5

ksifi 1.0988 1 34.747 3.5420

~ m r n - ~ " 0.03 1623 0.028780 1 0.10194

kp mm-3'2 0.3 1022 0.28233 9.8067 1
A

Stress

MPa ksi N/mm2 kp/mm2

MPa 1 0.1449 1 0.1019

ksi 6.904 1 6.9033 0.7037

N/mm2 1 0.1449 1 0.1019
kp/mm2 9 3067 1.421 1 9 24067 1
Appendix 3 .C

Fig. 3.C.19.

Fig. 3.C.20.

The stress intensity factors are given by the following formulas

Where :
a. When the local in-plane transverse displacement near the cracked
section is not restrained Fig. 3 .C. 1 9.

(Better than 2%for any a/w.)

b. When the local transverse displacement is also restrained (Fig. 3.C.20).

(3.C. 15)
2w
(Exact)
 Appendix 3 .C

(Better than 0.5% for any a/w.)

(C-3) Concentrated splitting forces (Green's function), Fig. 3 .C. 18.

Fig. 3.C.18.

(Better than 2% for any b/a and a/w.)

It should be noted that the solutions illustrated above are valid only
when the displacement of the strip is free from constraint. In actual structures,
any connected structural member is under constraints imposed by the connec-
tions. When a crack occurs in a certain component, its compliance increases
and load and deformation are redistributed between members. Thus, the
boundary condition is not displacement-free but displacement-limited.

(C-4) Examples of displacement constrained strip with a single edge crack

are given in Figs. 3.C.19, 3.C.20. The inplane transverse displacement at
infinity is restrained.
Appendix 3.C

(C-I) Uniform tension, Figs. 3 .C. 1 5 , 3 .C. 1 6 .

Fig. 3.C.15.

-
d d
-
I A
C
a
- -
a
,
W

Fig. 3.C.16.

0.752 + 2.02a + 0.37(1- ~ i n x ) ~

F(a/w) = J2-w tan-aa w 2w (3.C. 1 1)
aa 2w COS-
na
2w
(Better than 0.5%for any alw.)

(C-2) Uniform bending, Fig. 3 .C. 1 7.

d

-6 -6
Fig. 3.C.17.
 Appendix 3.C

(3.C. 10)

(Much better than 5%; better than 2% for S 2 0.5.)

When b = 0
+ 0.03S2+ 0.89S3
F(0,S) = 1.10- 0.60ss3/2

(Better than 2% for any S.)

C. An edge crack in a long strip, Fig. 3.C.14.

Fig. 3.C.14.

Stress intensity factor solutions are known for various loading conditions for
this geometry. Only approximate formulas and their accuracies are given for
several basic cases. For more information se /I/, pp. 2.10-2.2 1 and 2.25-2.29.
Appendix 3.C

(B-2) Linearly varying stress (in-plane bending), Fig. 3 .C. 1 2.

Fig. 3 .C. 1 2.

(Better than 1% for any S.)

(B-3) Concentrated splitting forces (Green's function), Fig. 3 .C.13.

Fig. 3.C.13.
 Appendix 3 .C

Fig. 3.C.10.

is relatively small, the solutions for the configuration shown in Fig. 3.C.10
may be of some value for estimating stress intensity factors.

(B-1 ) Uniform normal stress, Fig. 3 .C. 1 1.

Fig. 3.C.11.

(Better than 1% for any S.)

Appendix 3.C

Fig. 3.C.8.

within 4% accuracy. For the example shown in Fig. 3 .C.8, K is estimated

at
K 1.122 0,6+
1.255 K, (3 .C.7)
and the accuracy improves as o o / o increases. (Even when o0 = 0,
accuracy is within 476.)
Although this method applies to the case where the stress distribution
changes its sign over the crack length, the accuracy is not expected
to be as good.

B. An edge crack in half-plane (free boundary consists of two straight lines),

Fig. 3.C.10.
In welded structures or components, surface cracks often initiate in the
residual stress zone near the welding as shown in Fig. 3.C.9. When the crack

c Crack

Fig. 3.C.9.
 Appendix 3.C

Fig. 3.C.6.

entire crack.) A complicated, more rigorous analysis may not be justi-

fied.
4. When a more accurate value is desirable, K estimate is improved by se-
parating non-uniform stress into uniform stress and non-uniform stress
as shown in Fig. 3 .C.8.
From Equations (3 .C. 1) through (3 .C.4), the ranges of free surface
correction factors K / K , for various non-uniform stress distributions
are known (Fig. 3.C.7) and the values at the middle of the range are

Fig. 3.C.7.
Appendix 3 .C

(A-4) Concentrated splitting forces (Green 's function), Fig. 3 .C.5.

Fig. 3 .C.5.
2P
K= - 1 F (b3
6 ,hi (better than 2% for any b/a) (3.C.4)
b E 1.30 0.30
FG) - (-b-) 3/2

F(b/a) is the free surface correction factor.

Note:
1. For any non-uniform stress distributions, stress intensity factors are
obtained by integration of Equation (3.C.4).
2. Equation (3.C.4) shows that the correction factor for a single free
surface

for any normal stress distribution as long as the normal stress has the
same sign over the entire crack length.
K, is the solution for the infinite plane with geometry and loading
configuration reflected across the free boundary, Fig. 3 .C.6.
For the infinite plane problem, the exact Green's function is known
(in Eq. (3.C.4), F(b/a) = 1) and K, calculations are considerably simpler.
3. In engineering practice, when only the rough idea with acceptable
accuracy will suffice, one can simply estimate K as

without causing substantial error. The error is never beyond 15% and
usually much less. (When the normal stress has the same sign over the
 Appendix 3.C

(A-2) Linearly varying stress (in-plane bending), Fig. 3 .C.3.

Fig. 3 .C.3.

K = 0.439 o f i
(accurate)
= 1.210 (1 - +) o f i -
The factor representing free surface influences is 1.2 10.

(A-3) Partially distributed constant pressure, Fig. 3 C.4.

Fig. 3.C.4.

K = 2 o+ (sin-'
7T
(better than 2% for any b/a) (3.C.3)
b -)" 1.30 -0.18 b 5/2
F(T) (T)

F(b/a) is the free surface correction factor.

APPENDIX 3.C A SMALL COMPENDIUM OF STRESS
INTENSITY FACTORS
(From "K-value analysis for cracks in bridge structures",
by Tada and Irwin 1361.)
3 .C.l Two-dimensional edge crack problems
When surface cracks have a large surface length-todepth ratio, solutions for
two-dimensional edge crack problems provide approximate stress intensity
factors for the region near the deepest crack edge.

A. An edge crack in half-plane (straight free boundary) (Fig. 3 .C. 1)

Fig. 3.C.1.

Stress intensity factors for various loading conditions are known for this
geometry. Only approximate formulas and their estimated accuracies will be
presented for several basic stress distributions. For more information see / 1/
pp. 8.1-8.8.

(A-1) Uniform tension, Fig. 3 .C.2.

Fig. 3 .C.2.

K = 1.122-ov7iT (accurate) (3.C.1)

The factor representing free surface influence is 1.122.

 Appendix 3 .B

APPENDIX 3B GENERAL REFERENCES

Textbooks
Knott, J.F.:
Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics, Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd., 1973.
Frost, N.E., Marsh, K.J. and Pook. L.P.:
Metal Fatigue, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1974.
Broek, D. :
Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Noordhoff Int. Publ., 1974.
Rolfe, S.T. and Barsom, J.M.:
Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures. Applications of Fracture Mechanics,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977.
Gurney, T.R. :
Fatigue of Welded Structures, 2nd ed., Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979
Hellan, K. :
Bruddmekanikk, Tapir, Trondheirn, 1979 (in Norwegian).
Cherepanov, G.P. :
Mechanics of Brittle Fracture, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1979.
Fuchs, H.O. and Stephens, R.I.:
Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1980.
Parker, A.P. :
The Mechanics of Fracture and Fatigue, W. & F.N. Spon Ltd, 1981.

Journals
- Engineering Fracture Mechanics
- Fatigue of Engineering Materials and Structures
- International Journal of Fatigue
- International Journal of Fracture
- Journal of Applied Mechanics, ASME
- Journal of Strain Analysis
- Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE
- Metal Construction
 Appendix 3.C
Equation (3 .C. 14) is 12 to 30 percent larger than Equation (3.C. 15).
When the strip has attachments such as stiffeners, Equation (3.C.15) is ex-
pected t o give reasonable estimates for stress intensity factors. An edge crack
in the flange plate of a beam is a typical example in practical structures.

3.C.2 Elliptical cracks

Completely embedded crack
Approximate influence function (i.e. stress intensity at boundary point A
corresponding t o the parametric angle @, due to unit splitting forces applied
at point B (Figs. 3.C.21,3.C.22)):

h# = h&,y,afiA) +- .*.R
= nw2 , Q2
J a T
(3.C.16)
(1-k2 - C O S ~ # ) ~ . ~ ~
where: $ = angle (Fig. 3 .C.2 1)
R,r,R= lengths (Fig. 3 C.22)
k2 = 1 - ( a / ~ ) ~
a2 = ( ( ~ / a +
) ~( y / ~ ) ~
x,y = coordinates for point B

itting
ces P=l
B

Fig. 3.C.21. Fig. 3.C.22.

When # = 0 and 7r/2, Eq. (3 .C. 16) specializes to:

hj(a,c,x,~)= 6 .C
nl.s * Q;
where: (next page)
Appendix 3.C

j = 1 , 2 corresponds to Q, = n/2 , O .
+
r = (x2 y2 )Oa5
+
C = la)^ (y/cl2 )-' - 1)0-5= { a - 2 - 1 }0-5

Thus, approximate stress intensity factors are obtained as:

The influences of free surfaces might be taken into account through correc-
tion factors.
Eq. (3.C.16) is exact for k = 0 (a = c), and the loss of accuracy for
moderate increases of k is expected to be relatively small. Numerical inte-
gration trials and comparisons with known solutions indicate that Eq. (3 .C. 16)
yields an upper bound estimate of K. The accuracy (within +(5-lo)%) is best
when q5 is close to ~ / 2 .
 CHAPTER 4

BASIC FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF

WELDED JOINTS

Stig Berge
Norges tekniske hsgskole, Trondheim

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this chapter is to give a basic understanding of the fatigue
properties of metals in general and of welded steels specifically. The following
topics are discussed :
- Basic fatigue mechanisms, characteristics of fatigue failures, and metho-
dologies for fatigue strength assessment.
- Constant amplitude (SN) testing, types of tests, test specimen vs.
structural behaviour in fatigue loading.
- Cyclic strain and material response, total strain response to fatigue
loading.
- Variable amplitude loading, cycle counting methods, load spectra.
- Cumulative damage, the Miner summation, equivalent stress range.
- Fatigue of welded joints, effects of geometry, residual stresses, material
properties.
- SN data for welded joints, classification of joint types, statistical
analysis of SN data, assessment of design curves.

LIST OF SYMBOLS
Unless otherwise indicated, symbols in this chapter are according to the
following standards, cf. Annual Book of ASTM Standards Part 10:
E6 -81 Methods of Mechanical Testing
E206-72 (1979) Fatigue Testing and the Statistical Analysis of Fatigue
Data
E5 13-74 (1980) Constant-Amplitude Low-Cycle Fatigue Testing
E6 16-8 1 Fracture Testing
Chapter 4. List of symbols
elongation at fracture (ISO/DIS 82-1 972)
cross sectional area of unstressed specimen
cross sectional area at fracture
crack length
fatigue strength exponent
crack growth rate parameter
fatigue ductility exponent
modulus of elasticity
engineering strain
irregularity factor
stress intensity factor
fracture toughness
plain strain fracture toughness
fatigue notch factor
stress intensity maximum in one cycle
stress intensity minimum in one cycle
elastic or theoretical stress concentration factor
range of stress intensity in one cycle
threshold stress intensity range for crack growth
gauge length of unstressed specimen
increment of gauge length
crack growth exponent
fatigue life, number of cycles to failure
number of stress cycles endured
number of cycles with same stress range
load at fracture
fatigue notch sensitivity
stress ratio = omin/oma = Kmin/Kmax
notch root radius
nominal stress
stress amplitude
variable component of stress
equivalent stress range
fatigue limit
mean stress
steady component of stress
maximum stress in one cycle
minimum stress in one cycle
 Section 4.1

fatigue strength at N cycles

yield tensile stress
ultimate tensile stress
range of stress, stress range
maximum stress range in a load history
reduction of area at fracture (ISO/DIS 82-1972)
true strain, based on actual (strained) cross section
elastic strain
strain at fracture, fracture ductility in monotonic loading
fatigue ductility coefficient
plastic strain
total strain
strain range in one cycle
elastic strain range in one cycle
plastic strain range in one cycle
spectral shape parameter
true stress, based on actual (strained) cross section
stress at fracture in monotonic loading
fatigue strength coefficient
maximum stress in one cycle
minimum stress in one cycle
monotonic yield stress
cyclic yield stress
stress range in one cycle
effective stress range

4.1 BASIC FATIGUE MECHANISMS AND CHARACTERISTICS

Fatigue may be defined as a process of cycle by cycle accumulation of damage
in a material undergoing fluctuating stresses and strains. A significant feature
of fatigue is that the load is not large enough to cause immediate failure.
Instead, failure occurs after a certain number of load fluctuations have been
experienced, i.e. after the accumulated damage has reached a critical level.
In fatigue, the most important load effect parameter is the fluctuating
component of stress or strain, commonly referred to as stress or strain range,
defined as the difference between a load peak and the subsequent valley.
The mean or peak levels of loading are of relatively minor importance as
compared to the range of stress.
Section 4.1.1

A fatigue process will go through several stages, from the initial state
of the material t o final fracture, each stage characterized by the nature of
the fatigue process. For a smooth or notched (machined) component of
a metallic material, the stages are commonly denoted
Stage I: Initiation or crack nucleation
Stage 11: Crack growth
Stage 111: Final failure

A brief discussion of these stages will be given, with emphasis on the

phenomenological aspects.

4.1.1 Fatigue initiation

Fatigue initiation is a process of cumulative plastic strain. The development
of plastic strain is associated with dislocation mobility, which is greater at
a free surface than in the bulk of the material. Hence, fatigue initiation is
in general a surface phenomenon. Only in rare cases, for example at the
interface between the carburized layer and the core of case hardened steels,
have fatigue cracks been observed to initiate in the interior of a material.
The term "surface" in the context of fatigue initiation refers to exterior as
well as interior surfaces. An embedded weld defect, for example, represents
a free surface where fatigue initiation may take place in the same way as on
an exterior surface.
Fatigue initiation is linked to microscopic material behaviour. Under
cyclic strain, the macroscopic plastic deformation in each cycle will cancel
out, cf. Fig. 4.1. Microscopically, however, defects produced in the lattice
structure by the cycling will accumulate, leading t o a progressive fatigue
damage.

Fig. 4.1 Cyclic stress-strain response in a metallic material (schematic).

 Section 4.1.2

In crystalline materials, plastic deformation, or slip, takes place in

preferred directions and along preferred crystallographic planes. Microscopic
slip may occur in single grains at stresses below the general yield stress of the
material. Due to oxidation of the newly created free surfaces and hardening
of the strained material, reversed slip tends to take place on neighbouring slip
planes. The cumulative effect of this process is to cause a cyclic weakening
of the material, giving rise to a band of concentrated slip, a so-called per-
sistent slip band which develops by localized plastic flow into extrusions
and intrusions on the surface (Fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.2 The development of persistent slip bands, extrusions and intrusions
by cyclic slip.

An intrusion is clearly a nucleus of a crack, which may develop into

what is commonly denoted Stage I crack growth. In Stage I, crack growth
takes place on cry~tallographicslip planes, in a shear mode. This implies that
in this stage, cracks are of subgrain size, and oriented 45' to the maximum
principal stress direction.
No rational theory seems to exist for the crack initiation and Stage I
crack growth. Commonly these two stages are denoted "initiation", or "crack
nucleation", and characterized through material parameters relating macro-
scopic stress and strain to initiation life, cf. Section 4.3.

4.1.2 Crack growth

After initiation and Stage I crack growth, the crack will in general change
mode and the growth direction will become perpendicular to the largest
principal cyclic stress. (There are exceptions, for example torsional fatigue
of cylindrical bars, where cracks may grow in shear modes.) In this stage,
the maximum principal stress, and not the shear stress, will be the driving
force.
Section 4.1.2

As has been discussed in detail Sec. 3.2.1, the stress and strain fields
in the vicinity of a sharp crack under essentially elastic conditions is uniquely
characterized through a single parameter, the stress intensity factor K, which
is a function of the applied load (or nominal stress), crack length and shape,
and external geometry. Assuming the crack growth increment in a load cycle
to be a function of stresses and strains at the crack tip, then crack growth
rates should correlate to the range of the stress intensity factor AK. This
has indeed proved to be a valid assumption, and the general crack growth
rates for Mode I cracks in metals are as shown in Fig. 4.3.

/ R e g i o n 111
UnstabLe
fracture
R e g i o n 11
Stable
crack

Region I
Inltlation
threshold

*Kt h Log A K

Fig. 4.3 Crack growth rate curve showing the three regions
discussed in the text.

The virtue of this discovery is that it allows for fatigue crack growth
life calculations of any geometry, provided a crack growth rate curve for
the particular material has been established by simple specimen tests. The
details of such analyses are discussed in Secs. 3.2.2, 3.3, 10.3 and 1 1.5.
The sigmoidal shape of the crack growth curve in Fig. 4.3 suggests a
subdivision into three regions. In Region I, the crack growth rate goes asymp-
totically to zero as AK approaches a threshold value AKth. This means that
for stress intensities below AKth there is no crack growth, i.e. there is a
fatigue limit. The threshold effect is believed to be caused by a complicated
synergism of processes which leads to crack blocking for small stress inten-
sities. Corrosion deposits in the crack, surface oxidation, fracture surface
microroughness, and residual plastic strains from the crack tip zone are
believed to be important mechanisms contributing t o the threshold. The
threshold level depends on stress parameters like mean stress, residual stresses,
and stress interaction (stress memory) effects. Environmental effects are also
very important. Sea water submersion, particularly under cathodic protection
 Section 4.1.2

conditions, tends to increase the threshold level, most probably through

crack blocking by corrosion products or by calcarious deposits. This is further
discussed in Sec. 7.3

c
lo5,
c
lo9, 10 20
50 100
10 20 50 K)O
AMPLITUDE OF STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
AMPLITUDE OF STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
A K / 2 kglmm)i7
AK12 kglrnrf?''

Fig. 4.4 Crack growth rate as a function of stress ratio for two high tensile
steels (Ref. 171).

Typical threshold data for a high-tensile steel in constant amplitude

loading are shown in Fig. 4.4. For partly negative stresses, the growth rates
seem to follow the range of the positive part of the cycle

AK,ff = K,, - AK
- -
1 -R
where

This indicates that the negative part of the load cycle is nondamaging.
It is generally assumed that crack closure is responsible for this effect. For
R > 0,i.e. tensile stresses, the threshold effects cannot be explained by simple
concepts.
Section 4.1 -2

A popular form of the crack growth relation in the threshold region is

In this formula, the threshold value AKth is t o be inserted appropriate to the

mean stress and other parameters of importance. For welded joints, in which
residual stresses tend t o prevail over any applied mean stress, this formula has
proved t o be sufficient for many types of analysis.

Region I1 crack growth follows a power law, the so-called Paris-Erdogan

crack growth law,

This part of the curve is the basis of most finite life fatigue analyses of welded
joints, cf. Secs. 3.2.1, 10.3 and 11.5.

As indicated in Fig. 4.4, Region I1 crack growth rates at stress ratios

R > 0.4 are relatively insensitive to mean stress. For R < 0, i.e. partly negative
stresses, the growth rates are seen t o follow the range of the positive part
of the cycle, cf. Eq. (4.1). This indicates that the negative part of the cycle
is non-damaging, as would be anticipated if crack closure occurs for negative
stresses.
The description of the mean stress independency for R > 0.4 is valid
only in non-corrosive environments. In sea water with cathodic protection,
particularly with high strength steels, high mean stresses may cause an accele-
ration of crack growth rates which is quite significant, cf. Sec. 7.3.
Region I1 crack growth rates for steels are remarkably insensitive to
material properties. In Fig. 4.5 are shown mean curves for three different
generic classes of steels: ferritic-pearlitic, martensitic, and austenitic stainless.
The difference between these three mean curves is of the same order of
magnitude as the inherent scatter in crack growth data (Ref. /8/).
In Fig. 4.6 are shown data for different structural steels: plate material,
heat-affected zone, and weld metal. No significant difference is seen between
the different materials (Ref. 191).
A similar trend has been found for aluminium alloys. In fact, crack
growth data for structural aluminium alloys and steel may be brought on a
common basis by the equation
 Section 4.1.2

AK, k s l K

10 15
I I X) 25

RANGE OF STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR .AK Nmm- f

Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6

Crack growth rate curves for three Crack growth rates for various types of
different classes of steels (Ref. 181). weld metal, plate, and heat-affected
zones in structural steels (Ref. 191).

This means that the stress which gives equal fatigue crack growth rates
in these two materials, is three times larger in steel than in aluminium. From
this fact, and from fatigue testing of aluminium weldments, fatigue design
rules for welded aluminium structures have been assessed by simply taking the
design SNsurves for corresponding welds in steel and divide the stresses by
three (Ref. /lo/). This corresponds to the ratio of specific weight between
steel and aluminium, which indicates that in terms of weight-saving, alumi-
nium has no advantage over steel in fatigue design of welded structures.

Region I11 crack growth is exhibiting a rapidly increasing growth rate

towards "infinity", i.e. ductile tearing and/or brittle fracture. Using concepts
of linear-elastic fracture mechanics (which for most engineering materials
is strictly not valid in this range), instability occurs when
Section 4.1.2

This has led to the conception of parametric crack growth laws covering
Region 111, like the Forman's equation, which is much used in aircraft design,

The material constants C and m in Eq. (4.8) are not necessarily equal t o those
of Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4).

Crack growth in Region I11 is of minor importance for marine structures

design. The reason for this is that if Region I11 crack growth becomes impor-
tant, the cycle rate and the load spectra for most marine structures is such
that final fracture will be imminent. Exceptions to this would be structures
with a low natural frequency, causing large peak loads with a very low proba-
bility of occurrence. Functional loads may also have the same characteristics.
The sigmoidal shape of the crack growth curves leads to considerable
complications in fracture mechanics calculations, even if simplified parametric
equations are used in order to describe the different regions. A commonly
used engineering approximation is shown in Fig. 4.7. Region I1 crack growth
by the Paris-Erdogan formula (Eq. (4.4)) is assumed, and the threshold is
approximated by a cut-off. The cut-off model is conservative in the thres-
hold region, and the deviation from a more accurate model is in many cases
negligible in relation to the uncertainty associated with an assessment of the
threshold. In many cases this uncertainty is so great that practical calculations
are performed with a straight-line extrapolation of the Region I1 crack growth
curve as shown in Fig. 4.7. With this "engineering crack growth curve",
fracture mechanics calculations become much simplified.

log A K

Fig. 4.7 Actual da/dN curve (solid) and two approximations for the threshold
region commonly applied in engineering calculations.
 Section 4.1.2

In summary, for most engineering purposes, a crack growth law of the

Paris-Erdogan type (Eq. (4.4)) is appropriate. Fatigue crack growth rates
of structural steels in air seem to fall within a common scatterband. Threshold
effects need to be considered for each case, taking into account residual
stresses and mean stresses in particular. Typical values of C, m, and AKth
are given in Table 4.la-b. The influence of sea water environments and of
cathodic protection is discussed in detail in Chapter 7.

Table 4.la Fatigue crack parameters C and m (Eq. (4.4)) for C-Mn structural
steels BS 4360 Grade 50 or similar, in air.

C ( 2 - ) m Validity Comments Ref.

(MPa flm)m

7.1 10-l2 3.0 R>0.0 Mean values 42

5.32 1 0 " ~ 2.53 R > 0.0 Upper bound 42
5.9 lo-'* 3.15 RZO.O
Mean values 43
AK < 22 M P a 6
2.8 10-l1 2.65 R Z 0.0
Mean values 43
AK > 22 M P a d E
3.9 10-l2 3.1 R > 0.0 Mean values 44
5.2 10'12 3.0 R=O Mean values 9
9.5 lo-'* 3.0 R=O Upper bound 9

Table 4 . l b Fatigue crack growth thresholds compiled in Ref. 1451. Air data.

AKth (MPaJm)
Sy (MPa) Material
R = 0.0 R = 0.8
8.2 3 .O 309 Mild steel
7.8
12.3
7.7
12.5
3 .O
3.7
3.3
2.5
232

:ii
399
1 Mild steel
Medium carbon
steels
8.2 2.6 479 ASTM A 533 B
Section 4.1.3 - 4.1.4

4.1.3 Final failure

If a fatigue failure in a load-carrying member is allowed to progress, final
failure will inevitably take place at some stage of crack growth (disregarding
other types of limit states which may have been reached before final failure).
Final failure may occur by basically three mechanisms: brittle fracture,
ductile fracture, and plastic collapse, depending on the toughness of the
material, temperature, loading rate, plate thickness, and constraint. A dis-
cussion of these topics is given in Chapter 9. In a fatigue life assessment,
final failure represents the end of the fatigue life, commonly defined by SN
tests or by a maximum tolerable defect size in crack growth calculations.

4.1.4 Characteristics of fatigue failures

In this section, characteristics of fatigue failures will be discussed with refe-
rence to typical details of welded offshore structures.
In Fig. 4.8 are shown the fracture surfaces from fatigue failure of
an offshore structure (Ref. 11 11). Two features are to be noted, typical of
high cycle fatigue of offshore structures:
- The material has undergone only minor plastic strain, i.e. the strains
have been essentially elastic.
- The fracture surface is smooth, with characteristic beachmarks reflect-
ing the variations in load intensity through interchanging periods of
storms and calmer weather.

By microscopic examination, striations representing single cycle ad-

vancements of the crack tip may also be observed. In high-cycle fatigue,
however, it is not possible to associate these striations with cycle-by-cycle
crack growth, due to the fact that crack growth does not occur simultaneously
along the crack front. On a certain location, the crack may advance in one
cycle, and then be arrested during the subsequent cycle(s) while the crack
grows in other locations along the crack front. The da/dN rate measured
experimentally is thus a measure of an average crack growth rate along the
crack front. Only in special cases, generally with large growth rates in ductile
and very homogeneous materials, may growth rates be inferred from cycle-
by-cycle striations. In engineering steels, the crack advances partly by ductile
mechanisms, partly by cleavage of individual grains, and striations are in
general difficult t o observe except in areas of large crack growth rates (Fig.
4.9).
 Section 4.1.4

Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9

Fracture surfaces showing beachmarks Striations on the fracture surface
resulting from a variable amplitude shown in Fig. 4.8 (Ref. / I I/).
load history. Crack growth direction
from bottom to top (Ref. / 1 11).
Section 4.1.4

For a design engineer, the development of crack length vs. time in a

fatigue failure is an important aspect, with bearing on defect significance,
quality control, inspection strategy, and redundancy requirements. Features
of fatigue failures may be illustrated by examples.
Crack growth through the plate thickness in a plane weld is illustrated
in Fig. 4.10. An initial toe defect of 0.05 mm has been assumed, typical of
manual welds. The feature to be noted is the extremely rapid acceleration
of growth after the crack has reached a length of some few millimeters. This
is typical for crack growth in plane unstiffened structures, where cracks
will tend to advance with a straight crack front (small aspect ratio). The
acceleration of crack growth is then reflecting the power-law growth of
Eq. (4.4).

Fig. 4.10 Fatigue crack growth from the toe of a cruciform joint, as obtained
by computer simulation.

A similar behaviour is seen for cracks growing from cut-outs in un-

stiffened structures. A special case are cut-outs in tubular braces, Figs. 4.1 1
and 4.12. Even though the crack is growing away from a stress concentrator,
the growth rate accelerates rapidly after the crack has reached a length of
some few millimeters. The reason for this is that the cut-out itself may be
regarded as part of the crack when a > d/ 10. In fracture mechanics terms:
 Section 4.1 -4

Fig. 4.1 1 (left): Crack growth from a cut-out. A short crack will sense the hot
spot stress at the cut-out as a homogeneous field. A long crack will
sense the average stress, but with the cut+ut as a part of the crack,
leading to an accelerated crack growth rate, cf. Fig. 4.12.
Fig. 4.1 2 (right): Crack growth from a circular cut-out in a tubular brace
(Ref. 1111).

K 1 K~ s (n a)'/* for a/d 0.1

K1S*[n-(a+d/2)]"~ foralds0.1

leading to a crack growth behaviour as shown.

A consequence of this is that for the geometries in Figs. 4.10 and 4.1 1,
any engineering size weld defect will have a very detrimental effect on fatigue
life. Moreover, the time to failure after the crack has reached a detectable
size may be too short for inspection routines to be reliable. Therefore, a
sudden loss of load-carrying capacity of single members should be considered
in the design of fatigue loaded structures.
For stiffened members the progress of crack growth is somewhat diffe-
rent. In Fig. 4.13, a crack growing in a stiffened plate is shown. In this case,
redistribution of stresses to the stiffeners will take place during crack growth.
The net effect is a reduction in stress intensity, and a retardation of growth
Section 4.1.4

Fig. 4.13 Fatigue loaded stiffened plate (a) and stress intensity factor for a
crack growing perpendicular to the stringers (b). Crack growth rate
(c) and crack length (d). Also shown in Fig. (d) is crack growth for
an unstiffened plate.

rate when the crack tip approaches a stiffener. This general effect of stiffening
and load shedding is one reason why fatigue cracks may be tolerated in ship
structures to an extent which is not allowed in tubular offshore structures.
Tubular joints are a category of welded joints which warrant a closer
consideration. Unstiffened tubular joints feature large stress concentrations
and a very complicated stress distribution with large gradients, Fig. 4.14.
In this case, contrary to the case of a cut-out, the stress intensity of a crack
growing out of the hot spot region will not increase. The crack growth rate
will therefore be fairly constant throughout a large part of the fatigue life.
A typical crack length vs. time history for a tubular joint is shown in
Fig. 4.15. From initial microscopic defects along the weld at the weld toe or
 Section 4.1.4

Fig. 4.14 Circumferential stress in a tubular T-joint in axial loading.

I I I
I Region 111 I
I (circum- I
I ferentlal I
I growth) I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
1 I
I I
I I

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fraction of tubular joint life

Fig. 4.15 Fatigue crack growth in a tubular joint (schematic).

interpass locations, the crack will initially tend to grow in a circumferential

direction under the influence of the very local stress concentration created by
the weld profile. In this stage, the through-thickness growth will be limited.
In the next stage, the crack will grow in a through-thickness direction, with
a nearly constant growth rate, reflecting the gradual decrease in effective
stress as the crack grows out of the hot spot region. The last stage is the
circumferential growth of a through-thickness crack. In this stage, the crack
will be intolerably large from an ultimate strength point of view. Crack
growth in tubular joints are further discussed in Sec. 8.3.5.
Section 4.1.5

The purpose of these examples is to demonstrate that damage accumu-

lation over time in a fatigue failure is strongly dependent on the type of
structure or the structural element. This fact has implications on defect
tolerance criteria, inspection strategy, and design philosophy for different
structures and different parts of a given structure. The essential parameter
to be monitored is crack length, and for a refined study the appropriate
design method should be based on the principles of fracture mechanics.

4.1.5 Fatigue capacity assessment

The assessment of fatigue capacity in design of structures may follow several
routes, depending on the type of structure, type of loading, etc. In general,
a distinction can be made between four different methodologies:
i) Prototype or component testing
ii) SN-curves
iii) Crack growth rate curves and fracture mechanics
iv) Cyclic strain
These methodologies will be discussed briefly in relation to marine structures.

Prototype testing.
Prototype or component testing is the most direct way of assessing fatigue
strength for a particular structure or structural component. The method
is in common use in the automotive industry, in the design of for example
crankshafts, bearing pins, etc. Also in the aircraft industry, pro totype testing
is a standard technique, even in full scale testing of entire aircraft structures.
Prototype testing is very expensive, and is cost-effective only for
fatigue critical structures, and/or structures which are produced in large series.
Moreover, the fabrication procedure and load conditions need to be well
defined, otherwise the inherent uncertainties in the test conditions may
invalidate the findings of the testing.
Obviously, prototype testing is not feasible for welded offshore struc-
tures, except for selected components of novel design or in new applications.
Examples are cast tubular joints and tendons for tension-leg platforms. Even
in these cases, the test programs have generated data more of a comparative
nature, with reference to standard components or materials tested under
the same (simplified) conditions, rather than prototype lives under realistic
loading and environmental conditions.

SN-curves.
An SN-curve is a plot of fatigue life versus stress. The stress parameter, which
 Section 4.1.5

for welded joints is the stress range, is normally plotted as the ordinate.
Fatigue life is generally defined as the number of cycles to failure.
Most SN plots are based on constant amplitude loading, in which case
the parameters of stress and fatigue life are easily defined. Variable amplitude
data may also be plotted on an SN format. As will be discussed in Sections 4.4
and 4.5, stress and fatigue life in variable amplitude loading may be defined
in various ways.
Fatigue cracks in welded structures will be confined to the welded
joints or to flame cut edges. Only in very rare cases will fatigue cracks be
initiated in plain rolled material. The reason for this should be obvious:
The welds provide notches and initial defects which even in the most opti-
mized designs will give a much lower fatigue strength than the adjacent plain
material. The appropriate SN-curves for welded structures are therefore
SN-curves for welded joints, including flame cut edges.
Exceptions to this rule are cast or forged components which are welded
into the structure. In such cases, stress raisers in the cast or forged part may
be such that cracks will initiate from plain material surface rather than from
the adjacent weld, e.g. cast tubular joints. The design will then be based on
an SN-curve for the plain material, with an (elastic) stress concentration
factor for the detail in question.
In some codes, generally not of the latest developments, this last
approach is applied to welded joints as well. The fatigue strength of each
joint is based on a fatigue notch factor relative to plain material. This notch
factor is empirical, and takes into account the geometric, metallurgical, and
other factors which may have an influence on the fatigue strength of welds.
The method has several weaknesses, and is not applied in recent codes.

Crack growth rate curves and fracture mechanics.

Fatigue of welded joints is mainly a crack growth phenomenon. Fracture
mechanics may thus be used in order to calculate the growth, and thereby
to give assessments of fatigue lives, cf. Sec. 3.2.1.
A direct design calculation by fracture mechanics for a given weld is,
however, not feasible. The reason for this is that there are many uncertainties
in the calculation procedure, particularly linked to the initial stages of crack
growth, like size of initial defects, crack growth for short cracks, and thres-
hold effects. Due to this, absolute calculations of endurance can rarely be
trusted as such. In comparative studies, however, the initiation problem may
be eliminated. One is then limited to a study of cases in which the initiation
conditions are identical. By choosing suitable values for the initial crack
Section 4.2.1

length, the calculated endurances can be brought into accord with experimen-
tal values by calibration. Provided the initiation conditions remain unchanged,
fracture mechanics can then be used for calculating the influence of different
parameters (geometrical, environmental, etc.) on the endurance. In this sense,
fracture mechanics has been used extensively as a research tool, employed
in order to generalize experimental data.
For assessment of the significance of defects, the situation is more
in favour of fracture mechanics analysis. Engineering defects, i.e. defects
which can be found by non-destructive testing techniques, are generally so
large that linear-elastic fracture mechanics with a crack growth power law
works reasonably well.

Cyclic strain.
The cyclic strain approach was originally developed for machined smooth
or lightly notched components in which fatigue life is dominated by a crack
initiation period. The method is of limited use in the design of welded struc-
tures, in which fatigue life is dominated by crack growth. It may be used
in low cycle fatigue assessments of structures where functional loads may
cause plastic strains (ship structures, crane pedestals, pipelines during laying
operations, etc.).

4.2 CONSTANT AMPLITUDE SN TESTING

4.2.1 SN testing versus crack growth testing
SN testing and crack growth testing may be viewed as two different ap-
proaches t o fatigue. In crack growth testing, material parameters are obtained,
characterizing fatigue crack growth as a material property in a given environ-
ment. In SN testing, fatigue life of a specimen, a component, or a structure
is determined under given conditions of stress and environment. In many
cases, particularly with machined (non-welded) specimens, the outcome of
an SN test is taken as life to crack initiation.
However, crack growth is an important, sometimes dominating phase
of fatigue life. This is particularly true for welded joints, where crack
growth in fact occupies a major part of the fatigue life. SN testing and crack
growth testing may thus be viewed as complimentary methods, which can
be brought on a common basis by fracture mechanics analysis. In this sec-
tion, the SN test approach will be discussed, leaving fracture mechanics to
Chapter 3 .
 Section 4.2.2

4.2.2 Basic concepts

All practical fatigue theories contain empirical parameters which may account
for qualities like material properties, surface condition, geometry, stress
state, effect of environment, etc. This means that in order to apply a certain
theory to a specific design case, experimental calibration is a prerequisite.
The basic fatigue test is the constant amplitude SN test. In this test,
a specimen is subjected t o cyclic constant amplitude loading till failure. In
this respect loading may be force, strain, or displacement controlled. For
most applications of interest t o structural engineers, the loading is a constant
amplitude stress.

Fig. 4.16 Definition of terms relating to SN testing.

The prime parameter of the loading is the stress amplitude S,, or stress
range S, (cf. Fig. 4.16). Besides, the mean level of stress Sm is of interest,
often denoted by the stress ratio

R, S, and S, are interrelated through

Typical load histories in SN testing are shown in Fig. 4.17. Note the
singularity in the stress ratio for pulsating compression stresses. In certain
codes, stress ratio is defined differently in order to avoid this problem.
In an SN test, several identical specimens are usually tested at different
stress or strain ranges, in order to obtain an SN-curve as shown in Fig. 4.18.
Usually, either the mean level or the stress ratio is kept constant in one test
series. The general effect of the stress ratio is shown in Fig. 4.19. High ratios
tend to reduce the fatigue life at a given stress range. It is t o be noted that
testing with Sm = const. or R = const. will in general give different SN-curves.
Section 4.2.2

''I1 Pulsating P u l s a t i ng
compression tension

I Compression-
compression
Alternating Tension-
tension

Fig. 4.1 7 Different types of loading applied in SN testing.

Fig. 4.18 SN-curves for sharply notched specimens of mild steel and alumi-
nium (Ref. / 121).

As indicated in Fig. 4.20, testing at S, = const. and tensile (which is a normal

test condition), will give an increased stress ratio as the stress range is lowered.
This will tend to reduce the fatigue life, and the comparative SN-curves will
be as indicated in Fig. 4.20.
Offshore structures in general will experience a constant mean load.
Most fatigue experiments, however, are traditionally performed at a constant
stress ratio, with 0 < R < 0.5. (R = 0.0-0.1 is a particularly popular test
 Section 4.2.2

10
log N

Fig. 4 .19 SN-curves for a notched high tensile stainless steel (18 Cr - 9 Ni)
at varying stress ratios (Ref. / 131).

condition). Hence, SN data from such tests may be unconservative at low

stresses when applied to offshore structures. The difference is disregarded
in most applications.
Several models have been proposed for the effect of mean stress, based
on the limiting stress concept. The limiting stress for any material is of, the
true fracture stress in monotonic tension. SN testing is normally monitored
in terms of a nominal or engineering stress. Hence, the ultimate stress S, or
the yield stress Sy is used as the limiting stress. Adding the mean stress S,
and an alternating stress S,, this sum cannot exceed the limiting stress

In the Haigh type diagram of Fig. 4.21, this amounts to a straight line,
which limits the allowable combinations of S, and S,. Outside the allowable
region, the material would break during the first one quarter of a cycle, and
cyclic stresses are of course not possible.
This idealized description of the combined effect of S, and ,S is valid
only under monotonic loading. In fatigue, Eq. (4.12) will be distorted by
the cumulative effects of cyclic loading, which in general will cause a change
in material properties. Empirical formulas have been established, based on
Section 4.2.2

Log N

Fig. 4.20 The difference between R = const. and S, = const. testing, and the
influence on the SN-curve (schematic).

Fig. 4.21 The Haigh diagram showing allowable combinations of stress ampli-
tude and mean stress.
 Section 4.2.2

Fig. 4.22 The Modified Goodman, Gerber, and Soderberg relations for the
effect of mean stress on fatigue strength for N = lo7 cycles, with
data for a high tensile stainless steel (Ref. 1131).

the same simple idea as displayed in Fig. 4.2 1. In Fig. 4.22 are shown three
commonly used expressions in the Haigh diagram. The limiting point on the
alternating stress axis is the stress Sa,N at a given fatigue life under reversed
loading (S, = 0 or R = -1). The lines are drawn for a given fatigue life and
exhibit empirical combinations of stresses S, and S, which will give that
life.

Modified Goodman relation: S, = S a , ~ (-l -)

srn
su
Gerber relation :

Soderberg relation:

None of the models are generally valid, as they are based on experi-
mental data obtained under different conditions. Moreover, the concept of
using monotonic tensile properties in defining fatigue strength is fundarnen-
tally wrong. As will be discussed in Section 4.3, the stress-strain relation of
materials may be very different under cyclic loading as compared to monoto-
nic strain, thus invalidating the concept of S,, and S, as material parameters
in fatigue.
Section 4.2.3

Fig. 4.23 The data shown in Fig. 21 plotted in a Smith diagram for
N = 1o7 cycles.

A more practical version of the same diagram is obtained through the

Smith diagram (Fig. 4.23). Here, S,, and Smi, for a certain fatigue life are
shown in the same diagram, giving a pictorial impression of the allowable
cyclic stress range for a given fatigue life.

4.2.3 Types of SN tests

In this section, various types of SN tests are described, and the relation of
such data to fatigue design is discussed.

SN testing of plain materials.

A basic fatigue test for material characterization is the SN test of plain mate-
rial. Specimens are usually smooth cylindrical or hour-glass shaped as shown
in Fig. 4.24, and loaded axially or in bending. The influence of the surface
finish on the fatigue properties is minimized through standardized machining
procedures. The test is thus a test of the basic fatigue strength of the material
in terms of engineering stress. In applications of the data, any effects of sur-
face treatment like residual stresses, work-hardening, heat cycling, surface
roughness etc. different from the conditions of the test, must be accounted
for.
 Section 4.2.3

Fig. 4.24 Typical specimens for fatigue testing of plain material in predomi-
nantly elastic loading (ASTM E 466-82 Constant Amplitude Axial
Fatigue Tests of Metallic Materials).

In this type of test, most of the fatigue life is spent in the crack initia-
tion stage. After crack initiation, the remaining fatigue life is relatively short.
An SN plot will have a general form as shown in Fig. 4.1 8.
SN data of this form are not very useful in design. One reason is the
sensitivity to surface conditions as mentioned above. Another fact t o bear
in mind is that fatigue cracks usually are initiated in areas of local stress
concentrations, and that stress gradients and stress concentrations are impor-
tant parameters in fatigue. Stress gradients define the volume of stressed
material, which will be different in bending as compared to tension. Stress
concentrations raise the stress level, usually by a geometry dependent factor
which may be non-linear due to local yielding as shown in Fig. 4.25.

SN testing of welded joints.

In a welded structure, the welds will constitute weak links with regard to
fatigue strength. Plain material data of fatigue strength are not very useful
Section 4.2.3

Axia1,elastic Notched,axial, elastic

Bending,elast ic Notched,axial,Local yielding

Fig. 4.25 Specimens loaded to the same nominal stress but with different
geometries and loading conditions will in general give different
fatigue response, due to effects of stress gradients and of local
yielding.

for this problem. Fatigue design of welded structures is therefore based on

SN data obtained with realistic welded specimens. Typical test configurations
and data are shown in Fig. 4.26. The statistical analysis and conversion of
such data into design criteria is described and discussed in Sec. 4.7.

o Fracture

I I I I

1 o5 1 o6 1 o7 Io 8
log N

Fig. 4.26 Typical specimens and SN data for welded joints (Ref. 1141).
 Section 4.2.4

SN testing of structural components.

The type of specimens shown in Fig. 4.26 may be taken as a part of a struc-
tural member. In many cases, the stress distribution of members is so com-
plicated that the fatigue strength cannot be reliably assessed from single
specimen data. Typical cases are tubular joints and built-up beams (Fig. 4.27).
Tests of these types of models are in principle similar to small-scale specimen
testing, but requires extensive test equipment, and are in general more closely
monitored with regard to crack initiation and growth.

Fig. 4.27 Structural components which have been subject of large-scale

fatigue testing, tubular joint (a) and welded beam (b).

4.2.4 Fatigue failure criteria

Fatigue life in an SN test is usually taken as life till complete fracture has
occured, or till displacements become so large that the load cannot be main-
tained. In the last stage of a test, the crack size may therefore be larger than
what can be tolerated in structures. Two main reasons for this situation are:
a) Fatigue tests are normally constant amplitude tests with relatively small
loads. A crack can thus grow to a much larger length before becoming
critical than in the case of realistic loading with occurrent peak loads.
b) Fatigue tests are normally performed at room temperature and with
scaled down plate thicknesses, leading to an unconservative fracture
toughness.

For most types of small scale specimens, the difference between the
fatigue life at "end of test" and at a more realistic assessment of tolerable
crack size is negligible, as shown in Fig. 4.10. In large scale structural testing,
however, the situation is more complicated. Considering crack growth in a
tubular joint, F'&. 4.15, there is a significant amount of fatigue life from a half
Section 4.2.5

through thickness to a through thickness crack, and the choice of fatigue life
criterion may become important in the evaluation of fatigue data.
A rational basis for assessing critical crack length is given in Chapter 9.

4.2.5 Fatigue limit

In the past, much attention has been given to the fatigue limit and to experi-
mental methods for determining the region of what has been termed non-
damaging stresses. In offshore design, the concept of a fatigue limit has lost
much of its significance, for three main reasons:

i) The stress range at the fatigue limit found in constant amplitude testing
of welded specimens is very low, typically in the range 50-1 00 MPa
depending on type of joint and test conditions. It would be very
uneconomical to design offshore structures with design loads below
the initial threshold level, since in practical design, there will always
be some stress cycles above the threshold which will cause crack
growth. Also, with growing crack lengths, the stress level correspond-
ing to the crack growth threshold will be gradually lowered, thus
allowing a greater part of the load spectrum to lie above the threshold
level.
ii) The fatigue limit determined in small-scale testing is not representative
of fatigue limits in large scale structures, since the limit is strongly
linked to the size and occurrence of initial defects. In large-scale
structures, the probability of exceeding a certain size of defect will
be much greater than in a test series with small scale specimens. More-
over, localized corrosion may create pits and crevaces in the region of
welds, causing a time-dependent growth of initial defects.
iii) The fatigue limit, or crack growth threshold, is strongly dependent
on various factors like mean stress, load history, and environment.
Environmental effects are in particular difficult to handle, due to a
general lack of data. Assessment of the fatigue limit of real structures
is therefore subject to large uncertainties.

From the discussion above, it should be clear that the question of a

fatigue limit or a fatigue threshold for offshore structures is very complicated.
Because of the uncertainties involved, the fatigue limit is therefore set very
low in design codes. A specific discussion on this topic is found in Secs. 11.1
and 11.2.
 Section 4.2.6
4.2.6 Real structures versus test specimens
In the previous sub-sections, frequent references have been made to diffe-
rences between test specimens and real structures with regard to fatigue
behaviour. Design criteria are mainly based on statistical analyses of SN data
obtained with small scale specimens, and lack of similitude between tests
and real structures in fatigue loading is an important point.

Fabrication effects.
Most laboratory specimens are purpose-made, and are not production-line
welds. The specimens are invariably produced in the most favourable con-
ditions for welding, in a dry, clean, indoor environment, and with carefully
controlled welding procedures. The liability of most experimentalists to
discard "rare events" from their collection of data should also be mentioned.
The test specimens should therefore be expected to display a much smaller
scatter and a larger mean fatigue strength than production-line structural
welds.

Size effect - defect probability.

Fatigue is a weakest link process, the fatigue crack will start growing from the
most severe notch or defect along the weld. Thus, the fatigue strength of
specimens will tend to decrease as the weld length per specimen increases.
The effect is shown in Fig. 4.28. In fatigue testing, the weld length is typically
some centimeters, whereas in a structure, each welded joint will have dimen-
sions of order meters. One should thus expect that structural joints will have
a mean strength, in the lower part of the scatter band found in traditional
testing.
t

' 1
' & - - - - -
F u l l scale

Log N

Fig. 4.28 The effect of increasing the weld length tested per specimen.
 Section 4.2.6

Structural redundancy.
Considered as load-carrying members, test specimens either carry the full
load or no load at all. Structural welded joints, however, will in most cases
be part of a redundant structure. If a fatigue crack starts growing, the com-
pliance of the joint will increase and the load will decrease. For part-through-
thickness cracks, this effect is of little importance, because a main part of
the fatigue life is spent in the growth of very short cracks with negligible
influence on the compliance. For other failure modes, where a certain amount
of cracking is allowed, the effect of redundancy may become significant.

Residual stresses.
Residual stresses in structures may be separated into two types (Fig. 4.29):

Fig. 4.29 Residual stresses (schematic).

(a) Long range stresses. (b) Short range stresses.

.' 1 . Short-range stresses exist only in and close to a weld, and are self-
balanced over the cross section of one member. The cause of these
stresses is the thermal contraction of parts of the cross section, under
restraint from the cooler portions. Stresses will generally be large, at
or above yield magnitude, and with large through-thickness gradients.
Due to the short range, the stresses will be associated with small end
displacements. Hence, they may fairly easily be reduced by heat treat-
ment, or by local yielding caused by peak loads.
 Section 4.3.1 - 4.3.2

Long-range stresses are uniform throughout a structural member, and

are self-balanced within the structure. Their origin is from the proce-
dure of assembling a monolithic structure from pre-fabricated com-
ponents, whereby welding shrinkage and the use of local heating,
mechanical restraints, brute force, etc., in the process of fitting the
pieces together, may cause significant locked-in stresses. Long-range
stresses are generally small compared with the yield stress, with small
gradients. However, the associated end displacements, and hence the
stored strain energy, may be large. As a consequence, these stresses
are not easily relaxed by local heat-treatment procedures, nor are they
much affected by peak load conditions and local yielding.

Very little is known about residual stresses in marine structures, their

magnitude, through-thickness variation, and variations through service life.
In one particular investigation on welds in a ship's deck, the residual stresses
were found to be far in excess of stresses from applied loads. Long-range
stresses were approximately 25 per cent of the short-range stresses (Ref. 1151).
In small scale specimens typical of SN testing, short range residual
stresses only will be present. In many types of specimens residual stresses
will be unrealistically low, an effect which needs to be accounted for in the
analysis of SN data, Sec. 4.7.3. The effect of residual stresses is particularly
pronounced in the threshold region. In sea water with cathodic protection,
residual stress effects are important also at higher load levels, see Sec. 7.3.

4.3 CYCLIC STRAIN AND MATERIAL RESPONSE

4.3.1 Introduction
The main purpose of this section is to present the basic principles of cyclic
stress and strain response in engineering materials, and the derivation of
fatigue strength criteria from this. Methods will be reviewed for the assess-
ment of fatigue strength of structural components on the basis of material
flow properties. The methods are well established for machined, notched
components typical of automotive structures, aircraft structures, machine
components, etc. They have also been applied in the analysis of the fatigue
strength of welded structures but have not as yet found general acceptance
except in low cycle fatigue.

4.3.2 Monotonic stress and strain

The stress-strain relation for a steel in monotonic loading (tensile test) is
Section 4.3.2

Fig. 4.30
Tensile test, typical specimen and
stress-strain relation in monoto-
nic loading.

shown in Fig. 4.30. The data provided by such a test are well-known to all
engineers, and constitute the most basic characterization of the strength
of a material.
Sy - yield strength Strength
S, - ultimate strength parameters
A - elongation at fracture Ductility
Z - reduction of area at fracture parameters
In a tensile test, engineering definitions of stress and strain are applied.
S = P/Ao - engineering stress (4.16)
e = AL/Lo - engineering strain (4.17)
True stress and strain may be derived by
o = S(l +e)
e = Qn(1t e )

For small strains, the difference between engineering values and true values
is small and is neglected in most instances.

In fatigue analysis, the state of stress and strain at fracture in monotonic

loading is of some importance.
Of = Pfbf (4.20)

- true fracture strength

q - true fracture ductility
 Section 4.3.3

4.3.3 Cyclic stress and strain

Fig. 4.31
The effect of strain hardening when unload-
ing and reloading a plastically deformed
material (schematic).

When a material is stressed beyond the elasticity limit, the unloading curve
will follow Hooke's law (Fig. 4.3 1). After yielding, there will be a permanent
offset in strain and an increase in the yield strength due to strain hardening.
After unloading, the next load cycle will therefore follow the previous un-
loading curve. The significant feature is the memory effect -the stress-strain
curve in one load cycle depends on the previous stress-strain history.
If the material is cycled further, a gradual change in the stress-strain
relation will take place, generally along two possible courses - cyclic harden-
ing or cyclic softening, Fig. 4.32. For most engineering materials, a fairly
stable state is reached after some few hundred cycles, or at a number of
cycles which is small compared to the fatigue life. This means that for a
major part of the fatigue life, a proper description of the flow properties of

'I
Controlled functton, stress Controlled function, strain

0 0 t

-Cycle dependent hardening;

Cycle dependent hardening;

t 0

Cycle dependent softening;

Cycle dependent soften~ng;

Fig. 4.32 Material response under cyclic loading in stress control (left) and
strain control (right).
Section 4.3.4

the material must be based on the cyclic stress strain relations, and not on
the monotonic stress-strain curve shown in Fig. 4.30.

Fig. 4.33
Stabilized cyclic stress-strain hysteresis
loop for a mild steel.

A stable stress-strain hysteresis loop for a steel is shown in Fig. 4.33.

All the stress and strain data needed for the fatigue characterization of a mate-
rial are taken from the collection of stable hysteresis loops at different strain
levels. The basic equation is that total strain equals plastic plus elastic strain:

For completely reversed testing (zero mean stress) the amplitude is equal
to one half the range

Applying Hooke's law

the plastic strain amplitude is given by

4.3.4 Cyclic stress and strain resistance

The response of a material to cyclic stress and strain may be summarized as
follows:
i) The flow properties of metals are in general different in cyclic loading
than in monotonic loading. This in particular refers to yield stress and
fracture stress.
ii) Metals respond in a different manner in stress cycling than in strain
cycling.
 Section 4.3.4

As a consequence it is necessary to distinguish between stress and strain

fatigue resistance. Moreover, a relation between fatigue strength and material
properties should be based on the cyclically stabilized properties of the
material.

Stress resistance.
A plot of the fatigue life vs. true stress amplitude for a metal gives in general
a curve of the Basquin form (Ref. 1161)

N - cycles to failure
2N - load reversals to failure
oi - fatigue strength coefficient
b - fatigue strength exponent - the sign of b is negative
The fatigue strength coefficient is the stress intercept at one load
reversal (2N = I), hence it is related to of,the true fracture strength in mono-
tonic loading. For most materials it turns out that
#

of 2 of (4.27)

Plastic strain resistance.

The plastic strain resistance is best described by the Manson-Coffin relation-
ship (Ref. / 171, / 181)

E; - fatigue ductiiity coefficient

c - fatigue ductility exponent - the sign of c is negative
The fatigue ductility coefficient is the plastic strain intercept at one
load reversal (2N = 1). The relationship between the e; and the monotonic
true fracture ductility ~f is not as simple as noted for the case of oi and of.
For a majority of the materials which have been investigated,

is a good approximation. But many steels fall far below this prediction, and
a range of values has been found (Ref. / 19/),
Section 4.3.5

TotaE strain resistance.

In most practical cases of fatigue design, the critical location will be a notch
in which plastic strains are imposed by surrounding elastic material. Thus,
the situation will be strain controlled with a total strain range composed
of an elastic and a plastic part. Manson proposed that a metal's resistance to
total strain cycling can be considered as a superposition of its elastic and plas-
tic strain resistance (Ref. 1171). By combining Eqs. (4.25), (4.26), and (4.28)

The total strain life curve approaches the plastic strain life curve in the
low cycle region, and the stress life curve in the high cycle region as shown
in Fig. 4.34. Data for a high-strength steel are shown in Fig. 4.35 t o follow
this trend (Ref. / 191).
The significance of the cyclic strain properties in fatigue is illustrated
in Fig. 4.36. In the high cycle region, strong materials will have a greater
fatigue life. In the low cycle region, ductile materials will be superior. A tough
material with an optimum combination of strength and ductility will give the
best overall fatigue resistance.
It appears that the crossover point in Fig. 4.34 is nearly the same
for many materials and is found at a strain amplitude of 0.01 and a life of
about 2000 reversals. Therefore, at this strain range, the fatigue life is quite
insensitive to material properties.

4.3.5 Fatigue of notched members

Most fatigue failures are initiated from notches, thus fatigue design need
to take into account the effect of notches on fatigue strength.
The basic idea of notch theory of fatigue is that fatigue life is life to
crack initiation. Thus, if a local measure of the cyclic stress and strain at
the notch can be obtained, the fatigue life of the notched member can be
assessed by comparison with an unnotched specimen undergoing the same
stress and strain, cf. Fig. 4.36.
As a first, and often quite useful approximation, local stress at the
notch is related to the nominal stress through the theoretical elastic stress
concentration factor Kt

Related t o the fatigue strength of an unnotched specimen, for which

data are generally available for most engineering materials, Eq. (4.3 2 ) states
 Section 4.3.5

1 Log (2N')
I
Fig. 4.34 Representation of elastic, plastic, and total strain resistance
fatigue loading.

18ZNi Maraging ( 3 0 0 )
w

\ v Load control

Fig. 4.35 Test data and strain resistance curves for a high tensile steel
(Ref. / 171).

Fig. 4.36
Fatigue of notched members. Fatigue life is
assumed to be equal to the life of an unnotched
specimen undergoing the same stress-strain
loading as the most highly strained material.
Section 4.4.1

that the fatigue strength is reduced in inverse proportion to Kt. In most

cases Kt can be assessed by relatively simple analytical or experimental means.
For more detailed analyses, this method is inadequate, due to the fact
that Kt is not directly related to the fatigue notch factor Kf. Experimentally,
Kf is measured as
Kf = fatigue strength of a smooth specimen
- -
fatigue strength of a notched specimen
at the same fatigue life.
Kf will in general vary with stress level and with notch acuity. At low
stresses, where the material response at the notch is essentially elastic, Kf is
approximately equal to Kt.
There is still under elastic conditions a size effect in Kf, related t o the
volume of material which undergoes large cyclic stresses. A practical formula
for the size effect of Kf is the Peterson formula

where A is a material constant and r is the radius of curvature of the notch.

As shown by Eq. (4.34), small notches have less effect in fatigue than pre-
dicted by Kt.
At high stresses, or in specimens with sharp notches, the response at
the notch will become plastic and non-linear. The elastic stress concentration
factor Kt will then give a very inadequate description of the stresses and
strains at the notch. In general, Kf will tend to decrease by increasing stress.
As a consequence, a direct measurement of Kf for a given notch case will
require testing at several stress and strain levels, and becomes expensive and
time-consuming.

4.4 VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING

Methods for calculating the stress response of a structure t o various forms
of fatigue loading by waves are discussed in Sec. 2.6. The purpose of this
section is to discuss the effect of irregular stress histories on the fatigue capa-
city of steel structural components.

4.4.1 Characterization of fatigue loading

As stated frequently throughout this volume, fatigue is a cumulative effect
of an irregular load history which for typical offshore structures spans a
period of 20 years, or the order of 10%cycles assuming an average frequency
 Section 4.4.1
of 116 6'. In order to be manageable in design procedures, this time history
must be reduced to some convenient format, representing the characteristics
of the loading.
Variable amplitude loading, spectrum loading, and irregular loading are
frequently used synonyms for any loading which has not constant arnpli-
tude. Various types of variable amplitude loading are defined below.
Block loading is composed of blocks of constant amplitude cycles.
Random loading or stochastic loading is a variable amplitude loading gene-
rated by a random process. With digital test systems, the load signal genera-
tion is often performed by an algorithm giving a fixed sequence of peaks and
valleys. The term pseudorandom is often attached to this procedure. If a
given sequence is repeated, it is termed random-ordered.
In variable amplitude loading, certain events may be identified, cf. Fig. 4.37:

--
Time

Fig. 4.37 Definition of terrns related to irregular load histories.

Reversal is the occurrence where the first derivative of the load-time history
changes sign.
Peak is the occurrence where the first derivative of the load-time history
changes from positive to negative sign.
Valley is the occurrence where the first derivative of the load-time history
changes from negative to positive sign.
Range is the algebraic difference between successive valley and peak loads
(positive range) or between successive peak and valley loads (negative range).
Note that range may have different definitions, depending on the counting
method used. "Overall range" is defined by the algebraic difference between
the largest peak and the smallest valley of a given load-time history.
Section 4.4.1

Mean crossings (or zero crossings) is the number of times that the load-time
history crosses the mean load level during a given length of the history. Nor-
mally, only crossings with positive slopes are counted.
Irregularity factor is a measure of the irregularity, or the bandwidth of the
signal, defined as the ratio of mean crossings with positive slope to the num-
ber of peaks or valleys in a given load history. In fatigue analysis of welds,
mean stresses are generally neglected, and mean-crossings are commonly
referred to as zero-crossings. The irregularity factor I is linked t o the spectral
bandwidth factor e (Eq. (2.9)) by

For narrow band loading, the irregularity factor will be close to unity (c % 0).
Typical load histories for fixed offshore structures have an irregularity factor
in the range 0.6 < I < 0.8.
Root-mean-square (RMS) may be defined in two ways, either by a weighted
average of the fluctuating stress itself

or by the stress ranges

In the latter case, will depend on the specific counting procedure

applied for the definition of individual cycles (see below).

Whereas RMS has a defined physical meaning related t o energy in many

applications of signal analysis, it does not necessarily have so in fatigue
analysis. As will be shown later, the power of two in Eq. (4.36) has no physi-
cal significance in fatigue. In cumulative damage calculations, it can be shown
(cf. Sec. 4.5.2) that the effect of variable amplitude loading may be taken into
account on an SN format by defining an equivalent stress range

where m is the slope of the crack growth curve (cf. Sec. 4.1.2 and Table 4.1).
For welded joints the value of m is commonly taken as m = 3.
The equivalent stress defined in Eq. (4.38) is often referred to as RMC or
y'root-mean-cube"of stress. This stress entered into an SN diagram gives the
number of cycles to failure for the corresponding irregular load history.
 Section 4.4.2

Crest factor is a measure of the "peakedness" of the stress spectrum, defined

as the ratio of maximum stress in a load history to SRMs.The crest factor may
also be defined by the stress ranges, i.e. the maximum stress range divided
by Sr,RMS The latter defmition is again subject to a choice of counting
procedure.
Clipping level is sometimes introduced in test procedures, due to limited
load capacity of the test equipment or for more technical reasons, e.g. to
avoid buckling, excessive yielding, etc. A clipping level may be a fact in
real structural loading as well, e.g. by safety-valve limitation of pressure in
pressure vessels, automatic load limitations on cranes, one-sided (non-rever-
sible) loading (both of the above), etc. Clipping of a load-time history is
shown in Fig. 4.38.

U n c l i p p e d random Loading;

---Clipping level

----Clipping level

Fig. 4.38 Clipping of a random load signal.

4.4.2
For cumulative damage analysis, the stress-time history is broken down into
individual cycles which are summed up to a distribution of stress ranges.
Various procedures commonly referred to as cycle counting methods have
been devised. The problem of cycle counting is illustrated in Fig. 4.39. The
load history may be broken down into individual cycles in several ways,
leading to different assessments of fatigue damage. In many cases it is there-
fore important to apply a counting method which gives the physically most
correct representation of the fatigue process. Several such methods will be
discussed. - Cycle counts are normally represented by spectra:
Occurrences spectrum is a representation of variable amplitude loading by
the number of times a particular loading parameter (peak, range, level, etc.)
Section 4.4.2

1 Narrow bond Ln 1 Broad band

Fig. 4.39 With narrow band loading, individual stress cycles are easily identi-
fied and counted, and most counting methods yield similar results.
In broad band loading, large cycles are interrupted by small cycles
with varying mean level, and the resulting cycle count may depend
significantly on the counting procedure.

occurs within each specified interval of the parameter. In statistical terms

an occurrences spectrum is the frequency function or probability density
function of the given parameter (Eq. (2.1)).
Exceedances spectrum is a representation of spectrum loading contents by
the number of times specified values of a particular loading parameter (peak,
range, level, etc.) are equalled or exceeded.

t
- I -
Occurrences of Level crossings
Exceedances of peaks/valleys

Fig. 4.40 An irregular load-time history (left) converted into an occurrences

spectrum of level crossings (right). The difference in counts between
two adjacent stress levels is equal to the number of peaks (above
S, ) or valleys (below S,) in that interval of stress. Thus an occur-
rence spectrum of level crossings is equivalent to an exceedances
spectrum of peaks and valleys.
 Section 4.4.2

Level crossing counting.

The method is shown in Fig. 4.40. In order to reduce the counting events
by a factor of two, positive going level-crossings are recorded at and above
the mean load, and negative-going crossings below the mean load.
The difference between the counts on two neighbouring levels on the
positive side of the mean level is equal to the number of peaks in the corre-
sponding interval of stress. Thus, an occurrences spectrum of stress levels is the
same as an exceedances spectrum of peak levels. An exceedances spectrum of
valleys is obtained in a similar manner on the negative side of the mean level.
The main problem with the level-counting method is that no informa-
tion is obtained about the irregularity of the load. The normal method of
cycle count is to construct the largest possible cycle followed by the second
largest, etc., until all level crossings are used as demonstrated in Fig. 4.4 1.

d
m
Time- -
----

a ) L e v e l crossing coun t i n g
---- ---

Time- -

( b ) L e v e l crossin counting
w i t h 1 l e v e l leeadband

( l e v e l s counts

-0-1 ----- 4
0
1
1 2

( c ) Cycles derived from level

c r o s s i n g count o f ( a )

Fig. 4.41 Level crossing counting of a broad-banded load history (a). The
resulting distribution of ranges is shown in (c). In many cases,
small stresses may be assumed to be non-damaging, and are there-
fore disregarded. In level crossing counting, this may be achieved
by introducing a dead band, as shown in (b).
Section 4.4.2

B
C

I O c c u r r e n c e s of
Time Cycle count
level crossings

Fig. 4.42 By level crossing counting, stress cycles with a mean level different
from the overall mean level (a) will be accounted for in an unrealis-
tic way (c).

Reversal points are assumed to occur halfway between levels. By this method,
narrow-band processes are represented in a realistic way. For broad band
loading, stress ranges with mean values different from the mean level of the
loading, are combined in an unrealistic way, cf. Fig. 4.42. For broad band
load histories, the level count method therefore tends to be conservative.

Peak counting.
Peak counting is illustrated in Fig. 4.43. Peaks are counted above, and valleys
I Peak I~ounts]

( a ) Peak counting

uRan
n \ ? es Cycle
counts

3 15

( b ) Cycles derived from

peak c o u n t o f ( a )

Fig. 4.43 Peak count of a broad banded load history (a). The resulting cycles
are shown in (b).
 Section 4.4.2

( b ) Mean crossing peak counting

Fig. 4.44 Peak count of the same load history as shown in Fig. 4.55, but
counting only extreme peaks and valleys between reference (mean)
level crossings.

are counted below the mean level. Results for peaks and valleys are usually
reported separately. A variation of this method is to count all peaks and
valleys without regard to the mean level.
In some cases it may be justified to disregard small variations in stress
("ripples"). One practical way in which to do that is to count as peaks and
valleys only the extreme values between successive mean level crossings,
cf. Fig. 4.44.
Similar to level counting, peak counts are combined by constructing
the largest possible cycle, then the second largest, and so on. In this way, a
conservative count is obtained. An alternative method is to combine pairs
of peaks and valleys in a random way.

Simple range counting.

For this method, a range is defined as the stress difference between two
reversals, Fig. 4.45. The method distinguishes between positive and negative

I Ranges counted
Method 2
1-4

Fig. 4.45 Part of an irregular load history and two methods of counting
ranges. With Method 1, each range between reversals is counted.
With Method 2, small reversals are ignored. The difference in terms
of cumulative damage may be significant.
Section 4.4.2

ranges. If the mean of each range is also counted, the method is called range-
mean counting. If only positive ranges are counted, each range is counted
as a cycle. If both positive and negative ranges are counted, each range is
counted as one half-cycle.
One problem with range counting is how to take care of small cycles
within large cycles. The sequence shown in Fig. 4.45 may be counted as three
individual and small half cycles, or as one large half cycle. The resulting
damage summation will depend significantly on the choice of threshold
level for counting small cycles.

Rainflow counting.
Rainflow counting is often used as a common name of a large class of count-
ing methods: range-pair counting, the Hayes method, the original rainflow
method, range-pair-range counting, ordered overall range counting, racetrack
counting, and hysteresis loop counting. The various methods are summarized
in Ref. /20/. If the load history begins and ends with its maximum peak, or
with its minimum valley, all these methods give identical counts. In other
cases, the counts are similar, but not generally identical. Only one method
of this class will be reviewed here, rainflow counting (Ref. 1211).
This counting procedure is designed to count reversals in accordance
with the material's stress-strain response, cf. Sec. 4.3. The principle may be
illustrated by the strain history shown in Fig. 4.46 and the corresponding
stress-strain path. The individual cycle 2-3-2' does not effect the remainder

Fig. 4.46 Part of a strain history (a) and the stress-strain response (b) of a
material being subjected to this history. Note that the small cycle
2-3-2' forms a closed hysteresis loop within the large range 1-4,
the latter being undisturbed by the interruption.
 Section 4.4.2

of the stress-strain history. Each time the hysteresis loop is closed, a cycle
count is made. The method is illustrated for a more complicated strain history
in Fig. 4.47.

2-3-2'
Cycles 8-9-8'
5-6-5'

Half 1-2-4
cycles 4-5-7
7-8-1 0

Fig. 4.47 A more complicated strain history (a) and the corresponding stress-
strain response (b). The rainflow counting method counts small
cycles within large cycles similar to the way closed hysteresis loops
are formed. The cycle count is thus reflecting the way in which the
material is responding.

Rainflow counting has obtained its name from an analogy of rain falling
down a pagoda roof, Fig. 4.48. The strain history in Fig. 4.48 is the same as
in Fig. 4.47.
The rules of rainflow counting are as follows,
1. Rain will flow down the roof initiating at the inside of each peak or
valley. When it reaches the edge it will drip down.
2. The rain is considered to stop, and a cycle is completed, when it meets
another flow from above.
3. Starting from a peak, the flow also stops when it comes opposite a
more positive peak than that from which it started. Starting from a
valley, the flow stops when it comes opposite a more negative valley
than that from which it started.
Section 4.4.2

Strain

Counting t
Time

Fig. 4.48 The same load history as in Fig. 4.47 (a) illustrating the pagoda
roof rainflow analogy.

By inspection, it may be verified that this counting procedure repro-

duces the cyclic stress-strain loops of the material undergoing the same load-
ing history. For wide-band loading, rainflow or similar counting procedures
is therefore recommended. For narrow-band loading all the counting proce-
dures reviewed above will yield similar results. Unless the load history is
rearranged to start with its most positive peak or its most negative valley,
a rainflow count will give a number of unpaired half cycles which are difficult
to handle in cumulative damage analysis. Moreover, rain flow counting loses its
physical significance when applied to cracked specimens where crack closure
may occur under compressive loading.
Symmary of cycle counting.
The problems of cycle counting and choice of method arise only if the design
is to be based on an actual load-time history. Such histories can be
recorded as loads or stresses from an actual structure, simulated load histories
from model experiments, or computer simulated time histories. Moreover,
if the structural response is narrow-banded, all counting methods converge.
Even for moderately wide band load histories, the different counting proce-
dures give only minor differences when applied in fatigue analysis. Only for
very wide band load histories with irregularity factor less than about 0.5 does
the counting procedure become important.
 Section 4.4.3

/23/), although experimental verification is scarce. A detailed discussion of

various aspects of cycle counting is found in Ref. /22/.

4.4.3: w=*
The most common way of representing irregular load histories for fatigue
analysis is by an exceedances diagram of stress ranges, Fig. 4.40. This diagram
is often called the stress spectrum. Note that for a given load history, the
stress spectrum may depend on the counting method applied.
Typical stress spectra are given in Fig. 4.49.

l o g ( E x c e e d a n c e s of s t r e s s ranges)

Fig. 4.49 Typical forms of exceedances spectra of stress ranges, cf. text
for discussion.

a) Constant amplitude loading. .

b) Maximum stress (range) is limited, stresses below this level are random
(cranes, pressure vessels, etc.).
c) Minimum load is above a certain level.
d) Gaussian stationary (statistical properties do not vary with time) loading.
e, f)Typical long term spectra for environmentally loaded offshore struc-
tures as discussed in Secs. 2.6 and 10.5.
In many cases, the load spectrum can be approximated by a two-para-
meter Weibull distribution, which can be written on the following form:

S, = S,,, [l -(- 1% n )]K

log no
Section 4.5.1

where: Sr,0 - stress range which is exceeded once out of no stress cycles
no - total number of stress cycles
n - number of stress cycles equal to or exceeding S,
K - shape parameter
This spectrum is shown for various shape parameters in Fig. 4.50.
Eq. (4.39) is a convenient formula for cumulative damage calculations, in
particular for simplified analyses at the early design stage as explained in
Secs. 10.2.2 and 1 1.4.

Fig. 4.50
Exceedances of stress ranges repre-
sented by the Weibull distribution
with different shape parameters.
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
log n (Eq. (4.39))

4.5 CUMULATIVE DAMAGE

4.5.1 The Miner summation
Fatigue design of welded structures is based on constant amplitude SN data.
A marine structure, however, will experience a load history of a stochastic
nature.
The development of fatigue damage under stochastic or random loading
is in general termed cumulative damage. Numerous theories for calculating
cumulative damage from SN data may be found in the literature. However,
the Miner summation has proved to be no worse than any other method,
and much simpler. Hence, virtually all fatigue design of steel structures
(bridges, cranes, offshore structures, etc.) is based on this procedure. It will be
shown below that the Miner summation conforms with a fracture mechanics
approach.
The basic assumption in the Miner summation method is that the
"damage" on the structure per load cycle is constant at a given stress range
and equal t o
 Section 4.5.1

where N is the constant amplitude endurance at the given stress range. In a

constant amplitude test, this leads to the following failure criterion

In a stress history of several stress ranges SrYi,each with a number of

cycles ni, the damage sum follows from

with the failure criterion still given by Eq. (4.4 1). The procedure is shown in
Fig. 4.5 1.

Jell log N

Fig. 4.51 The Miner summation procedure for one particular stress block
with stress range exceedances diagram (a) and SN-curve (b).

asumrnatian and the tractwe mechanics

monstrated by assuming a block stress
history as shown in Fig. 4.52. In a block of stress range Sr,i there are ni cycles.
The fatigue life at stress range Sr,i is Ni. Assuming the Paris-Erdogan crack
growth law (Eq. (4.4))

the number of cycles in each block may be expressed as (Sec. 3.2.2, Eqs.
(3.38-3.42))
Section 4.5.2

Fig. 4.52 Block loading program in a fracture mechanics derivation of the

Miner sum.

The constant amplitude fatigue life at a stress range Sr,iis given by

Ni = 1 laf da
C (S, ,i)m a(] [(na)Om5 * F ] ~
and

Assuming a total of k blocks, the damage sum is

If this load history causes failure, the right hand of Eq. (4.46) will equal
unity which it also should according to the Miner rule.

4.5.2 Equivalent stress range

The Miner sum may be expressed in terms of an equivalent stress range
S, , q. Inserting for the SN-curve
N (s,,~)* = a (= const .) (4.47)
 Section 4.5.3

the Miner sum at fracture is

The total number of cycles to fracture is

Constructing from Eq. (4.48)

Eq. (4.50) now has the form of Eq. (4.47) for the SN-curve with an equivalent
stress range given by

and the fatigue life given by the total number of cycles N. Thus, the Miner
sum at fracture may be represented by an equivalent stress SN-curve, which
for a weld detail with a given constant amplitude SN-curve will depend on
the shape of the load spectrum.
The Weibull distribution function has been shown to fit many stress
spectra for marine structures. For this particular distribution, a closed form
expression for Eq. (4.5 1) may be calculated, giving a simple method for com-
puting Miner sums (Ref. /24/), cf. Sec. 10.2.2. With this procedure, no account
is taken of any fatigue limit, leading to conservative estimates of fatigue life.

e of cycle-by-cycle plastic strains at a notch or at a

fatigue crack tip. The state of stress and strain in the damage area is a result
of the preceding stress-strain history. Hence, the damage in one cycle is not
a function of that stress cycle only, but also of the preceding cycles, leading
to interaction or stress memory effects.
* wt *&I $$m into account.
For that reason, the Miner summation may in many applications be biased,
quite often in an unpredictable manner (Ref. /25/), leading to large uncertain-
ties in the fatigue strength calculations.
Stress interaction effects are closely linked to the characteristics of the
load history. Thus, certain types of load histories are found to introduce a bias
Section 4.6.1

in the Miner sum, which may be accounted for by the so-called relative Miner
sum. This quantity may be established by testing, and used as a reference
which is valid as long as certain conditions of similitude are complied with.
The load history of offshore structures is characterized by a randomly
varying stress around a constant mean level, with a cumulative stress spectrum
as shown in Fig. 4.50. For this type of loading, the interaction effects tend to
give Miner sums less than unity. A mean value of 0.5 has been assessed from a
large collection of data (Ref. 1261). This value has therefore been suggested
as a relative Miner sum to be applied in design. However, all current design
codes seem t o be based on a Miner sum of unity as a failure criterion, which
means an overestimation with a factor 2 on cumulative fatigue life.
The Miner sum is an assessment of cumulative damage. The uncertainty
associated with the relative Miner sum seems to be no larger than the inherent
uncertainty in SN data. In fact, test series have shown a reduced scatter in the
Miner sums as compared to the basic constant amplitude data (Ref. 1271).
Calculated against a design SN-curve, the Miner sum procedure based on the
relative sum should thus give the same probability of failure as the SN-curve.
In design codes, the required Miner sum is often set much lower than
unity. The reasons are not effects of cumulative damage, but the need for an
additional factor of safety. For example, the Miner sum for submerged parts
of the structure may be set to 0.1, whereas identical weld details above the
water may be set much higher (Ref. /28/). The rationale for this is accessibility
for inspection and repair. For similar reasons, redundant and non-redundant
parts of the structure may be designed to different Miner sums. In this way
the Miner sum is not only used as a measure of cumulative damage, but also
as a general safety factor in order t o optimize structural reliability.

4.6 FATIGUE OF WELDED JOINTS

4.6.1 Crack initiation versus crack growth

There has been - and still seems to be - a certain amount of controversy over
whether fatigue of welded joints is predominantly a crack initiation or a
crack growth phenomenon. The current consensus, at least among European
researches, is that the crack growth stage is dominating the fatigue life of
welded joints. Only with certain post-weld improvement methods may an
appreciable fatigue initiation life be introduced (Ref. 1291). This chapter is
written in support of those views. The application of cyclic strain concepts
to fatigue of welded joints is described in Ref. 1301.
 Section 4.6.1
Poor weld
Undercut prof l le

I
~ a c kof f u t l o n Root d e f e c t

Hydrogen
cracking

Lamellar Lack of Solidlf ication

tearing penetration cracking

Fig. 4.53 Various types of weld defects which significantly affect fatigue life.

'IM mason why a crack initiation stam is urrimpt.jlaptantin welded j h t s ,

b that weld defects are always found, In this context, not only the normal
engineering size defects are to be considered (Fig. 4.53). Even a nominally
perfect weld contains defects along the weld toe or at interpass locations.
In all arc welding processes, slag intrusions are found at the fusion line (Fig.
4.54).For manual metal arc methods, defect sizes are typically 0.1 mm deep.
For tungsten inert gas or metal inert gas methods, the defect size has been
shown to be significantly smaller, but defects of similar type are still found.
Besides, undercuts and microcracks are common, depending on welding
process and material quality (Ref. /3 11). These defects are to be taken as
intrinsic features of any production type weld, and act as nucleating sites for

Stag intrusions

Fig. 4.54 Even in sound welds, microscopic defects are present, acting as
crack nucleation sites. The fatigue notch factor of a weld is there-
fore much greater than what can be predicted from the external
geometry.
Section 5.2.1

Lamellar tearing (Fig. 5.3).

Lamellar type cracks may appear when the plate material is subjected to
stresses in the thickness direction during welding. The lamellar pattern is
caused by separation of weak planes of rolled inclusions.

Solidification cracks (Fig. 5.4).

Fig. 5.4 Solidification crack in butt weld.

Solidification cracks may appear in the centre-plane of the weld. They are
often caused by a high sulphur content in the weld (generally supplied by
melted base material). High carbon content also increases the tendency
towards solidification cracking, while basic electrodes remove sulphur from
the pool and are beneficial.

Hydrogen induced cracking.

Cracks which develop due to the presence of hydrogen. They occur when the
welding results in a hardened HAZ structure and the stresses in the joint
reach a certain level. Low carbon equivalent, high heat-input, preheat and
low-hydrogen electrodes are common counteracting measures.

Undercuts (Fig. 5.5).

Undercuts are irregular grooves in the parent metal at the toe of a weld,
or in previously deposited weld metal. The toe groove may be continuous
and it may be wide and open or narrow and shut. The groove increases signifi-
cantly the local stress, and in addition small slag inclusions at or below the
bottom of the groove may add t o its severity. Undercuts are likely initiation
points for fatigue cracks. The occurrence of undercuts may be minimized
 Section 4.6.3
st(eklc4hy-h
I s M+yde fatigue, the m @ e stm@h and the ductility of the
s dedding the f a w e strength. This is
material are important p d ~ t e r in
in contrast to the high cycke w ,where tensile pmyjerties have no signifi-
cant influence o n am -
drcngth weld geomeiry and initial defects
behg the most imports'
The high-cycle range of fatigue is the range which is applicable t o most
offshore design problems. The reason is that this is the range of the most
damaging fatigue stresses for a majority of environmentally loaded structures.
me finite Ilfe m@on is the region where fatigue data may be fitted
to a log-linear curve (a. 4.26). This is consisteht 4 t h a fracture rnechanios
analysis using the Pasis-Erdogan crack growth law.
In constant amplitude testing, there will be a fatigue limit in the range
of 2.1 o6-1 o7 cycles, depending mainly on the residual stress state. With small
residual stresses, the fatigue limit will be in the lower range. Small residual
stresses in the as-welded condition is generally obtained with small-scale
specimens, particularly with welds transverse to the loading axis where the
whole cross-section is heated and allowed to cool simultaneously. This
happens t o be a typical specimen for SN testing, and has led t o the miscon-
seption that a life of 2 - lo6 cycles is a fatigue limit for welded joints. With
more realistic residual stresses, the constant amplitude fatigue limit is found
in the range 0.8-1.0.10~ cycles (Ref. 1321). This can be read from the crack
growth curves shown in Fig. 4.4. The shift in crack growth threshold from
R r 0 (no residual stresses) to R > 0.5 (large residual stresses) comes to a fac-
tor of two or more on the stress intensity range, corresponding to a factor
eight or more in fatigue life.

4.6.3 %&% &'#kc# of geometry

rnttry.
Consider a stressed member as shown in Fig. 4.55 with a uniform axial stress
or nominal stress. If a hole is made, the stress distribution will be distorted.
The cross section at the hole will be decreased, leading to a larger average
stress, Snet = net section stress. Furthermore, the hole is a stress concentrator,
leading to a magnification of the net section stress by a factor Kt - the (elas-
tic) stress concentration factor.
In complicated geometries the net section stress may not be easily
defined, and the stress concentration factor is calculated on the basis of the
nominal stress.
Stress concentrations are not only caused by cross sectional decrease.
Section 4.6.3

Fig. 4.55 Stresses in an unnotched plate (left) and a plate with a circular
cut-out (right).

Also by increasing cross sections, the stress is locally raised as shown in

Fig. 4.56.
Stress concentration factors may be calculated from theory of elasticity
by various methods. Analytical methods tend t o become mathematically com-
plicated, and are applicable to simple geometries only. Finite element methods
are more versatile, and can easily cope with two-dimensional problems. For
three-dimensional cases, the finite element method is still practical, but is
very expensive in many cases.
Welded joints will often lead to cross sectional changes. Typical cases
are reinforcements of beam flanges, reinforcement and stiffening of plates,
etc. Stress concentrations caused by structural shapes are often called structu-
ral stress concentrations. For many structural details, the structural stress
concentration factor may be difficult to assess, not only because of a com-

Fig. 4.56 Stress distribution across the plate at a weld showing the nominal
stress (B - B) and the stress distribution across the weld toe (A - A).
 Section 4.6.3

plicated geometry, but also because of a complicated stress pattern. Typical

examples are cross girders where axial, bending, and shear stresses may act
simultaneously (Fig. 4.27). Tubular joints are another example (Fig. 4.14).

ww
In addition to the structural stress concentration, the weld reinforcement
also is a stress concentrator in most cases, Fig. 4.56. Even welds which are
longitudinal to the loading direction act as stress concentrators, due to the
rippled surface of a weld layer. Only by careful machining of the weld surface
may this local stress concentration be eliminated.
Using welds transverse to the loading direction as an example, weld
shape may be defined by the following parameters, Fig. 4.57,
8 - weld toe angle
p - notch root radius at the weld toe
s - throat thickness, overfill
L - leg length, an alternative parameter to s
tl - thickness of load-carrying plate
t2 - attachment thickness

Fig. 4.57 Parameters defining the nominal geometry of welds.

nite element analysis it may be shown that the

iatr the stmm conmri'tration factor at the weld toe
is some influence from leg length (or throat thickness) and attachment thick-
ness, but relatively minor.
Stress concentration factors of welds may be calculated by finite ele-
ment methods. Parametric formulas are also available (Ref. 1331). It should
be noted, however, that stress concentration factors calculated by these
methods refer to idealized shapes of welds. Real welds exhibit an irregular
geometry, and even more important, there will always be defects of the
 Section 4.6.3

types described in Fig. 4.54. For this reason, the fatigue notch factor Kf
of a weld (Eq. 4.33) is significantly greater than the theoretical (ideal) stress
concentration factor Kt which can be calculated from elastic theory.
The role of Kt is t o give trends with regard to fatigue strength of various
welded geometries. The actual fatigue strength can only be found by fatigue
testing.
I ', , Local nominal stress.
Fatigue design is based on the local nomi~zalstress approach. The term nomi-
nal means that the stress concentration created by the shape of the weldment
is to be disregarded. For example, the stress in Section A - A (Fig. 4.56) is
assumed to be the same as it would be in the absence of the weld, and the
relevant stress for design purposes would be S. The effect of the stress con-
centration caused by the weldment is included in the SN-curve as an implicit
fatigue notch factor.
The effects of stress concentrations due t o the overall geometry must,
however, be taken into account. Thus, in Fig. 4.55, the fatigue design stress
will be the nominal stress magnified by the stress concentration factor caused
by the hole, hence the term "local".
It is to be noted that the local nominal stress approach has been adopted
also in fatigue design of tubular joints. The stress concentration effect of the
overall shape of the joint is taken into account, but the notch effect of the
weldment is disregarded by an extrapolation procedure of the stresses close
to the weld, cf. Sec. 8.3.2.
The one exception to the local nominal stress approach is cases when
design is based on the stress in load-carrying transverse fillet welded joints.
Then the design stress is the nominal shear stress on the minimum weld throat
area, unless this requirement is overruled by the design stress for the plate,
cf. Fig. 4.58.
Stresses to be considered when SN-curves are used for fatigue life
calculations are also discussed in Sec. 10.2.4.

Secondary effects of geometry.

So far, idealized or nominal geometries have been considered. In welding
fabrication, production tolerances may have an effect on stresses.
For transverse load-carrying welds, misalignment has been proved to
have a strong effect on fatigue strength (Ref. 1341). Misalignments may be
characterized by parallel and angular misalignment, as shown in Fig. 4.59.
A special problem with longitudinal seam welds of pressure vessels is
the "roof-topping" caused by angular misalignment, Fig. 4.60.
 Section 4.6.3

Fig. 4.58 In load-carrying transverse fillet welds, fatigue cracks may develop
from the weld toe (design stress S) or through the fillet (design
stress r1).

Fig. 4.59 Misalignment of unrestrained load-carrying welds, parallel (a) and

angular misalignment (b) with respective formulas for stress con-
centration factors.

In misaligned joints subjected to a nominal axial stress, secondary

bending stresses will arise. In general the secondary stress will be proportional
to the nominal stress. Applying the concept of local nominal stress,
capl be faken into account by a s t m w ~concentration factor
( & % ) . ' ~ ~ ~ i c SCF
a l formulas are given in Figs. 4.59 and 4.60. The formulas
in Fig. 4.59 are valid for unrestrained joints, e.g. butt welds. For cruciform
Section 4.6.3

Fig. 4.60 Roof-topping of seam-welded tubulars with a formula for the stress
concentration factor.

joints, or butt welds in stiffened plates, lateral or rotational restraint may

reduce the secondary bending quite significantly (Ref. 1351).
It is to be noted that a parallel misalignment of 20% of the plate
thickness reduces the fatigue strength of an unrestrained joint by about 40%,
which for instance is in excess of the effect of sea water observed in welded
joints. In other words, the misalignment effect is significant.

Size effect - plate thickness.

Increasing the size of a given type of fatigue specimen while maintaining
all the other parameters, will in general cause a decrease in fatigue strength.
This size effect in fatigue may be given several interpretations. The so-called
statistical effect stems from the fact that fatigue is a weakest link process,
nucleating at the location where stresses, geometry, defects, and material
properties combine to form optimum conditions for fatigue crack initiation
and growth. Increasing the size of a specimen will statistically produce loca-
tions which are more vulnerable to fatigue failures. For welded joints, this
size effect will essentially be a function of weld length. Very little is, however,
known about the statistical effect in fatigue of welds. As indicated in Fig.
4.28, the effect will tend t o lower the fatigue strength of large size welds
from the mean value to the lower bound region found in small scale testing.
Independent of the statistical effect of size, there is also an effect of
plate thickness in welded joints. It has been noted experimentally as a de-
crease in fatigue strength by increasing plate thickness. Possible reasons for
the influence of thickness are weld technology and residual stresses, which
tend to be more adverse for heavy section welds. However, it has been shown
that plate thickness primarily influences the fatigue strength of welds through
effects of geometry, which act independently of any other effects of plate
thickness.
220
 Section 4.6.3

A useful model for describing the thickness effect in weld toe fatigue
failures is obtained by the following assumptions (Ref. 1361):
a) Welded joints of the same type in various plate thicknesses are geo-
metrically similar (typical for load-carrying welds).
b) Initial conditions of fatigue crack growth is independent of plate
thickness (ai = const .).

for

and

Fig. 4.61 Geometric model for the effect of plate thickness in fatigue of
welded joints. @q taltial d e b t in the thicker joint will experience
a larger stma than a corresponding defect irr the thinner joint.

From these assumptions, the effect of plate thickness may be under-

stood from a simple geometric model as shown in Fig. 4.6 1. From assumption
(a), the stress distributions across the load-carrying plates in the plane of
crack growth are geometrically similar, leading to a steeper stress gradient in
the thinner joint. Hence, from assumption (b) the initial crack in the thinner
plate will experience a smaller stress than the initial crack of the same length
in the thicker plate, causing a smaller initial crack growth rate in the former
case. The difference in initial crack growth rate overmatches the difference
in crack length to cause fracture, hence the thinner joint will have a longer
fatigue life.
In fracture mechanics terms, the stress gradient through the plate
thickness enters into a calculation of the stress intensity factor, leading to
numerical assessment of what has been described in qualitative terms above.
The thickness effect is thus caused by the following parameters:
i) The magnitude of the stress concentration at the weld toe (mainly
determined by the local weld geometry).
Section 4.6.3

ii) The gradient of the stress in the plane of crack growth (mainly deter-
mined by the plate thickness).
iii) The number of cycles in crack growth through the region of a steep
stress gradient, relative to the total number of cycles t o failure (mainly
determined by the size of the initial crack and the crack ellipticity).
Using this model, it has been shown that the effect of plate thickness
can be assessed by the following correction formulas (Ref. 1371):
N = No (-)tto 314 (4.52)

where No and SN,o refer to fatigue life and strength for a reference plate
thickness to.
The corrections expressed by Eqs. (4.52) and (4.53) have been included
as mandatory clauses in current design codes (Ref. 1381). The reference plate
thickness t o , assumed to be a mean plate thickness in the tests from which
the design SN-curves have been derived, is 22 mm for plane joints and 3 2 mm
for tubular joints.
In Fig. 4.62 are shown a collection of SN data on the thickness effect
of welded joints, and the correction curves for two arbitrary stress levels.
200 -,

Fig. 4.62 Data showing the effect of thickness on fatigue strength for various
types of welds (Ref. 1361).
 Section 4.6.4 - 4.6.5

In Sec. 4.2.6 residual stresses in welded structures were discussed. The main
conclusion was that in large welded structures, tensile residual stresses must
be accounted for, even in parts of the structure which have been subjected
to stress relief.
On this basis, the so-called stress range approach has been adopted in
fatigue design of welded structures. In the design SN-curves, endurance is
given in terms of stress range S,. The mean stress, or stress ratio, does not
appear explicitly. However, the SN-curves are assessed on the basis of large
tensile mean stresses being present, hence the effect of residual stresses are
taken into account implicitly. The procedure applied in including the effect
is described in Sec. 4.7.3.

Fatigue of welded joints is essentially a process of fatigue crack growth.

Only in post weld treated welds (grinding, peening, etc.) may the crack
initiation or nucleation period be of significance.
Crack growth data for steels are remarkably insensitive to material
properties. In Fig. 4.6 are shown crack growth data for various structural
steels, for parent plate, heat affected zone (HAZ), and weld metal respective-
ly. As shown, all the data fall within the same scatter band. Even with large
variations in material properties as in Fig. 4.5, the crack growth curves fall
within the same band.
Crack growth rates are in particular insensitive to the yield strength
of steels. This means that provided fatigue is a process of crack growth,
fatigue strength should be independent of parent or weld metal yield strength.
This has proved to hold true in SN testing. In Fig. 4.63 are shown fatigue
endurance data for steels as a function of yield strength. For machined plate,
the effect of yield strength is large, as predicted by the cyclic strain models
of fatigue initiation, cf. Sec. 4.3. For as-rolled plate, the initiation period is
decreased, and a larger part of the fatigue life is occupied by the crack growth
stage. The effect of yield strength is comparatively smaller. For welded joints,
the fatigue strength is nearly independent of the yield strength as predicted
by crack growth data.
It is to be noted that the data and the conclusions referred above are
for as-welded joints tested in air. For post weld improved joints and for
steel in sea water environments, the effect of material properties in general
and of yield strength in particular may be quite pronounced. These topics
are discussed in Chapters 6 and 7.
 Section 4.7.1

Machined p l a t e

As rolled plate

Butt welds

200 400 600 BOO 1000 S,

Fig. 4.63 Fatigue strength of machined steel plate, as-rolled steel plate, and
steel butt welds, as functions of yield stress.

The invariance of fatigue strength to the yield strength has some severe
implications on design. The rationale for using high strength steels is to be
able to increase the allowable stresses. In design against an ultimate load,
this may well be acceptable. A consequence of an increased stress level is,
however, a reduced fatigue life. Therefore, the use of high strength steels
may lead to fatigue problems. For structural components which are fatigue
critical, there is no advantage in using high strength steel.
Particular fatigue problems in a structure may be solved by lowering
of the stress level, by improvement of the fatigue strength by post weld
L 1
, ,,
I,, ,, treatment (Chapter 6), or by inserting cast components in the critical areas.
If lowering of the stress level is mandatory, this may be achieved by improved
design of the weld details, or by increasing the plate thickness. In many
cases the latter is the only method viable.

4.7 SN DATA FOR WELDED JOINTS

4.7.1 Introduction
In this section, a short review will be given of the data and the analyses and
interpretations underlying present codes for fatigue design of welded steel
structures. The discussion will be based on the fatigue clauses of the British
code for design and construction of bridges (BS 5400), as it has evolved from
the re-analysis work (Ref. /39/). The codes as such and their use in fatigue
design are discussed in Chapter 1 1.
The reason for the choice of BS 5400, apart from the work being well
documented, is the fact that BS 5400 is the leading fatigue design code in
 Section 4.7.2

Great Britain, and has formed the basis for several fatigue design codes for
offshore structures. Other design codes may differ in certain respects. How-
ever, as revisions are being made, different codes should be expected to con-
verge towards the same design criteria, as they indeed should - test data and
methods of analyses being generally the same.

4.7.2 Classification of SN data

The core of any fatigue design code of welded joints is
i) An allocation of the different joint designs into joint or strength
"Classes" according to their comparative fatigue strength.
ii) A set of design SN-curves, defining the fatigue capacity for each class
of joints.
Welded joints are classified with regard to fatigue strength on the basis
of three charactbriStics,
a) The geometry of the weld detail
b) The direction of the fluctuating stress relative to the detail
c) The method of manufacture and inspection of the detail
The terms relating to this classification should be self-explanatory.
However, some details will be discussed below.

Weld geometry.
Weld geometry may be described on a nominal level, a local level, and a
"microscopic" level. Considering for example butt joint of two plates, this
may be accomplished in several ways, cf. Fig. 4.64. On a nominal level, all
these joints are butt joints. In terms of fatigue strength, the various joint
designs may vary considerably, depending on the local geometry. On a "mic-
roscopic" level, the same local geometry may again be given various geome-
tries, cf. Fig. 4.57, leading to a considerable variability in fatigue strength.

Fig. 4.64 Various forms of butt joining of plates and the different flows of
stress.
Section 4.7.2

In the fatigue classification of welded joints, only the local weld geo-
metry is specified. The "microscopic" geometry is assumed to follow from
the weld method and is not defined explicitly.

Loading direction.
The design rules are in general based on test data obtained with uniaxially
ti
stressed specimens with welds either traniverse or longitudinal to the loading
direction. Hence the terms "longitudinal" and "transverse" welds. The load-
ing to consider in fatigue design is the fluctuating component of stress.
In plated structures, nominal stresses are in general bi-axial. A basic problem
is then t o define which component of stress to use, and the direction of this
stress relative to the weld.
As shown by Fischer (Ref. 1401) in his experiments on welded beams
with attached stiffeners, fatigue cracks tend to grow in a direction normal to
the largest principal stress. Principal stress may thus be taken as the "driving
force" in fatigue, and not e.g. the von Mises equivalent stress. For design,
the differences are in many cases negligible, but in some cases a detailed
analysis may be required.
The maximum principal stress range may not always be normal or
parallel to the weld direction, but at some other angle. With the common
type of classification of welds (Chapter 11, Appendix A) it may be difficult
to decide which class is applicable. It has been proposed that if the maximum
principal stress direction deviates more than 25' from the direction of the
weld, the classification is "transverse" (Ref. 1411).
A particular problem arises if the direction of the principal stress
changes during each load cycle. If the fluctuations are periodic, design should
be based on the direction of the peak value of the principal stress (Ref. /41/).
If, however, the stress components are not correlated in phase, as is often
the case for offshore structures (superposition of local and global loads,
multidirectional waves), no recipe seems t o exist.
In general, design rules describe the maximum principal stress range
as the appropriate stress component. This is in accord with the reference
(uniaxial) stress in fatigue testing, and corresponds to Mode I crack growth.
The von Mises equivalent stress may be used, according t o some rules (Ref.
1411). The directionality of stress with regard to the weld is obviously subject
to engineering judgement.

Manufacturing factors.
The main effect of manufacturing methods is due to geometry. Different weld
processes may lead to different "microgeometry" for nominally identical
 Section 4.7.3

welds, cf. Fig. 4.57, and a subsequent effect on fatigue strength. The initial
defects from which fatigue cracks are nucleated may also be a factor of pro-
duction methods. A typical geometrical effect is the irregularity in weld pro-
file caused by interruptions in a weld pass, often called stoplstart positions.
In manual welding these interruptions are unavoidable whereas automatic
welding may be performed without them. The stoplstart positions tend to
lower the fatigue strength, particularly in longitudinal loading, and this is
reflected in the classification of welded joints with regard to welding methods.

4.7.3 Assessment of design SN-curves

Selection of SN data.
Design SN-curves are based on experimental data. In the development of
BS 5400, data from various sources were scrutinized for their applicability
and reliability. Applicability criteria were a minimum of correspondance to
structural welding in terms of material quality, welding procedure, plate thick-
ness e t ~ As
. a general policy, data obtained earlier than 1950 were discarded,
as they were believed to be unrepresentative of current welding technology.
The test data were obtained mainly in the high cycle region of fatigue
endurance, i.e. at fatigue lives in excess of lo4 cycles. The analysis was
restricted to data emanating from specimens tested under uniaxial tensile
loading or from tests on beams in bending, where the stress conditions in the
flange are similar to those in an axially loaded specimen.

Statistical analysis.
The SN data were analysed on the basis of a linear SN-curve on log-log scale,
using standard methods of statistics. A mean line was fitted by regression
analysis, and confidence intervals for individual test results were calculated.
The confidence interval is a measure of the scatter of the individual
results. The regression line is defined by two parameters, which may be taken
to represent the slope and the abscissa intercept of the line respectively.
Both these parameters are identified with an uncertainty, leading to a total
uncertainty which increases at an increasing distance from the centre of
gravity of the experimental data. The resulting confidence limits are hyper-
bolae, cf. Fig. 4.65.
The shape of the confidence limits is reflecting the fact that SN data
tend to be concentrated in an interval of fatigue life which is relatively small
as compared to the scatter. The increased width of the confidence interval
is therefore not reflecting the physical behaviour of welded joints in fatigue,
but is rather a result of the particular statistical method employed.
Section 4.7.3

log N log N log N

Fig. 4.65 A collection of SN data with regression line showing uncertainty

in slope (a), uncertainty in abscissa intercept (b), and total uncer-
tainty (c) (schematic).

In fact SN-curves at low lives tend to become more horizontal, leaving

the upper confidence level in this region over-optimistic, In the long life
region there will be a fatigue limit, which leaves the lower confidence limit
over-pessimistic. For these reasons, the confidence limits were approximated
with straight lines, parallel t o the regression line and tangent to the hyperbolae
as shown in Fig. 4.65 (b).
The confidence interval defines the probability that similar SN test
results will be within the given limits. E-g., a 95% confidence interval defines
the limits within which there is a 95% probability that further test results
will be falling, provided the results belong to the same statistical population.
The lower limit thus defines a 97.5% probability of survival.
The lower 95% confidence limit is often taken as a design curve in
fatigue. This line corresponds to a lowering of the mean line approximately
two standard deviations of individual test results. In this way the mean line
and the standard deviation of fatigue life for a given class of welds may be
used to define design curves representing different levels of safety, as shown
in Fig. 4.66 and Table 4.2.
Based on physical reasoning, three different adjustments to the re-
gression analysis were found necessary as outlined below.

Consistency of data.
In some data collections it was found that the individual test series were
systematically different from the trend shown by the joint regression ana-
lysis. The cause for this was believed to be differences in weld procedures,
specimen geometry, etc., in combination with differences in mean fatigue
life for the different series. This would give a bias in the regression line which
was adjusted for by analysing the data using a fixed slope taken to be the
mean slope for the individual test series.
 Section 4.7.3

Fig. 4.66 Regression line giving the mean fatigue life (a), mean minus one
standard deviation (b), and minus two standard deviations (c)
(schematic).

Table 4.2 The relation between standard deviations, confidence

levels, and probability of survival.

Number of
standard deviations 1 2 3
below mean line
Confidence level 63.2 94.5 99.0
(per cent)
Probability of survival 84.1 97.7 99.5
(per cent)

Residual stresses.
In welded structures, residual stresses are found to be large. Even in structures
with post weld heat treated welds, the residual stresses are significant in rela-
tion to fatigue stresses due to assembly welding and various other effects.
For this reason, design criteria must take into account that the mean stresses
are large and tensile.
The specimens used in ordinary SN testing are in many cases too small
to contain residual stresses representative of full scale structures. This is
particularly true for welds which are transverse to the loading axis, in which
the whole cross section is heated simultaneously in the welding process, with
little restraint on the subsequent thermal contraction. For longitudinal welds,
residual stresses are in general much larger, due to greater constraint. Local
residual stresses will in general be relaxed by cyclic loading if the total stress
- applied plus residual - exceeds yield. Residual stresses are therefore insigni-
Section 4.7.3

Mean S-N curve

determined

07
9

I I
I I

1 o5 2A06
Log N

Fig. 4.67 Correction procedure for stress-relieved specimens in order to

include the effect of large residual stresses.

ficant in the low life range of SN-curves. Based on experimental evidence

a correction procedure was designed in order t o correct SN-curves for lack of
residual stresses. The procedure, leading to a rotation of the SN-curve, is
shown in Fig. 4.67.
An important consequence of the effect of residual stresses is that the
mean applied stress is an insignificant parameter - effective stresses acting in
the welded joint regions are assumed t o fluctuate from yield and downwards,
cf. Fig. 4.68. This has led to the stress range philosophy of fatigue design,
which has been adopted in all codes relevant to offshore structures.

----- -
Local stress history
a t weld

Nominal stress
history

Fig. 4.68 Nominal stress history and local stress history at a weld with large
residual stresses (schematic).
 Section 4.7.3

It has been argued that in variable amplitude loading, local yielding

during peak loads will lead to a shake-down of residual stresses, leaving the
stress range philosophy over-conservative. For short-range stresses this may
hold true, as has been demonstated in fatigue testing (Ref. 1231). The effect
of peak stresses on long-range residual stresses, however, has not been inves-
tigated. It may be assumed that the effect will be small, due to the long range
and the associated large end displacements of these stresses. On this basis,
the stress range philosophy is applied in current design codes regardless of
applied mean stress.

The slope of SN-curves.

With the two corrections discussed above, the statistical analysis gave regres-
sion lines for the different classes of joints of the form
N - s ~ : =a N*(AG-)~ = z (4.54)
with the slope parameter m in the range between 2.74 and 2.79. The actual
slope of the SN-curve is -l/m. a is constant for each joint class.
From fracture mechanics theory of fatigue it is known that if the
crack initiation phase is negligible, the slope parameter m of the SN-curve
is identical to the exponent of the crack growth power law. This parameter
depends mainly on the material property, hence all SN-curves for a given
material should be parallel. Most experimental data for crack growth in
structural steels give an exponent m = 3 . For this reason, and because the
scatter in the slope of the corrected regression lines after all was rather small,
a common slope parameter m = 3 was assumed for all SN-curves pertaining to
welded joints. For plain plate, machined welds, etc., in which the initiation
period is significant, shallower slopes as given by the SN data were adopted.
In Fig. 4.69 an actual set of SN data is shown, with the correction to
the regression line indicated.

Design SN-curves.
Based on corrected SN-curves, various types of welded joints for which SN
data have been compiled, have been allocated to classes with regard to fatigue
strength. For plane joints, the classes are termed ByC, D, E, F, ~ 2G,: and W,
and a joint regression line and standard deviation have been calculated for
each class. Details of the various types of welds are given in Chapter 11,
Appendix A.
The design SN-curves are assessed on the basis of a consideration of
the probability of failure. Thus, in BS 5400, the mean minus two standard
deviations is applied for safe life design, whereas for fail safe design the mean
Section 4.7.3

2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
105 106
Endurance, cycles
Fig. 4.69 SN data for non-load carrying transverse butt welds, showing
regression line corrected for slope (Ref. 1391).

minus one standard deviation is assumed to be sufficiently conservative.

The corresponding probabilities of failure are approximately 2.5% (safe life)
and 15% (fail safe). Mean minus three standard deviations have also been
proposed as design curve, for very critical components, corresponding to a
0.5% probability of failure.
It should be noted that the confidence limits and survival rates men-
tioned, refer t o laboratory SN tests, and should not be taken as a measure
of the reliability of structural components without a much closer considera-
tion. The reason for this is that there is a certain lack of similitude between
the laboratory tests and real life behaviour of full scale components.
 Chapter 4. References

The safe life design SN-curves generally applied for bridges and off-
shore structures and based on the mean minus two standard deviations are
shown in Fig. 11.4. As can be seen a higher value of m has been adopted
for structures in air when N > lo7 cycles. Numerical data for a and m are
given in Tables 11.1 and 11.2.

REFERENCES

Most of Chapter 4 is of general nature, and specific references are kept to a minimum.
Suggestions for further reading on topics related to basic fatigue properties of materials
are given as references 1-6 below.

1. Dieter, G.E. :
Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, 1977.
2. Hertzberg, R.W. :
Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials, John Wiey & Sons,
1976.
3. Sandor, B.I.:
Cyclic Stress and Strain, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1972.
4. Fatigue under Complex Loading: Analyses and Experiments, Wetzel, R.M., ed., Society
of Automotive Engineers, 1977.
5 . Frost, N.E., Marsh, K.J., Pook, L.P.:
Metal Fatigue, Clarendon Press, 1974.
6. Gurney, T.R.:
Fatigue of Welded Structures, Cambridge University Press, 1979.
7. Ohta, A., and Sasaki, E.:
Influence of Stress Ratio on the Threshold Level for Fatigue Crack Propagation in
High Strength Steels, Engn. Fract. Mech., Vol. 9, 1977, pp. 307-315.
8. Rolfe, S.T. and Barsom, J.M.:
Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures, Prentice-Hall, 1977.
9. Maddox, S.J.:
"Assessing the Significance of Flaws in Welds Subject to Fatigue", Welding Journal,
53, No. 9, Sept. 1974.

10. CP 118, Proposed fatigue design rules for welded aluminium structures, British Stan-
dards Institution.
Chapter 4. References

11. Moan, T. et al.:

"The Alexander L. Kielland Accident", report of the investigation commission,
NOU 1981 :11, Universitetsforlaget, 1981 (In Norwegian).

12. Frost, N.E. and Greenan, A.F. :

Environ. Eng. 25, 11 (1967).
13. Bell, W.J.and Benharn,P.P.:
"The effect of mean stress on fatigue strength of plain and notched stainless steel
sheet in the range from 10 to lo7 cycles", STP 338, pp. 25-46, 1963, American
Society for Testing and Materials.

14. Gurney, T.R.:

Some recent work relating to the influence of residual stresses on fatigue strength,
Weld. Inst. Autumn Conf. 1977, pp. 151-164.
15. Leide, N.:
"The significance of residual stresses - some experimental results and practical experi-
ence in a shipyard", Residual Stresses in Welded Construction and their Effects, The
Welding Inst., 1977.
16. Basquin, O.H.:
Yroc., ASTM 10, Part 11, 1910, p. 625.
17. Manson, S.S. and Hirschberg, M.H. :
Fatigue : An Interdisciplinary Approach, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, N.Y.,
1964, p. 133.
18. Coffin, L.F., and Tavernelli, J.F. :
"The Cyclic Straining and Fatigue of Metals", Trans. of the Metallurgical Society of
AIME, Vol. 215, Oct. 1959, p. 794.

19. Landgraf, R.W.:

"Cyclic Deformation and Fatigue Behaviour of Hardened Steels", Report No. 320,
Department of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, 11I.,
Nov. 1968.
20. Symposium on Statistical Aspects of Fatigue Testing, Warwick University, 1975.

Chapter 4. References

36. Berge, S.:

"Effect of plate thickness in fatigue design of welded structures", Offshore Tech-
nology Conference, OTC 4829, 1984.
37. Gurney, T.R.:
The influence of thickness on the fatigue strength of welded joints, Behaviour of
Offshore Structures, London (1979).
38. Offshore Installations: Guidance on design and construction, Department of Energy,
United Kingdom, 1984.
39. Gurney, T.R., and Maddox, S.J. :
 Chapter 4. References
24. Nolte, K.G. and Hansford, J.E. :
"Closed-form expressions for determining the fatigue damage of structures due to
ocean waves," Offshore Technology Conference, OTC 2606,1976.
25. Brose, W.R., Dowling, N.E., and Morrow, J.D.:
"Effect of Periodic Large Strain Cycles on the Fatigue Behaviour of Steels", Paper
74022 1, SAE Automotive Engineering Congress, Detroit, Mi., Feb. 1974.
26. Schiitz, W. :
"Procedures for the prediction of fatigue life of tubular joints", Rapporteur's report
PS5, ECSC Conference on Steel in Marine Structures, Institut de Recherches de la
Siderurgie Fran~aise,Paris, 1981.
27. Schilling, C.G., Klippstein, K.H., Barsom, J.B., Blake, G.T. :
"Fatigue of welded steel bridge members under variable-amplitude loadings", NCHRP
- Project 12-12, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Wash-
ington D.C., 1975.
28. Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures, Det norske
Veritas, 1977.
29. Haagensen, P.J.:
"Improvement of the Fatigue Strength of Welded Joints", Rapporteur's Report PS6,
ECSC Conference on Steel in Marine Structures, Institut de Recherches de la SidCrurgie
Frangaise, 1981.
30. Mattos, R.J. and Lawrence, F.U. :
"Estimation of the Fatigue Crack Inititation Life in Welds Using Low Cycle Fatigue
Concepts", Society of Automotive Engineers, SP-424,1977.
31. Fatigue Performance of Welded High Strength Steels, The Welding Institute Report
Series, 1974.
32. Gurney, T.R.:
"Cumulative Damage Calculations Taking Account of Low Stresses in the Spectrum",
The Welding Institute Report 211976/E.
33. Nishida,M.:
"Stress Concentrations", Morikita Publidung, 1973.
34. Wylde, J.G. :
"The effect of axial misalignment on the fatigue strength of transverse butt welded
joints", The Welding Institute Research Report 9911979.
3 5. Berge, S. and Myhre, H.:
"Fatigue strength of misaligned cruciform and butt joints", Norwegian Maritime
Research, No. 1,1977.
Chapter 4. References

36. Berge, S . :
"Effect of plate thickness in fatigue design of welded structures", Offshore Tech-
nology Conference, OTC 4829, 1984.
37. Gurney, T.R.:
The influence of thickness on the fatigue strength of welded joints, Behaviour of
Offshore Structures, London (1979).
38. Offshore Installations: Guidance on design and construction, Department of Energy,
United Kingdom, 1984.
39. Gurney, T.R., and Maddox, S.J.:
"A Re-Analysis of Fatigue Data for Welded Joints in Steel", Welding Institute Report
No. E/44/72, 1972.

40. Fisher, J .W.,

Albrecht, P.A., Yen, B.T., Klingerman, D.J., McNarnee, B.M. :
"Fatigue strength of steel beams with transverse stiffeners and attachments", NCHRP
Rep. 147, Highway Research Board, National Research Council, Washington DC, 1974.
41. Regulations for the structural design of fixed structures on the Norwegian Continental
Shelf, Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 1977.

42. Austen, I.M.:

"Factors affecting corrosion fatigue crack growth in steels," update paper, European
Offshore Steels Research Seminar, Cambridge, 1978.
43. Scott, P.M., et al. :
"The effect of sea water corrosion in fatigue crack propagation in structural steel",
ibid .
44. Lohne, P. :
"A fracture mechanics approach to fatigue analysis of welded joints in offshore struc-
tures", Det norske Veritas Report 79-0060, 1979.
45. Lindley ,T .C ., and Richards, C.E. :
"Near-threshold fatigue crack growth in materials used in the electricity supply indu-
stry", Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Fatigue and Fatigue Thresholds, Engineering Mate-
rials Advisory Services Ltd., England, 1982.
 CHAPTER 5

SIGNIFICANCE OF DEFECTS

Stig Wastberg and Agnar Karlsen

A.S VERITEC, Oslo

ABSTRACT
The first two sections describe common defects and other undesirable features
that reduce the fatigue life of welded structures. Section 5.4 explains how
weld quality may be described in statistical terms. Section 5.5 describes
nondestructive inspection for detecting and sizing defects, and discusses
the reliability of these methods. The final section gives a general view of the
fitness-for-purpose approach to deciding whether disclosed defects should
be repaired or not, and discusses the relative severity of defects of various
size and shape.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Defects in structures and components may act as initiation sites for fatigue
cracks. Because a fatigue crack grows slowly initially, and then accelerates
as the crack length and the stress intensity range increase, the initial size and
shape of the defect have a much larger influence on the total fatigue life than
the final crack size at which failure occurs. If a defect is large and/or the
material is brittle, the defect itself may be capable of initiating unstable frac-
ture without preceeding fatigue crack growth.

5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS ACCORDING TO ORIGIN

As far as assessing the significance of a defect, it is necessary to know the
shape, size and location (with respect to the stresses) of the defect. However,
it can also be desirable to know the possible reasons for the occurence of a
defect. If one knows why defects occur, one knows where they are likely
Section 5.2.1

to occur and also how to prevent their occurrence. Also it is important

to know the likely sites of defects because it makes them easier to disclose,
and because sites likely t o contain defects should not be designed to carry
high stresses. For example, a quick glance at the subjects in the rest of this
chapter indicates that defects are likely to occur in welds. From the point of
view of fatigue design it is therefore important to choose the correct welding
consumables and welding procedures and to inspect welds for defects. If
possible, welds should be kept away from stress concentrators.
Defects may be divided into two types; those introduced during fabrica-
tion, and those arising after a period in service.

5.2.1 Fabrication defects

Lack of fusion (Fig.5.1).

0'
Fig. 5.1 Lack of fusion defect in MMA-weld (x7.5).

A two-dimensional defect located on the line between weld metal and base
material or between individual weld passes. This type of defect may occur
when using gas shielded metal arc welding (MIG, TIG), and is generally caused
by too low heat input or by oxidation of weld metal in the arc.

Incomplete penetration.
Incomplete filling of the weld root, generally caused by inappropriate welding
parameters such as low heat input or by faulty groove preparation.

Slag inclusions (Fig.5.2).

Welds may contain porosities and slag inclusions of nearly spherical form.
They produce only minor notch effects and have usually little or no influence
 Section 5.2.1

6
Fig. 5.2 Slag inclusion in MMA-weld (x4).

on the fatigue behaviour. However, if located at the surface, they may signifi-
cantly reduce the fatigue strength. Elongated slag inclusions may be of a two-
dimensional form and are considered more dangerous than the spherical
types.

Fig. 5.3 Lamellar tearing in MMA-weld (x2).

Section 5.2.1

Lamellar tearing (Fig. 5.3).

Lamellar type cracks may appear when the plate material is subjected to
stresses in the thickness direction during welding. The lamellar pattern is
caused by separation of weak planes of rolled inclusions.

Solidification cracks (Fig. 5.4).

Fig. 5.4 Solidification crack in butt weld.

Solidification cracks may appear in the centre-plane of the weld. They are
often caused by a high sulphur content in the weld (generally supplied by
melted base material). High carbon content also increases the tendency
towards solidification cracking, while basic electrodes remove sulphur from
the pool and are beneficial.

Hydrogen induced cracking.

Cracks which develop due to the presence of hydrogen. They occur when the
welding results in a hardened HAZ structure and the stresses in the joint
reach a certain level. Low carbon equivalent, high heat-input, preheat and
low-hydrogen electrodes are common counteracting measures.

Undercuts (Fig. 5.5).

Undercuts are irregular grooves in the parent metal at the toe of a weld,
or in previously deposited weld metal. The toe groove may be continuous
and it may be wide and open or narrow and shut. The groove increases signifi-
cantly the local stress, and in addition small slag inclusions at or below the
bottom of the groove may add t o its severity. Undercuts are likely initiation
points for fatigue cracks. The occurrence of undercuts may be minimized
 Section 5.2.2

Fig. 5.5 Undercuts in MMA-weld (x2.5).

by keeping a correct position of the electrode during welding, and by a suit-

able choice of welding procedure and electrodes.

Casting defects.
The defects mentioned so far were welding defects. Also castings may exhibit
defects which can affect the fatigue performance. During solidification, mode-
rate stresses can create cracks due to segregations, non-metallic films, etc.
During the cooling period shrinkage stresses may cause cracks, for example in
fillets. Castings may also contain small internal cracks induced by hydrogen.
Pores and inclusions located at the surface may have a significant influence
on the fatigue strength especially if located at sites with high stresses. Such
defects can be caused by segregation of non-metallic inclusions, by moisture
or by high gas content in the melt.

5.2.2 In-service defects

If a component or structure is examined after a period in service, the follow-
ing defects may appear:
Corrosion pits (Fig.5.6).
Corrosion pits tend to spread either irregularly over a surface or concentrate
to areas adjacent to welds. They may be rounded at the bottom, but there
may also be sharp root-like extensions. These corrosion pits may act as
initiation sites for fatigue cracks and therefore reduce the fatigue life. How-
ever, in the case of welds there are usually other, more severe, crack initiators
present, so that the fatigue life of weldments is not significantly affected by
corrosion pits.
Section 5.3

Fig. 5.6 Corrosion pit in weld metal. A fatigue crack has developed
at the bottom (x4.5).

Stress corrosion cracks.

If a stressed surface is exposed to certain corrosive environments, stress corro-
sion cracking may occur. The stress corrosion cracks can lead to unstable
fracture or they may act as initiators for fatigue cracks. Note that residual
stresses, due to e.g. a weld, are often enough to induce stress corrosion crack-
ing in the presence of certain corrosives.

Fatigue cracks.
Common in-service defects, and the subject of this handbook. Once dis-
covered, they should be treated like any other sharp defect.

5.3 OTHER FAULTS IN FUSION WELDS

Welded joints often deviate from the geometry intended by the designer.
Inaccuracy in matching leads to a misalignment of the joining plates. The
misalignment may be axial and/or angular (Fig. 5.7). Both irregularities
introduce an additional bending stress in the joint and thus influence the
fatigue strength (Fig. 5.8). Misalignment may therefore be a factor to deter-
mine the initiation point of a fatigue crack. Thus in a straight plate, the crack
may initiate from an internal defect, whereas the increase in surface bending
stresses due t o misalignment may shift the initiation point to the weld toe.
At the weld toe there is also a considerable stress concentration pro-
duced by the weld profile. A heavy weld reinforcement will lead to a high
stress concentration at the toe and consequently lower the fatigue strength
(Fig. 5.9). Undercuts further increase the stress concentration at the toe.
 Section 5.3

Fig. 5.7 Axial (a) and angular (b) misalignment.

Fig. 5.8 The relation between misalignment and fatigue strength (Ref. / 11).

2E
Z\ 300 Plain plate
-cn (machined),,
-

-
N
C
0
@. \ ,
a, s
L
-c, 100
5 Plain plate
YOOL\
\ * \
.-
L
ul
( w l th m i 1 l s c a l e )

-
Reinforcement angle,@ (deg.)

Fig. 5.9 The relation between reinforcement angle and fatigue strength
(Ref. /I/).
Section 5 -4

5.4 STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION O F WELD QUALITY

Welded connections will inevitably contain some defects even if great care
is taken to avoid them. The quality of a manual metal arc weld depends to a
great extent upon the welder and his skill. However, even skilled welders who
have passed qualification tests, will produce defects. The size and location of
welding defects will show a considerable scatter which may be expressed in
statistical terms. Also the fracture toughness of welds shows great scatter,
which reflects the heterogenity of the weld metal. This scatter may be ex-
pressed statistically, as in the case of welding defects.
A convenient way to present the statistical variation of a variable is
by probability density functions, such as the normal or Gaussian distribution.
All probability density functions have the following characteristic properties
(Fig. 5.10): The total area under the curves is equal t o unity and the area
under the curve between lines X = a and X = b represents the probability that
X lies between a and b, and is denoted P ( a < X < b ) . Some examples of
measured distributions of weld defects are discussed below.

X X=a X=b X

Fig. 5.10 Illustrating the characteristic properties of a probability density

distribution f(x).

The first example is based on approximately 180 misalignment measure-

ments of full penetration cruciform welded joints in semi-submersible drilling
rigs (Ref. 121). The histogram given in Fig. 5.1 1 shows the results and is fairly
well approximated by the one-sided normal distribution.
The second example shows the distribution of the depth of undercuts
obtained from 827 randomly selected point measurements on production
welds at various shipyards (Ref. 131). The depth values were reproduced on
replicas of liquid silicone rubber allowed to harden on the toe region of the
welds. Of 827 measurements, 502 revealed no undercuts, and the histogram
in Fig. 5.12 was obtained from the remaining 325 locations. The histogram
was represented by the exponential probability density function:
 Section 5.4

Fig. 5.1 1 Misalignment sample and fitted density function, f(e/t).

n = number of measurements (approximately 180) (Ref. 131)

0.5 1.0
D e p t h of undercuts a (mm)

Fig. 5.12 Relative frequency of measured depths of undercuts and the applied
density function (Ref. 131).

Probability density functions for internal defects are difficult to obtain.

Some examples based on ultrasonic testing reports exist, but the uncertainty
of the testing method must be considered when the reports are evaluated.
Distributions based on direct observations hardly exist. However, it is reason-
able to expect that there will be a large number of small defects and a de-
creasing number of larger ones. Such distributions may be half-normal, log-
Section 5.4

5 10
Height of internal defects, (mm)

Fig. 5.13 Calculated relative frequency of the depth of internal defects

(histogram) and the applied density function, f(a) (Ref. 131).

normal, exponential, etc. Fig. 5.1 3 shows a probability distribution based

on results from ultrasonic testing (Ref. 131). About 3200 m of production
butt welds were tested. The test locations were randomly selected from a total
weld length of 40000 rn and were assumed to give a fairly good picture of the
workmanship. About 6400 lengths of 0.5 m each were inspected, and in
450 test lengths 327 defects were detected. Some of the defects extended
over two test lengths, and some test lengths also contained more than one
defect. The given numbers refer to defects which gave ultrasonic echoes
above a certain reference level. Numerous small defects, giving echoes below
the reference level, may have been present but were not detected or reported.
It is also possible that some larger defects for one reason or another did not
give an echo above the reference level and consequently were not disclosed.
Taking account of the uncertainties in the ultrasonic detection method,
the half normal probability density function given as the dotted line in Fig.
5.13 was established for the height of the internal weld defects. The examined
welds were made between plates with thicknesses from 10 t o 25 mm.
In Fig. 5.13 no attempt was made to divide the defects into various
groups (e.g. crack-like and non-planar). A collection of ultrasonic test data
is presented in Fig. 5.14 (Ref. 141). The data were divided into crack-like and
non-planar defects. It is noted that the two types have different probability
 Section 5.5.1

----- Planar d e f e c t

------ Non-planar defect

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2
D e f e c t height ( m m )
Fig. 5.14 Weld defect height distributions (Ref. 141).

density functions. The data were obtained from inspection work on an

offshore structure and consist of results from 12 vertical and 6 horizontal
node joints with a total weld length of the order of 1000 m. All defects
reported were embedded and the average defect rate was 0.7/m. After repair
and final NDT the defect rate was reduced to 0.2/m.

5.5 NON-DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION

5.5.1 Non-destructive inspection methods
Liquid penetrant.
This technique is used to reveal the presence of surface flaws, but can provide
little information on the depth of the flaws.
The surface must first be thoroughly cleaned. Then a brightly coloured
or fluorescent dye is applied. After allowing the dye to penetrate possible
cracks, the surface is wiped and a fine white absorbent powder is applied.
The powder draws remaining dye out of the defects, enabling them to be
located.

Magnetic particles.
This is another technique suited for revealing surface flaws, and it will also
indicate flaws just below the surface. Only ferro-magnetic materials can be
inspected. Magnetic particle inspection does not require a clean surface,
which gives it a practical advantage over liquid penetrant techniques as surface
flaws often contain grease.
Section 5.5.1

A magnetic field is induced in the body to be examined, either by

passing a large electric current through it or by attaching magnets. Iron filings
in a light oil or water suspension is applied to the surface. The iron filings
will gather around the defects and make them visible.

Eddy currents.
Eddy current techniques are most commonly used for automatic quality
control of sheet, tube and wire. They primarily detect surface flaws, and are
most simply applied t o non-ferrous metals. The method is based on the fact
that eddy currents will be induced in a specimen subjected to an alternating
magnetic field produced by a coil. The eddy currents produce a magnetic
field which tends t o reduce the current in the coil. The degree of reduction
depends on the magnitude of the induced currents which in turn depends on
the electric resistance in their path. This resistance is a function of the con-
ductivity of the material and the length and cross section of the current
path. A defect which changes the current path will thus affect the induced
magnetic field and consequently the current in the coil. The current is the
measured quantity during testing. For various reasons the method is difficult
to apply t o welds.

Radiography.
Radiography is a method of detecting internal defects. Radiation (x or y) is
passed through the region to be inspected, and some of it is absorbed. Rays
traversing a defect is less absorbed than those passing through homogeneous
material. The intensity variations due to defects are generally recorded on
photographic film. Thus, the image on the film is a "shadow picture" of the
defects (Fig. 5.15). To obtain a uniform assessment of welds, the Interna-
X-ray source

r:,
Defect

Dark oreb on
photographic f i l m

Fig. 5.15 The principle of radiography for the detection of defects.

 Section 5.5.2

tional Institute of Welding (IIW) has published a collection of reference

radiographs of welds. The quality range is divided into five degrees and charac-
terized either by a colour or by a number where 5 is the best degree and 1
is the poorest.

Ultrasonics.
Ultrasonic inspection is the most flexible and convenient way of detecting
and sizing internal defects. The main disadvantage as compared with radio-
graphy is that a permanent record of the inspection is not easily obtained.
Ultrasonic signals are generated by piezo-electric crystals contained in
probes that can be moved over the surface in the region to be inspected.
The waves are reflected by the surfaces of the examined body, and also by
any defects that might come in their way. These echoes are usually detected
by the same probe that generates the signal. By measuring the time delay
between the emission signal and the reception of each reflection, the source
of reflection can be located, and the position of defects identified. The
signals are usually registered on a cathode-ray tube (Fig. 5.16).

@
Cathode-ray tube

Reflected signal
\

Fig. 5.16 Ultrasonic testing of welds, principle.

5.5.2 Nondestructive inspection reliability

A non-destructive testing method is often characterized by its ability to
detect small defects with a specified confidence level. When the defects are
later to be assessed by for instance fracture mechanics methods, it is neces-
sary to determine both the type of defect and its dimensions, of which the
height in the direction of the plate thickness is the most interesting.
The reliability of ultrasonic inspection in determining the height of
weld defects was examined in a Nordic research project, where 70 m of butt
Section 5.5.2

welds were inspected by several operators (Ref. 151). After inspection the
welds were broken up and the real size of the defects was measured. It
appeared that the ultrasonic echo amplitude was the only parameter which
could be correlated with defect height and which was recorded during con-
ventional ultrasonic examination. In Fig. 5.17 the average ultrasonic echo
amplitude is plotted versus defect height. The uncertainty in predicting the
defect height is seen t o be rather great.

1 10
D e f e c t height, (mm)

Fig. 5.1 7 Average ultrasonic amplitude for twelve ultrasonic operators versus
defect height for lack of root penetration and lack of fusion
defects. The broken curves indicate the 95% confidence limits for
the regression line (Ref. 151).

The individual operators evaluated the defects differently. Each one of

the 12 operators investigated the same 70 m length of butt welds, and each
one compared the ultrasonic echo amplitudes of the different defects with an
"acceptance level echo" equal for all operators. Fig. 5.1 8 shows the proba-
bility of acceptance for the different defect heights, measured as the ratio
between the number of accepted defects and the total number of defects
of a particular size. It would be expected that defects of heights between
8-12 mm would show low acceptance by all operators. That is, however,
not so, 6 operators are seen to accept 40% or more of rather large defects.
In a radiograph there is no obvious parameter to correlate with defect
height. In the Nordic reseach project there seemed to be a certain correlation
between IIW degrees and defect height for lack of root penetration (Fig.
5.19).
 Section 5.5.2

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Defect height, mm

Fig. 5.18 Acceptance curves obtained by twelve ultrasonic operators.

"Probability of acceptance" was obtained as follows: Assume that
the inspected weldment contained eight defects of height approx.
5 mm. One of the operators detected six defects. Five of them gave
an echo which exceeded 50% of the reference curve and were
consequently "not accepted" by the operator. Therefore the ope-
rator "accepted" three out of eight defects with height equal to
5 mm, i.e. the probability of acceptance was 318 = 0.38.

IIW
degree

0Lack' ( 5 ) - 00

Blue ( 4 ) -00
Green ( 3 ) - p 080 o

Brown ( 2)-- a h 0 0 o

Red (1)- 000000000 # 00 000000

I
1 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 ~ 1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
D e f e c t height (mm)

Fig. 5.19 IIW degree versus defect height for lack of root penetration
(Ref. 151).

The rather poor capability of the conventional non-destructive testing

methods in estimating correctly the defect sizes, should be born in mind
when a defect is being assessed.
Section 5.6.1

5.6 ASSESSMENT OF DEFECTS

5.6.1 Fitness-for-purpose approach
When a defect is found, a decision must be made as to whether it should
be repaired or not. The decision may be based on an arbitrary standard of
good workmanship, but consideration should also be given to the loads that
the structure is likely to encounter, the environment in which it will be used
and the consequences of a failure. An approach that evaluates these factors
is often called a fitness-for-purpose approach and should be preferred to the
arbitrary standards because:
- Repairs can be very expensive, particularly if the structure must be
taken out of service or if the installation of a structure is being delayed.
- The fatigue life of a "repair" may actually be lower than that of the
original execution. This is so because repairs are often made by grinding
out the defect and subsequent rewelding. The repair weld itself may
contain defects, the toughness may be low, and the welding may intro-
duce additional residual stresses. Stress relief heat treatment is generally
inconvenient and expensive to apply.

The fitness-for-purpose approach to defect assessment is summarized

briefly below in a five step procedure. More detailed descriptions of the
various aspects are given in the design codes, e.g. PD6493: 1980 (Ref. 161):
- The defect is characterized with respect to size and location. This
involves measuring the size of the defect or defects by NDI, and then
making appropriate simplifying assumptions. As stress intensity factors
are readily available for straight, elliptical and semi-elliptical cracks,
the defects are often idealized to one of these geometries.
- The local stress spectrum is determined.
- A fatigue crack propagation calculation is performed. The possibility
of non-propagation should be considered.
- The critical size to which the defect can grow before fracture occurs,
is determined (Chapter 9).
- If the calculations show that the critical size is reached within the
next inspection period, (which frequently may be the total expected
service life), a repair will be necessary.
 Section 5.6.1

The following example demonstrates the procedure:

A surface flaw was detected at the toe of the butt weld of a pipe with
outside diameter D = 965 mm and wall thickness WT = 25 mm. Allowing for
the uncertainty of the NDI method, the maximum depth of the flaw was
estimated to 3.0 mm and the maximum length to 25 mm. Based on these
data the flaw was idealized by a semi-elliptic crack with half axes a = 3 mm
and c = 12.5 mm, with its plane vertical to the pipe axis.
The maximum applied axial stress oaPp was estimated to 250 MPa
and the effective dynamic stress range Ao to 40 MPa. A rough estimation
of the stress intensity factor at the bottom of the crack was obtained (Section
3.1.3):

In a weld the stress ratio is high, and 4 MPa 6 was assumed to be

above the threshold value for non-propagating cracks. The crack growth was
therefore calculated using a cycle by cycle integration of Paris' equation
in the direction of the two semi-axes (Chapter 3):

AK, and AK, are the stress intensity factors in the thickness direction, respec-
tively along the surface, and dependent on a/2c and the ratio between a and
the plate thickness b.
The results are shown in Table 5.1 for C = 2 10- l 3 mm and
m=3. (MPam)m
Table 5.1.
N a c
Section 5.6.2

The fracture toughness in terms of critical CTOD value 6, at operating

temperature was estimated to minimum 0.5 mm. The pipe had not been heat
treated after welding, and residual stresses of magnitude equal to the yield
strength Re = 420 MPa would prevail in and close t o the weld. Based on these
assumptions the allowable through-thickness crack size, , a was calculated,
using the CTOD design curve (Chapter 9):

It is seen in Table 1 that an unstable fracture may be expected after

approximately 1.2 lo7 load cycles. At that stage the crack has developed
almost through the plate thickness, and for such crack depths the ima-
value is equivalent to the half length of the crack. Consequently it was
decided t o carry out a repair within approximately lo7 load cycles which in
this case corresponded to two years.

5.6.2 Defect severity

5.6.2.1 Sharp defects
The service loads must be considered in a fitness-for-purpose analysis. How-
ever, it can be useful to compare the severity of defects under equal loading
conditions as this can lead to a better feeling for what might represent a
dangerous defect.
It should be pointed out that the sharper a defect, the more severe
it is. Thus, a planar fatigue crack of 10 mm radius is more severe than a
spherical defect of radius 10 mm, assuming that the maximum tensile stress
acts perpendicular to the crack plane and is the same in both cases. In predict-
ing design lives, defects are usually assumed to be as sharp as a fatigue crack.
Apparently this is a lconservative approach, but is justified since rounded
defects often have sharp edges.
The elastic stress field near the tip of a sharp crack subjected to Mode I
deformation is described in Chapter 3 by Eqs. (3.1 a - 3.1 0. These equations
show that the distribution of the elastic stresses at the crack tip are invariant
in. all components, and that the magnitude can be described by the stress
intensity factor KI.
 Section 5.6.2

The severity of planar defects can be compared by comparing the stress

intensity factors for the different defects under equal loading conditions.
A few examples are given below (Fig. 5.20).

Embedded d e f e c t Surface defect

Fig. 5.20 Usual defect size convention.

1. For embedded elliptical cracks, the stress intensity factor is given by:

where @ = 1 + 4.595 -)
(2ac
It is seen that equal severities exist for constant stress when the ratio
a/@ is kept constant. Thus the following embedded cracks have equal
severities :

2. If c is greater than 5 a, the severity of the crack is nearly independent

of c. For example, a slag line or lack of penetration defect which is
2 mm high and 10 mm long would not be significantly more severe
if its length were increased to 100 mm or more.

3. For the same a and c values, surface defects are about 12%more severe
than embedded defects.

In some cases, large defects need not be repaired or considered in a

detailed fracture mechanics analysis because more severe defects may limit
the life of the structure. Consider the cruciform joint loaded in tension in
Fig. 5.21, Ref. / 7 / . There will always be small surface defects of depth about
0.1-0.5 mm at the weld toes. Due to the stress concentrating effect of the
Section 5.6.2

I
Weid t o e d e f e c t
depth assumed
to be 0.1 mm
-
p

Fig. 5.21 Diagram showing whether fatigue cracks will develop from the toe
or root defects (Ref. 171).

weld geometry, these small cracks experience high local cyclic stresses and
may therefore grow by fatigue at lower applied cyclic loads than needed to
extend substantially larger root defects. In that case the root defect need
not be repaired. In Fig. 5.2 1 it is not expected that fatigue failure will occur
from root defects of size less than 0.5 5 P if a/P is around 0.7.

5.6.2.2 Rounded defects

The elastic stress field in the vicinity of narrow rounded notches subjected
to tensile stresses normal to the notch plane may be described by adding a
term to the set of equations for sharp cracks (Fig. 5.22).

('~y)notch = ('xy )crack -

KI . -- 38
sin -
(27rr)'l2 2r 2
 Section 5.6.2

Fig. 5.22 Coordinate system for notch tip stress field.

KI is the stress intensity factor for a sharp crack of length equal to that
of the notch and subjected to the same loading. The second term represents
the influence of the blunt notch with radius p. From these equations it is seen
that the maximum stress at the bottom of the notch is:

This equation indicates that the severity of blunt notches and other rounded
defects may be compared by the ratio K I / f i .

It is expected that the parameter K I f l will lose its significance when

the plasticity at the notch is extensive. However, if the plastic zone is small,
the sourrounding elastic stress field will govern the strains of the localized
plastic zone. And it is as a characterizing parameter for non-propagating
cracks that K I / f i can be used. The following threshold values for the K I / f i
ratio have been found experimentally from testing of ferritic-pearlitic, mar-
tensitic and austenitic steels (Ref 181).

ferritic-pearlitic steels

martensitic steels

austenitic steels

n : strain hardening exponent.

For a 5 mm deep surface notch in a ferritic-pearlitic steel of yield

stress Re = 360 MPa subjected to a stress range Aa = 50 MPa, no initiation of
fatigue cracks should thus be expected if:
Chapter 5. References

These relationships have been obtained from testing of specimens with

machined blunt notches and should not be applied t o real defects such as
slag inclusions which may have sharp edges. Also their range of validity is
-
limited. For tests with ferritic-pearlitic HY-130 steel (Re 900 MPa) it was
found that the fatigue crack initiation behaviour was independent of the
notch tip radius p for p < 0.2 mm and p > 6.4 mm.

REFERENCES

1. Gurney, T.R. :
Fatigue of welded structures. Cambridge University Press. Second Ed. 1979.
2. Berge,S. andMyhre,H.:
Fatigue strength of misaligned cruciform and butt joints. Norwegian Maritime Re-
search, April 1977.
3. Bokalrud, T. and Karlsen, A. :
Control of fatigue failure in ship hulls by ultrasonic inspection. Norwegian Maritime
Res. No. 1. Vol. 10. 1982.
4. Wong, W.K.and Rogerson, J.H.:
Weld defect distributions in offshore structures and their influence on structural
reliability. OTC, Houston, 3-6 May 1982.
5. Fsrli,O.:
Reliability of ultrasonic and radiographic testing. Conference on Fitness for Purpose
Validation of Welded Constructions. The Welding Institute. London, 17-19 Nov. 1981.

6. British Standards Institution:

"Guidance on some methods for the derivation of acceptance levels for defects in
fusion welded joints." PD 6493: 1980.
7. Bokalrud, T. :
Finite element analysis of butt weld and cruciform joints to determine the significance
of internal crack-like defects. Norwegian Maritime Research. No. 31 1978.
8. Rolfe, S.T. and Barsom, J.M.:
Fracture and fatigue control in structures. Application of fracture mechanics. Prentice-
Hall,Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA, 1977.
 CHAPTER 6

IMPROVING THE FATIGUE STRENGTH OF

WELDED JOINTS

Per J . Haagensen
SINTEF, Trondheim

q- ABSTRACT
In this chapter several methods for improving the fatigue strength of welded
joints are reviewed. An evaluation of existing test results shows that improved
weldments made from high strength steels have consistently higher fatigue
strengths than mild steel connections having been treated with the same
methods. In a comparison of improvement methods it is shown that each
method has its strength and weakness when considering service loading, cost,
case of application and quality control. Thus the most effective method
depends on the type of structure and type of welded joint.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.1 .1 General
Any weld in a structure usually represents a weakness both with regard to
brittle fracture and fatigue strength. The low fatigue strength of welded joints
is a limiting factor for the design of more efficient structures, in particular
since the fatigue strength normally does not increase with static strength.

1. dsrtdl , fbr example by subtitu- a lower class jaint

&th one having s higher iil#igue strength.
2. k p h g the fatigue -q$h of the jobt g an improvement
~ t h d .
Section 6.1.2

Improvement methods are usually employed as remedial measures

t o extend the fatigue life of welds that have failed prematurely and have been
repaired, or to extend the life of welds that through service load monitoring
have been shown to be more severely loaded than assumed during the design
phase.
A strong incentive for applying improvement methods to new structures
is the potential for increasing the fatigue strength in some relation to the
static strength, i.e. to make an improved welded joint behave like a mildly
notched component as shown in Fig. 6.1.

m
Cn
C
0
'too-
VI
VI
0
I

G sa-
R=O
Steel to BS 4360
I Grade SOB

Cycles

Fig. 6.1 Relationship between endurance limit and ultimate tensile strength
for some components (Ref. / 11).

The use of higher allowable stresses for welded joints in higher strength
steels entails other benefits as well: The thickness effect in fatigue is reduced,
bringing about a further reduction in weight as compared with a lower strength
steel joint with the same load bearing capacity. A reduced section size in
general also improves the brittle fracture properties of the joint. The lower
welding, handling and erection costs may partially offset the higher fabrica-
tion expenses incurred by the improvement methods.
In this survey the emphasis is on the degree of improvement in fatigue
strength that is possible to obtain using the various improvement techniques.
However, from a practical point of view other consideration such as costs and
reliability of the treatment (quality assurance) may be important. Various
aspects of quality control and costs are discussed briefly at the end of the
chapter.

6.1.2 The potential for improving fatigue strength

In order to exploit the full potential of fatigue life improvement methods
 Section 6.1.2

ln
400 600 800
?
3; ULtlmate tensile strength o f steel, MPa

Fig. 6.2 Typical fatigue strengths at R = -1 of unnotched, mildly notched and

welded components, dependent on the tensile strengths of the steels.

it is useful to look at the reasons for the poor fatigue performance of welded
joints. The low fatigue strength of welded joints as compared with other
notched components is illustrated in Fig. 6.2. Welded joints differ from other
notched components in several ways even if the elastic stress concentration
factors Kt are similar. It is important to identify the main factors that tend
to reduce fatigue life in order to choose efficacious methods for improving
the fatigue performance mmnm beCw^mbatBed and wnwelded,
notched cornpanents are :
c n l of the weld toe region
1. Mo&h s e e curd defem l!/k % a ; ~ ~ ~ f Mnotoh
which ~Od;laflYis the m&t fatigue critical are* is generally less uni-
form than notches in a machined component, see Fig 6.3. Moreover,
welded joints contain an assortement of defects, most of which are so
sharp that they start growing as fatigue cracks when the structure is
subjected to dynamic loads, 'thus reducing or bhinating the crack
a&atksnstage of the fatigue life;.
2. MetafIurgical chaages in the base material. The material in the heat
effected zone (HAZ), in which the fatigue crack is likely to initiate
and propagate, undergoes metallurgical changes that may affect the
local fatigue properties. Thus the softened material in the HAZ of a
higher grade steel whose high strength has been obtained by thermo-
mechanical treatment, may limit the fatigue strength that is possible
to obtain by improvement techniques.
3. RddtasC #tI"esesare set up in and near the weld due to the contraction
of the weld metal as it cools to ambient temperature. These local
Section 6.1.3

clm
f, aE
CONCENTRATION
:cT
CRACK-LIKE
\
/ /HYDROGEN
'
CRACK

FUSION L I N E

LACK OF FUSION
- LACK OF PENETRATION

Fig. 6.3 Factors affecting fatigue life of welded joints: a) 1 - cracklike defect;
2 - undercut; 3 - hydrogen crack; 4 - lack of fusion; 5 - lack of pene-
tration, b) residual transverse stress field across the weld.

residual stresses due to welding which may attain yield stress magni-
tude, affect the fatigue properties in a similar manner as externally
imposed mean loads, i.e. a tensile residual stress reduces fatigue life
while a compressive stress increases life. The distribution of transverse
residual stresses in a welded plate of simple shape is shown in Fig.6.3 b).

Residual stresses do not arise only from the thermal strains associated
with the welding process and subsequent cooling. Global or long range
residual stresses are introduced in a structure whenever members are
forced together due to misfit, uneven thermal expansion or when
restraint is being used. Long range stresses act over large areas and are
therefore not relaxed by peak loads at stress concentration or by local
treatment. They are generally of smaller magnitude than welding
stresses.
4 . Environmental effects. A corrosive environment may have a strong
adverse effect on fatigue life as discussed in Chapter 7. The fatigue life
of common welded joints are typically reduced by a factor of two to
four under free corrosion in seawater. However, the prevention of
corrosion by either cathodic protection or protection coatings, which
may restore the air fatigue properties of a welded joint, are not re-
garded as improvement methods per se because corrosion protection
is part of normal practice for the construction and operation of off-
shore structures.

6.1.3 Improvement methods

In the preceding discussion the three factors that most strongly affect the
 Section 6.1.3

We of welded joint were identified as: 1. Slesg concentration due to

joint and weld geometry; 2. Defects, shape and di-stsibution; 3. Residual
d&s. According t o the main principle on which the improvement is based,
for i n c d g the fatigue strength of weiMed structures can be
grouped in two basic categories:
1. Weld geometry modification and defect removal methods.
2. Residual stress methods.
The various workshop techniques within the two groups are shown in Fig. 6.4.

1A- GRINDING
)
MACHINING
METHODS 5L.y ;n9

REMELTING w DRESSING

DRESSING

SPECIAL WELDING I (AWS) 1

TECHNIQUES
SPECIAL
ELECTRODES

- SHOT
PEENING
- PEENING
METHODS
-
HAMMER OR
- WIRE BUNDLE
PEENING
- MECHANICAL -
METHODS I
INITIAL
OVERLOADING
- OVERLOADING
METHOOS
- LOCAL
COMPRESSION

- STRESS
THERMAL
RELIEF

+
THERMAL
METHODS HEATING

GUNNERTS
METHOD

Fig. 6.4 Classification of some weld improvement methods.

Section 6.2.1

A brief discription of each method and the degree of improvement which

has been achieved in laboratory tests are given in the following sections.

6.2 WELD GEOMETRY MODIFICATION AND DEFECT REMOVAL

METHODS
6.2.1 Grinding techniques
By full profile burr grinding the entire weld face is machined and given a
favourable shape to reduce the stress concentration and t o remove harmful
defects at the toe, see Fig. 6.5. For all types of grinding it is of vital importance
that material is removed to a depth of 0.5 to 1-0mm t o remove defects such
as intrusions and undercuts, Fig. 6.3 b). Toe burr grinding usually results in
a somewhat lower increase in fatigue strength compared with full profile
burr grinding. For example in Ref. /3/, full burr grinding gave 100% increase
in fatigue strength, while toe grinding gave 60%. The cost for toe grinding is,
however, substantially lower.
Disc grinder

R o t a r y burr
grinder 1L

Full profile
grinding
\ ~ o e g r i nding

0.5-1.0 mm

Fig. 6.5 a) Two grinding methods: 1 - rotary burr grinding; 2 - disc grinding.
b) 3 - full profile grinding; 4 - toe grinding.

Disc grinding is the least time-consuming grinding process, but the

fatigue strength of disc ground joints is usually found to be somewhat lower
than for joints subjected to toe burr grinding because of the score marks
that are transverse to the applied stress. However, test results do not show
a clear trend as exemplified in Fig. 6.6, where toe burr grinding gives higher
fatigue strength than disc grinding for a high strength steel, while the situation
is the reverse for a lower strength steel.
The effect of free corrosion in sea water was investigated by Booth,
Ref. 151, and deBack et al, Ref. 161. In Ref. /6/ the fatigue lives of as-welded
and ground joints were reduced by similar amounts by corrosion. In Ref. / 5 /
however, only the lives of improved (ground) joints were reduced significantly,
 Section 6.2.1

500' \\ '\
\ \
Heavy d l r c ground
400-
Toe burr ground
0
IJ,
5
L
300-
ul
240-
-C
Ln
200-
K.y
1 8 0 - B S 4360 (+ 43A
( 2 4 5 MPa yleLd
160- strength)

140-
-- SuporeLso 7 0 ( 6 8 5 MPa
yield strength)

120-

100 I I I I r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1o 4 1 o5 lo6 1o7
Endurance, c y c l e s

Fig. 6.6 Fatigue strength improvements due to burr toe grinding and disc
grinding, data from Ref. 131.

air r e s u l t s -

Number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e , Nf

Fig. 6.7 he effect of free corrosion in sea water on the fatigue strength of
as-welded and ground specimens (Ref. 151).
Section 6.2.2

see Fig. 6.7. This was attributed to the formation of corrosion pits. The pits
would act as stress raisers and thus shorten the fatigue life considerably,
whereas the more sharply notched as-welded specimens would be less affected
by corrosion.
The variation of improvement with base material strength for ground
specimens is shown in Fig. 6.8. The data show that high fatigue strengths are
obtained consistently for the higher strength steels. For medium and high
strength steels the increase is always greater than two classes in the design
curve system of BS-5400.

Symbol Ref. Typeof

weldmen t
O O A V 3 Cruclform
Fillet welded'
do l n t s
@ B 7 B u t t welds

Polish

- ---- ----- BS 5400

----
cycles

50 1- 0
200 400 600 800 1 0 0 0 200 400 600 800 1 0 0 0
Ultimate tensile strength, R,(NPa) Ultimate tensile s t r e n g t h , R,(MPa)

Fig. 6.8 Variation of improvement in fatigue strength due to grinding, depen-

dent on base material strength. Data from Refs. 131, /4/, and 171.

6.2.2 Weld toe remelting methods

Remelting the weld toe region using either a tungsten inert gas (TIG) or a
plasma torch generally gives large improvements in fatigue strength for two
reasons: Remelting gives a smooth transition between the plate and the weld
metal, and secondly, non-metallic contarninents such as slag intrusions are
melted and removed. While both methods are somewhat time consuming, they
share one advantage in that they are suitable for mechanization.

TIG dressing.
TIG dressing is performed with standard equipment for thin plate TIG weld-
ing. The material in the toe region is melted to a shallow depth without the
addition of filler material, Fig. 6.9a). Slag particles are brought to the surface
and the remelted zone is essentially defectfree. Optimum conditions have
 Section 6.2.2

Fig. 6.9 $&g: a) single run; b) double run. 1- tungsten electrode; 2 -

nozzle; 3 - shielding gas; 4 - HAZ; 5 - remelted metal; 6 - remelted
metal from second TIG run; 7 - HAZ from second run, Ref. / 121.

been proposed by Kado (Ref. 191) and Millington (Ref. /lo/). The heat input
should exceed 1.0 kJ/mm (Ref. 171) to obtain a good profile. A high heat
input should also be maintained to obtain a low hardness in the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) of C-Mn steels. Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas,
but results by Fisher (Ref. / 1 11) indicate that helium would be a better choice
as higher heat input (about 14%) and greater depth of penetration (about 40%)
were obtained with helium. Fisher (Ref. 1111) found the deep penetration
of the helium-shielded TIG arc particularly useful for the repair of welded
joints containing small fatigue cracks. Using a penetration depth of about
6 mm, he found that 3 mm deep fatigue cracks could be removed successfully.
Reduced hardness in the HAZ can also be achieved by a double-run
TIG dressing technique, Fig. 6.9 b). The heat from the second TIG pass made
on the weld metal tempers the HAZ from the first and brings the hardness
level down to an acceptable level of about 300HV10 for C-Mn steels, (Ref.
1121).
The weld and plate should be clean in order to avoid pores and irregu-
larities in the remelted metal; this can be achieved preferably by sandblasting
or light grinding. A particular problem with the TIG and plasma remelting
techniques is that of stopping and restarting the remelting run which tends
to give very irregular bead profiles. Stopping and reinitiating the arc on the
weld surface is one solution to this problem, see Fig. 6.10.
Section 6.2.2

Fig. 6.10 Restarting technique for TIG remelting run after accidental stop
(Ref. /lo/).

Typical results from tests on TIG-dressed specimens (Ref. / 121) are

shown in Fig. 6.1 1. Large improvements were also obtained in other test pro-
grammes (Refs. 161, /7/, 113-1 81). The summary of air results in Fig. 6.12
indicates that the improvements due to TIG dressing increase with increasing
static strength of the base material.

Bateriak FG 47 CT
Loading; const. amplitude
Environment; lab. air
Frequenc. 5 Hz
Load r a k ; R=0.1

TIG dressed

welded

8=

0-0-

Number o f c y c l e s

Fig. 6.1 1 Effect of TIG dressing on the fatigue strength of a medium strength
steel (Ref. / 171).

Fig. 6.13 shows results from tests in sea water (Ref 1171) indicating a
strong influence of free corrosion on the fatigue lives of TIG-dressed speci-
mens; however, significant improvements were still evident. Similar results
were found in Japanese (Ref. 1151, / 16) and Dutch (Ref. 161) tests, but not in
the British (Ref. 151) which showed no improvement in sea water.
 Section 6.2.2

50 1
200 400 600 800 I 0 0 0 O ' zbo 460 d o d o lob0
Ultimate tensile s t r e n g t h , Rm(MPa) Ultimate tensile strength , Rm(MPa)

Fig. 6.12 Variation in fatigue strength improvement due to TIG dressing

dependent on base material strength.

Material; OX602
Loading; constant ampli tude
Environment; sea water
Frequency; 1Hz
Load ratio; 0.1

50 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

lo4 2 3 4 5 lo5 2 3 4 5 to6 2 3 4 5 10'

Number o f cycles t o failure, N

Fig. 6.13 Influence of sea water corrosion on the fatigue strength of as-
welded and TIG-dressed specimens (Ref. 1171).

similar to TiG dressing, the main cNfYerena? being higher

put, and a wider weld pool. In Ref. 1201 a minimum heat
input of 2.1 kJ/mm is recommended. The wider weld pool tends to make
plasma dressing less sensitive to electrode position relative to the weld toe,
Section 6.2.3

and the resulting improvement in fatigue life is generally larger than for TIG
dressing (Ref. 171). Test results from several investigations (Ref. 161, 171, and
119-2 1/) are summarized in Fig. 6.14. The data in Fig. 6.14 indicate that the
improvements in the fatigue strength of plasma dressed specimens increase with
static strength, i.e. the same trend as for TIG dressed specimens (Fig. 6.1 2).

0 Ref. 6
R e f . 21
A Ref. 20
v " " "
X Ref. 19

+-
0 a 200 400 600 800 1 0 0 0 O 200 400 600 800 1 0 0 0
U l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h . R.(MPa) U l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , R,(MPa)

Fig. 6.14 Variation in fatigue strength improvements due to plasma dressing

dependent on base material strength.

In one investigation (Ref. 1211) weld metal was added to the toe during
plasma dressing, this gave an increase similar to those obtained by conven-
tional plasma dressing.

6.2.3 Improved welding techniques

Instead of employing costly post weld improvement methods, the philosophy
of the American Welding Society (AWS) has been to attempt to control the
shape of multipass welds to obtain, firstly, a favourable overall geometry
and secondly, a smooth transition at the weld toe (Ref. /22/). In Japan
similar ideas have led to the development of special electrodes for use in the
capping pass in high strength steel joints. The first approach has met with only
limited success as described below.

A WS improved profile welds.

In the AWS Structural Welding Code (Ref. /22/) a reduction in the large-
scale stress concentration factor due to weld shape as well as a lowering of
the local stress at the toe is sought by specifying an overall concave weld
 Section 6.2.3

profile and a smooth transition at the toe, see Fig. 6.1 5. In the latest modifi-
cation to API RP2 (Ref. /23/), the use of non-profiled welds is discouraged
through use of a lower SN-curve.

Dime test to be applied

to weld toes (A) and
weld face irre ularltles
(interpass notcfes)
Coin or disc
yith radius R

1 mm wire shall

Fig. 6.15 The American Welding Society (AWS) improved profile weld and
"dime test" (Ref. 1221).

Tests on specimens with various weld geometries showed no particular

trends for nominal weld angles of 70' and 45'; this may stem from the fact
that the local geometry at the toe (weld contact angle and radius of curva-
ture) was not closely controlled (Ref. 161). Tests on tubular joints (Ref. 1241)
fabricated to AWS improved profile specifications were also inconclusive as
no difference in fatigue life could be found between specimens which had
passed the dime test and those which failed, see Fig.6.16. Gurney (Ref. 1251)
has shown that welds with improved profiles obtained by grinding the weld
metal alone to a concave shape without grinding the toe region gave no
significant increase in fatigue life. This may explain the results inFig. 6.16.
Thus the AWS improved profile can only be expected to give consistent
improvements in fatigue life if the toe region is carefutly ground as indicated
in Fig. 6.5 b).

electrodes.
Systematic investigations of the effect on fatigue strength of special MMA
electrodes designed to give a smooth transition profile at the toe have been
carried out only in Japan (Refs. 171, /8/ and 126-281). These electrodes were
developed specifically for use in the final weld pass at the toe of joints made
from high strength steels in the 500 to 800 MPa yield strength range to avoid
Section 6.2.3

0 Pass
e
l
?
.

Endurance, cycles

Fig. 6.16 Results from fatigue tests on tubular joints with improved weld
profiles according t o AWS (Ref. 1241).

costly weld improvement treatments. Good wetting and flow characteristics

are obtained by the use of a suitable flux composition. The improvement
in fatigue strength as a function of base material strength is shown in Fig.
6.17.

A .. .
V R e f . 15
.,
0 Ref. 2 8

..
n n n

0 .,

- 3 - 4
200 400 600 800 1000 O 200 400 600 800 1000
Ultimate t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , Rm(MP.) Ultimate t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , Rm(t'lPa)

Fig. 6.17 Variation of improvements in fatigue strength with base material

strength as a result of using special electrodes.
 Section 6.3.1 - 6.3.2

6.3 RESIDUAL STRESS METHODS

6.3.1 General
Due to the presence of high tensile stresses in as-welded joints, applied stresses
become wholly tensile in the weld area, even if the applied stress cycles are
partly compressive. Thus as-welded components are insensitive to the stress
ratio of the applied stresses. Stress relief can therefore be used to improve
fatigue strength, but the degree of improvement is strongly dependent on the
mean stress of the applied load cycles. Significant improvements due to stress
relief are possible only if the applied stress cycles are at least partly com-
pressive. Since long range reaction stresses will always be present in a large
welded structure, stress relief itself cannot be regarded as a life improvement
method. For this reason stress relief is not at present incorporated in any
design codes that apply to offshore structures.
To obtain significant improvements in fatigue strength, it is necessary
not only to remove tensile stresses but also to introduce compressive stresses
of sufficient magnitude in fatigue critical areas, to make even completely
tensile applied stress cycles partly compressive. An important limitation to
this principle is that the peak service loads, particularly those in compression,
should be so low that yielding does not occur, as this would relax the residual
stresses. Several methods have been developed to introduce compressive
residual stresses (Fig. 6.4), the more important are described below.

6.3.2 Hammer peening

Peening is a surface cold working process which produces a layer of heavily
deformed material containing high compressive residual stresses. Hammer
peening is performed with a pneumatic hammer fitted with a solid tool with
a rounded tip of 6-14 mm radius, the air operating pressure is typically in
the 5-10 bar range. Alternatively the tool consists of a wire bundle, each wire
of approximately 2 mm diameter and the tip rounded. It has been found
(Ref. /3/) that four passes along the weld toe with a solid hammer tool pro-
ducing an indentation approximately 0.6 mm deep, represent an optimum
treatment for mild steel. This type of hammer peening gives much higher
fatigue strengths than either shot peening or wire bundle (multiple point)
peening, the probable reason being the large amount of cold working and the
beneficial effect of reducing the stress concentration by the severe deforma-
tion of the toe region.
Most of the work on hammer peening has been carried out at The
Welding Institute (Refs. 131, /4/, /29/), but some tests have been performed
 Section 6.3.2

A s welded
Hammer peened

PLate f a i l u r e away
Plate failure from
No failure

60 0 1 I I 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~

1 o4 1 o5 1 o6 1 0'
Cycles

Fig. 6.18 Improvement in fatigue strength due t o hammer peening (Ref. 1291).

in the US on cover-plated beams (Ref. 1111) and in Belgium on cruciform

joints (Ref. 1301). Typical UK tests results on fillet welds are shown in Fig.
6.18. The effect of base material strength on the increase in fatigue strength
is shown in Fig. 6.19.

' 0 0 0
200 400 600 800 1 0 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Ultimate tensile s t r e n g t h , R,(MPa) Ultimate t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , R,(mPa)

Fig. 6.19 Variation of fatigue strength improvement with base material

strength due to hammer peening.
 Section 6.3.3

6.3.3 Shot peening

As an improvement method for welded joints shot peening has attracted a lot
of attention in recent years, possibly because it can be applied to large areas
at relative low costs. It gives large increases in fatigue strengths and, because
practical experience in its use has been gained over a long time in other
industries, there is a fairly well developed system for defining optimum condi-
tions and for quality control of the process.
The shot -peening process is similar to sand blasting. However, instead
of sand, small diameter cast iron balls or small pieces of high tensile steel
wire are fed into a high velocity air stream. Specification of all shot peening
variables is cumbersome and therefore impractical. Two parameters, the
Almen intensity and the coverage are used instead. The intensity of the peen-
ing (the degree of surface plastic defonnation) is determined by Almen strips,
which are small steel strips attached to the component. The strip develops
a curvature due to the surface deformation on the exposed side. The curva-
ture (the height of the arc) in a strip of a given material and thickness then
defines the Almen intensity. The coverage is related to the amount of area
covered by the dimples produced by the shot. Complete or 100% coverage
is obtained when visual examination at 10X magnification reveals that the
dimples just overlap. The commonly used specification of "200%coverage"
then implies that the object is peened for twice the time required for 100%
coverage.

0 1
200 400 600 800 1000 O ' zoo 460 6i0 860 l o b 0
Ultimate tensile strength, Rm(MPa) Ultimate tensile strength , R,(MPa)

Fig. 6.20 Variation of fatigue strength improvement due to shot peening

dependent on base material strength.
Section 6.4 - 6.5

The size of shot is also important. In order to reach the bottom of all
notches the shot should be small, but the peening intensity decreases with
decreasing shot size. Typical shot size is in the range of 0.2 to 1.0 mm, typical
velocities are 4 0 to 60 m/s.
Test results from three separate investigations (Refs. / 181, 1301, 13 1/)
are summarized in Fig. 6.20, which shows that shot peening produces large
improvements in fatigue strength, particularly for high strength steel joints.

6.4 COMBINATION OF IMPROVEMENT METHODS

Compounding two or more improvement techniques can give very large
improvements in fatigue strength. This can be used in situations where costs
are of minor importance, for instance when extra fatigue strength is needed
to avoid extensive redesign when a damaged structure is to be repaired.
Combinations of methods from each of the two main improvement groups
are likely to give best results. Thus Gurney (Ref. 1341) found that combining
full profile grinding with hammer peening gave a fatigue strength for fillet
welded specimens in mild steel equivalent to that of the base material. Simi-
larly, Bignonnet et a1 (Ref. 1321) observed a large improvement when com-
bining a controlled profile weld technique with shot peening (Fig. 6.2 1).
It may be possible to offset partially the higher costs of combined
methods by incorporating one of the techniques as part of the normal fabri-
cating procedure. Shot peening for instance, could possibly be used instead
of sand blasting to clean parts before applying surface protection systems.

6.5 TEST ON LARGE SCALE COMPONENTS

The only European tests on improved welds on large scale structures are
those previously mentioned on tubular joints (Ref. 1241) with welds con-
forming to the AWS improved profile. Although these tests were inconclusive
with respect to life increase, tests made by Fisher (Ref. 11 11) on cover-
plated beams with hammer peened and TIG-dressed welds gave improvements
of at least one design category in the A A S H T O % ~specifications.
~~~~ Grinding
gave smaller improvements. However, the full potential of the improvement
techniques was not realised because of premature failures originating at the
weld root. German tests (Ref. 1141) on beams similar to Fisher's (350 mm
web depth, 24 mm flange thickness) also gave very modest increases in fatigue
strength because of premature failures originating at hydrogen-induced
cracks in the web-to-flange welds. Swedish tests (Ref. 1341) on beams that
were almost identical to Fisher's also resulted in small but significant increases
*) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
276
 Section 6.5

2;:.
Scat ter band for speci&n
In the as-welded condl tion

A Welds f u l l y ground
Welds f u l l y round,then
hamrnw poene8

Endurance, cycles

Improved
profile

E 460 30 mn
Air, R=0.1 10-20 Hz
inlt. failure
As welded o
Shot peened
50 ! l l l l I I , 1 1 1 1 1 I I l l l l l r l

1 o5 1 o6 10
'
Number o f c y c l e s

Fig. 6.21 Fatigue strength improvements obtained by compounding;

a) grinding and hammer peening (Ref. 1341);
b) improved prome and shot peening (Ref. 1321).
Section 6.6

in fatigue strength. The small increase was, as in Fisher's test, attributed to

failures starting at the roots of the cover plate fillet welds.

6.6 COMPARISON OF IMPROVEMENT METHODS

Typical results from various improvement methods are shown for a mild
steel, Fig. 6.22, and a high strength steel (HT60), Fig. 6.23. In all cases large
increases in fatigue strength were obtained , particularly at low stress ranges.
The shallow slopes of the SN-curves indicate that the improvements arise
mainly from the addition of a crack initiation stage.

Endurance, cycles

Fig. 6.22 Effect of some improvement techniques applied to mild steel

transverse fillet welded joints (Refs. / 2 / , /19/).

A statistical analysis has been carried out on a large number of test

results to compare the improvements obtained by various methods (Ref. /36/).
The main results are shown in Fig. 6.24. Although two weld classes (butt and
fillet welds) are mixed and the scatter therefore is large, the trends are similar
to those observed in the test series surveyed here with 49, 83, and 57%
average increase in fatigue strength for machined, remelted, and peened spe-
cimens, respectively.
The strengths and weaknesses of some of the more important improve-
ment methods are listed in Table 6.1.
 Section 6.6

Plasma dressed

\. -c ----------
TIG dressed
\.-Ground
----
As welded

HT 60 steel
R, = 589 MPa
50 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 o4 2 4 6 lo5 2 4 6 lo6 2 4 6107

Number of cycles t o failure, N

Fig. 6.23 Effect of some improvement methods applied t o high strength

steels (Ref. 1351); data from Ref. 1211.

Table 6.1 Evaluation of improvement methods.

GROUP. METHOD ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
GRINDING Relatively simple and Applicable mainly to planar joints
w METHODS easy to perform. that can be expected to fail from
8 General Give large improvement. the toe. All grinding techniques
E give a poor working environment
regarding noise and dust. Access
to weld may be a limiting factor.
H
Relatively simple to per- Marginal increase can be expected
Zi form, inexpensive. for large size welds tubular joints
@
0
Simple insection criterium
(depth min. 0.5 rnrn below
plate surface or undercut).
due to stress concentration effect
of groove.

Full profie Very slow. Expensive Large improvements to be ex-

b u n grinding due to h a labor costs pected for all types of welds.
and high tool wear rate.
C
n8 ;gding Very fast compared with
burr grinding. Can cover
Score marks give lower improve-
ments than burr grinding.
C3
large areas
Improper use may introduce
serious defects.
Section 6.6

Table 6.1 (Continued)

- -

GROUP METHODS ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

REMELTING Large improvements are Operator needs special

METHODS possible. Suitable for training.
General mechanization.
TIG Small physical effort Careful cleaning of weld and
dressing required. plate necessary.
Inexpensive. High hardness may result in C-Mn
steels due to low heat input.
Plasma Easy to perform due to Lower hardness than TIG
dressing large weld pool. dressing.
Somewhat larger improve- Heavy, cumbersome equipment.
ment than TIG dressing Accessibility may limit use.

WELD The improvement is intro- Defects at weld toe not

PROFILING duced in the welding pro- removed.
METHODS cess itself
General
AWS Well defined inspection Very large scatter in test results
improved criterion (the "dime test") due to variations in microgeome-
I profile try at weld toe. Consistent im-
Suitable for large welds provements only possible if
and tubular joints method is combined with others,
e.g. toe grinding, hammer peening
or shot peening.
Special Easy to perform. Suitable Improvement smaller than e.g.
electrodes for smalljoints. Inexpensive grinding or TIG dressing.
-
General 1 Large improvements Not suitable for low cycle fatigue
possible. applications.
~eneficialeffects may disappear
under variable amplitude loading
involving peak compressive loads.
Hammer Very large improvements Limited to toe treatment only.
peening possible for poor quality
welds.
Simple inspection criterion Excessive peening may cause
(depth of groove > 0.6 mm) cracking.
Shot Well developed procedures Practicable application to large
peening for small parts. Covers scale structures not demon-
large areas. strated.
Simple methods for Best suited for mild notches.
quality control.
Improves resistance to Very thin surface layer
stress corrosion cracking. deformed; corrosion may quickly
remove beneficial effects.
 Type of joint Type of joint

Fatl ue improvement
by AG a piasma
arc dressing
Fatigue improvement
by shot-or
hammer-peening

1 2 0.8 1 2 4
Ratio 6i/%,50z R a t i o 6; /6A,S0x

Type of joint

Probability onaly s i s
of characteristic
fatigue strength UA

Fatigue improvement
by machining

0.01
1 2 30 50 100 150
R a t i o 6; /d,,50x Characteristic f a t i g u e strength (MPa)
Section 6.7

6.7 COST OF IMPROVEMENT METHODS

Most techniques for improving the fatigue strength are time consuming and
considerable costs are therefore involved. Obviously costs and increase in
fatigue strength are equally important factors when evaluating improvement
methods, particularly when the treatment is to be included in the fabrication
process of a new structure. Little information about the costs of improvement
methods is available; some data are listed in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 Comparison of costs of improvement methods.

RELATIVE COSTS
METHOD
Ref. /38/
Ref. 1371 Ref. 1301 Ref. /3/ .
Butt w. T-joint

TIG dressing 1 1 1 1
Hammer peening 113 3 1
Toe burr
3 3-4
grinding
Full profile
37 15 12
burr grinding
Heavy disc
2 0.7-1 -1 0.4-1.7
grinding

Large uncertainties are associated with the figures in Table 6.2. It is not
clear, for instance, if the costs of checking that the treatment has been cor-
rectly performed are included. However,Table 6.2 indicates that the costs of
TIG dressing, hammer peening and disc grinding are of similar magnitude,
while full profile burr grinding is extremely expensive. In a Swedish study
on the economics of disc grinding and TIG dressing (Ref. 1381) it was found
that the type of joint had a strong bearing on the costs. Thus disc grinding
which was found to be generally faster and cheaper than TIC dressing when
applied to butt welds, was the more expensive method when access to the
weld was limited.
 Section 6.8.1 - 6.8.2

6.8 APPLYING IMPROVEMENT METHODS TO OFFSHORE STRUC-

TURES
6.8.1 General
Almost all current knowledge about improvement techniques has been gained
from tests on small planar joints. The question of the relevance of these data
to large scale structures then has to be addressed. The fatigue properties of
large components of complex shape differ from those of small scale planar
specimen in the following ways:
1. Higher levels of residual stresses exist in larger components. Long
range reaction stresses are not relaxed at stress connections by occasio-
nal large peak loads.
2. Plate thicknesses are larger.
3. Stress distributions are more complex; the peak stress may not occur
at the weld toe, but somewhere on the weld reinforcement.
The higher levels of residual stresses in larger components may to some
extent be simulated in tests on small specimens by applying high stress ratios
or correcting the results for the influence of mean stress. However, the size
effect in thick plate improved joints and the implications of stress distribu-
tions differing from those found in simple planar joints should be considered
in more detail.

6.8.2 Effects of size and stress distribution in improved joints.

The effect of plate thickness on fatigue strength of welded joints is mainly
due to two factors: a) Severity of the stress concentration and b) Stress
gradient in the thickness direction at the notch root. Other influencing fac-
tors are the size and distribution of defects and the static strength of the base
material. Due to the reduction of the stress concentration factors of joints
that have been improved by modification of the weld profile, it can be shown
both by considering crack initiation at notches and by fracture mechanics
calculations of crack growth that size effects are much less dominant in geo-
metry improved joints than in untreated ones.
In contrast to small joints where the peak stress occurs at the weld toe,
the area of highly stressed material in a large scale joint encompasses several
weld runs and fatigue cracks may initiate anywhere in this area, see Fig. 6.25
a) - b). For welds in tubular joints this effect is even more pronounced,
especially for joints with large ratios of brace to chord diameters as illustrated
in Fig. 6.26.
Section 6.8.2

( aI (b)

Fig. 6.25 Stress distribution in a) small joint with peak stress in toe region
affecting material in one weld pass only; b) large scale weld with
peak stresses including several weld passes.

Chord wall

Peak stress i n Fig. 6.26

veld fillet
Typical stress distribution across
Stress a t weld toe weld in a tubular joint.

The stress distributions in Figs. 6.25 and 6.26 have important impli-
cations for the choice of improvement methods for large scale joints. Firstly,
removing material by grinding the toe region of a weld in a tubular joint
means that the leg length is reduced and the stress distribution is altered as
shown in Fig. 6.27. The resulting peak stress may well be higher at the toe of
the ground weld and the improvement in fatigue life marginal. Thus a weld
which is to be improved by toe grinding must have a sufficient large leg length
to avoid moving the new toe into a higher stress field.

Stress prior to grinding

, \ \yk, from original

material removed by grinding

Fig. 6.27 Stress distribution in the weld of a tubular joint prior to and after
toe grinding.
 Section 6.8.3

The second aspect of highly stressed welds is that an effective improve-

ment involves treating the entire weld, not only the toe region. Thus im-
provement methods that cover large areas such as shot peening or disc grind-
ing are likely to be preferred. Alternatively, if choosing a method which is
normally used for local (toe) treatment, e.g. burr grinding or TIG remelting,
the treatment should be extended to cover all interpass notches.

6 3 . 3 Inspection criteria
Although the many test programmes surveyed here have verified that it is
possible to obtain large increases in fatigue strength by various improvement
techniques, it is still necessary to establish procedures and inspection criteria
to ensure consistent results. The depth of grinding, Fig. 6.2, at the weld toe is
a simple inspection criterion. However, cracks at the bottom of deep under-
cuts could possibly remain after grinding, and such cracks would be difficult
to detect because of the heavily deformed surface, particularly after heavy
disc grinding.
To ensure consistent improvements following a remelting treatment,
it would probably be necessary to establish remelting procedure qualification
tests for welders, similar to the procedure tests used for welding, to ensure
sufficient heat input and low hardness in the HAZ. Visual inspection would
probably be sufficient to detect pores and defects that tend to result from
improperly deslagged welds or contaminated electrodes.
For hammer peening the indentation depth is a simple and reliable
inspection criterion. Shot peening, however, presents a more difficult problem
because recent work (Ref. 1301) has shown that there is a poor correlation
between Almen strip intensity and the resulting fatigue strength following
shot peening. To ensure adequate coverage the erosion of an ultraviolet
sensitive coating may have to be used (Ref. 1301).

6.9 CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of a large number of results from many test programmes, the
following conclusions are drawn:
1. All techniques gave improvements in air corresponding to a shift of at
least two design classes in the BS 5400-SN-curves.
2. In free corrosion most improvement techniques gave small but signifi-
cant increases of fatigue strength.
3. The full potential of the weld toe improvement techniques can be
realised only if premature failure from other sites, e.g. the weld root,
can be avoided.
4. The amount in increase in fatigue strength due to post weld improve-
ment is larger for higher strength steels than for mild steel.
285
Chapter 6. References

REFERENCES

1. Maddox, S.J. :
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2. Gurney, T.R.:
"Fatigue of welded structures." 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1979.

3. Knight, J.W.:
"Improving the fatigue strength of fillet welded joints by grinding and peening."
Welding Research Int'l, 8 ( 6 ) , 1978.

4. Booth, G.S.:
"Constant amplitude fatigue tests performed on welded steel joints in air."
Select Seminar "European Offshore Steels Research", Abington, 27-29 November
1978, Paper 4.
5. Booth, G.S.:
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steel." IIW Doc. XIII-835-77.
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strength steels." IIW Doc. XIII-77 1-75.

10. Millington, D.:

"TIG dressing for the improvement of fatigue properties in welded high strength
steels." Weld. Inst. Rep. C215/22/71, July 1971.
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12. Haagensen, P.J.:

"Effect of TIG dressing on fatigue performance and hardness of steel weldments."
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286
 Chapter 6 . References
13. Minner, H.H. and Seeger, T.:
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15. Todoroki, R. et al.:
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"Structural welding code." American Welding Society, 1980.
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"The basis for the revised fatigue design rules in the Department of Energy Offshore
Guidance notes. Paper 55 Second Int. Conf. on Offshore Welded Structures, The
Welding Institute, London 16-1 8 Nov. 1982.
Chapter 6. References
26. Kanazawa, S. et al. :
"Improvement of fatigue strength in welded high tensile strength steels."
IIW DOC.XIII-735-74.

27. Kado, S. et al.:

"The improvement of fatigue strength in welded high tensile strength steels by addi-
tional weld run with coated electrodes." IIW Doc. XIII-772-75.
28. Kobayashi, K. et al. :
"Improvement in the fatigue strength of fillet welded joint by use of the new welding
electrode." IIW Doc. XIII-828-77.
29. Booth, G.S. :
"The effect of mean stress on the fatigue lives of ground or peened fillet welded steel
joints." Welding Institute Report 34/1977/E.
30. Maddox, S.J.:
"Improving the fatigue lives of fillet welds by shot peening." IABSE Colloquium,
Lausanne, 1982.
31. Miisgen, B.:
"Verbesserung der Schwingfestigkeit von Schweissverbindungen hochfester wasser-
vergiiteter Feinkornbaustahle durch therrnische und mechanische Nachbehandlung
der Nahte", Stahl und Eisen 103, 1983, p. 225.

32. Bignonnet, A. et al.:

"Improvement of the fatigue life for offshore welded connections." IIW Conference
"Welding of Tubular Structures", Boston.
33. Bergquist, L. and Sperle, J-0. :
"Influence of TIG dressing on the fatigue strength of coverplated beams."
IIW DOC.XII1.-826-77.
34. Gurney, T.R. :
"Effect of peening and grinding on the fatigue strength of fillet welded joints."
British Welding Journal, Dec. 1968.
35. Haagensen, P.J. :
"Improving the fatigue performance of welded joints." Paper 36, Second Int. Conf.
of Welded Structures, The Welding Institute, London 16-18 Nov. 1982.
36. Olivier, R. and Ritter, W.:
"Improvements of fatigue strength of welded joints by different treatments - sta-
tistical analysis of literature date.'' Int. Conf. on Steel in Marine Structures, Paris 5-8
Oct. 1981.
 Chapter 6 . References

37. Watkinson, F. et al.:

"The fatigue strength of welded joints in hlgh strength steels and methods for its
improvement." Welding Institute Report C215/16/70, 1970.
38. Lindskog, G.
"TIG dressing. A technical and economical assessment of a method to increase the
fatigue properties of welded joints." IVF-RESULTAT 7864 1, Sveriges Mekanforbund
1978 (in Swedish).
 CHAPTER 7

EFFECTS OF MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND

CATHODIC PROTECTION ON FATIGUE
OF STRUCTURAL STEELS

Einar Bardal
SINTEF,Trondheim

ABSTRACT
This chapter deals with various effects of marine environment and cathodic
protection on fatigue of structural steels. The mechanisms of different effects
are reviewed. Environmental effects and influence of cathodic protection on
SN-curves and crack growth data are quantitatively treated in separate sec-
tions. The significance of weld type and quality, materials properties, load
variables, environmental factors and corrosion protection measures are re-
viewed. Based on crack growth data the effects of corrosion and cathodic
protection on fatigue life have been shown by calculation examples for typical
crack-load conditions. The main trends of the results are discussed and
compared with British design guidelines.

7.1 QUALITATIVE PRESENTATION OF EFFECTS, MECHANISMS

AND IMPORTANT FACTORS
The effects of marine environment and cathodic protection (CP) on SN- and
crack growth diagrams are schematically shown in Fig. 7.1 a and b. The SN-
curves show that free corrosion in marine environment reduces markedly the
fatigue life of plain specimens, whereas the reduction is less for welded joints.
The fatigue limit is eliminated or at least drastically reduced by corrosion.
A normal degree of cathodic protection usually restores the air fatigue life.
In the high cycle region, fatigue life and fatigue limit may even be increased
by CP. At high load levels, however, cathodic protection may reduce fatigue
life. This is particularly the case for high degrees of CP (overprotection)
and for high strength steels.
29 1
Section 7.1

k Sea water+CP

P l a ~ n
specimen
Sea water+CP
Specimen
<:.\:\,\A ir
w ~ t hw e l d
or n o t c h

x ? ~ P l a ~ ns p e c ~ m e n
S e a watey?%- /
free corrosion <,: ' With
or
weld
notch

log (number of cycles failure Nf )

Fig. 7.1
Effects of sea water corrosion and
cathodic protection on a) SN-curves
d and b) crack growth rate curves.
aKth Log nK

log ( s t r e s s i n t e n s ~ t y r a n g e A K)

For corrosion fatigue and fatigue of welded joints it has been shown
that the crack growth period represents the major part of fatigue life (Sec-
tion 7.2). Much attention is therefore given to crack growth data. Compared
with the growth in air, free corrosion in sea water accelerates the crack growth
rate to a higher or lower degree (Fig. 7.1 b). Cathodic protection reduces
crack growth at lower AK-levels and increases it at higher levels.
Both corrosion and cathodic protection influence fatigue by different
effects and mechanisms (Refs. / 1, 2, 3 /) . Some of the effects are counter-
acting, and the total effect on fatigue data depends on the prevailing condi-
tions. The main mechanisms acting on structural steels in sea water, and the
typical conditions favouring each mechanism are briefly reviewed below.
 Section 7.1

a) Corrosion pits and grooves act as stress raisers and thus contribute t o
crack initiation at an earlier stage and at a lower nominal stress than
initiation in air (Fig. 7.1 a). For ordinary welded joints this mechanism
is probably less important because weld defects may be more effective
stress raisers than corrosion defects. In the case of improved welds,
however, corrosion defects o n the surface are more significant.
For low carbon steels in chloride solutions, the significance of pitting
corrosion as the initial stage of corrosion fatigue has been questioned
(Refs. 11, 21). Pits are often found near fatigue cracks but they might
have been formed after the cracks had started.
b) Corrosion fatigue is governed by a synergistic mechanism : Local plastic
flow and the creation of new, active surfaces at the initiation site or at
the crack front accelerate anodic dissolution, and vice versa, local
anodic dissolution promotes plastic flow. This mechanism is responsible
for easier and accelerated initiation as compared with fatigue in air,
with marked effect on the SN-curves for plain specimens (Fig. 7.1 a). It
also favours the conditions for crack growth. The reduced threshold
value AKth in corrosive environment (Fig. 7.1 b) may be explained by
this mechanism.
c) Particularly during stressfree periods, corrosion may blunt the crack
front and retard crack growth for some time after the stressfree period,
and thus counteract mechanism b. Under variable load amplitudes the
resulting effect of mechanisms b and c are difficult to assess.
d) Sea water corrosion at or near the crack front may make the crack envi-
ronment acid. This allows hydrogen development to take place inside
the crack, and the development is further stimulated by the enhanced
anodic dissolution mentioned under item b. At medium to high load
levels the crack growth may therefore increase by hydrogen embrittle-
ment (Fig. 7.1 b).
e) Full cathodic protection eliminates the mechanisms a, b and c. In deep
cracks, however, the effects under items b and c and the cathodic
polarization to prevent them, may not be 100% effective (Ref. 141).
Also compare mechanism h.
f) At medium to high load levels hydrogen embrittlement due to cathodic
protection may increase crack growth (Fig. 7.1 b).
g) Under cathodic protection, calcareous deposits may be produced on the
Section 7.2.1

crack surfaces and lead to crack closure. Subsequently lower crack

growth rates and a higher threshold value AKth will result (Fig. 7.1 b).
h) Mass and charge transport within the crack affect both corrosion and
cathodic protection at the crack front. Supply of reactants t o and
removal of products from the crack tip region are restricted, and there
will be a potential drop between the crack front and the free surface.

Several factors are important for the environmental effects on corro-

sion. When test data are applied for practical purposes such as design, evalua-
tion of damage tolerances etc., it is essential that these factors and their
effects are known. Load frequency, type of environment, e.g. that 3% NaCl-
solution does not simulate sea water properly, stress level and electrochemical
potential are among the most important factors. The effect of environment
also depends on temperature, stress ratio, material strength and weld quality.
High pressure and low rates of water flow may have some significance. Quanti-
tative effects of the majority of these factors are shown in the following
sections. For some factors, the available information is incomplete.

7.2 EFFECTS OF CORROSION AND CATHODIC PROTECTION ON

EXPERIMENTALLY DETERMINED SN DATA
7.2.1 Plain specimens and different types and qualities of welded joints.
In dry fatigue of structural parts and specimens with plain surfaces, the
initiation period may be the dominant part of fatigue life. In a corrosive
environment, however, the initiation period is greatly reduced. E.g. in a low
carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution, 0.1 mm deep cracks may be produced
during the first 10% of fatigue life (Ref 121).
Welds of ordinary quality with sharp notches may reduce the initia-
tion period to about the same extent as does corrosion. There is also an
additive effect of geometrical stress concentration and corrosion which is
reflected in the fatigue life (Ref. /I/). This is illustrated in Fig. 7.2, which
shows SN-curves for cruciform joints in air and synthetic sea water, as welded
and as ground (Ref. 151). Ground and other improved welds have smaller
weld defects, hence the fatigue initiation period is longer. When such welds
are exposed to sea water, the reduction of fatigue life due to corrosion is
greater than in the as welded condition. In other words, the improvement
of welds is less effective in sea water than in air (Ref. 161).
 Section 7.2.1

air results -

Number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e , Nf

Fig. 7.2 SN-curves for transverse welded joints of BS4360-50D steel in as

welded and ground condition, tested in air and sea water at t = 5-8OC.
Stress ratio R = 0 and frequency f = 0.167 Hz (Ref. 151).

The effect of corrosion is also strong on full penetration butt welds.

This is shown in Fig. 7.3, where synthetic sea water gives a life reduction
factor varying from 3 to 6, with the highest reduction at the lowest stress

I o4 1 o5 1 o6 I o7
Number of cycles t o failure Nf

Fig. 7.3 Effects of corrosion on SN-curves for butt welded joints in steel
BS4360-50D, exposed in synthetic sea water, compared to air data.
t = 10-12"C, f = 1 Hz (Ref. 171).
Section 7.2.2

1 o4 1 o5 1 o6 1 o7
Number of cycles to failure Nf

Fig. 7.4 As Fig. 7.3, but with saline atmosphere instead of synthetic sea
water (Ref. 171).

(Ref. 171). A saline atmosphere has a smaller effect (Fig. 7.4). Cathodic
protection at -780 and -1 100 mV vs SCE (approx. -800 and -1 120 mV vs
Ag/AgCl/sea water) gives fatigue lives similar to those in air (Ref. 171).
For other types o f welded joiuzts which have generally larger defects,
the corrosive effect is smaller, mostly with a life reduction factor from 2 to 3
(Refs. 18, 91). Examples are shown for different ioints and stress ratios in
Figs. 7.5 and 7.7 for 20°C and in Fig. 7.6 for 5 " ~ These . results are from
small scale tests, but a similar reduction factor has been found for tubular
joints (Ref. /lo/).

7.2.2 Significance of environmental factors and corrosion protection measures

Most corrosion fatigue tests referred to in the present chapter have been
conducted in synthetic sea water and some in naturul sea water. When the
results from the different laboratories are compared, it seems as if synthetic
sea water is a satisfactory substitute for natural sea water. This was also
confirmed by a few tests run at Norges tekniske hsgskole and designed so
that a direct comparison was possible. 3% NaCl solution on the other hand
can not replace natural sea water in all cases.
The life reduction factors given in Section 7.2.1 refer to free corrosion
under continuous immersion in sea water (Figs. 7.3, 7.5 and 7.7). Fig. 7.6
also shows the effects of intermittent immersion which seems to give about
the same fatigue life reduction as does continuous immersion. Other tests
indicate, however, that the intermittent immersion results are closer to
air results (Ref. 181) and similar to those observed in saline atmosphere
 Section 7.2.2

Cruciform non-load
) c a r r y i n g f u l l penetration
weld , B - t y p e s a s welded
Air
Sea water------

T-form, non-load c a r r y i n g
f u l l p e n e t r a t i o n we.Ld,
A-type,as welded

Air
Base series -
Sea water
Cruciform load
)carrying full penetration -.---
weld, C-type, as welded A
...........
50 1 I 1
0 Air
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I ~

16 1 o6 1 o7 I o0
Number o f c y c l e s t o failure, N f

Fig. 7.5 Fatigue results for different joints in air and sea water. t = 20°C,
R = 0.1 ,f = 0.2 Hz in sea water tests. Steel Euronorm 1 13-72, Grade
FeE 355 KT (Refs. /8,9/).

- 400
0

a
200 -

0 S e a water ( f r e e corrosion) Mean Line

C
.-
E
2 50
a Sea water
0 Sea water I i n t e r m i t t e n t immersion)
cathodic protection)
f o r air
data
I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 o4 1 o5 1 o6 1 o7
Number of cycles t o failure, Nf

Fig. 7.6 SN-data for welded joints of B4360-50D steel in air and sea water
under free corrosion, intermittent immersion and cathodic protec-
tion. t = 5" C, R = -1, f = 0.167 Hz (Refs. /5,8/).
Section 7.2.2

F u l l p e n e t r a t on w e l d , as w e l d e d

1 sea w a t e r
air
sea w a t e r

Air

Sea w a t e r

Number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e , Nf

Fig. 7.7 Fatigue behaviour of T-shaped specimens in air and sea water at
stress ratios R = 0.1 and -1. t = 20°C, f = 0.2 Hz in sea water tests.
Steel Euronorm 113-72, Grade FeE 355 KT. As welded (Ref. 191).

(Fig. 7.4). Under sea water drip at t = 20°C and f = 0.125-1 Hz, an average
life reduction factor of about 2 compared with air was found for the as
welded condition, but with a larger scatter than usually observed under free
corrosion (Ref. / 1 11).
Temperature is an important variable to consider. Som British SN tests
of welded joints at 5OC have shown very little effect from sea water compared
with air, while similar Dutch tests at 20°C have resulted in the typical reduc-
tion factor 2-3 mentioned earlier (Ref. 181).
Hydrostatic pressure in the range of 70-140 bar gives a significant but
not very large reduction of corrosion fatigue strength, as compared with
usual values under atmospheric pressure (Ref. / 11).
Variation of oxygen content and pH over wide ranges affects corrosion
fatigue. However, the real variations of these properties are small in marine
environments and their effects are not significant (Ref. / I/). Water velocity
may be of some importance when the specimen is under cathodic protection.
(Section 7.3 -3)
As seen in Fig. 7.6, cathodic protection restores the air fatigue life,
and may even give longer lives than in air at the lower stress levels. This is a
result obtained in several investigations, but less benificial effects of cathodic
protection have also been observed. E.g. in one case, cathodic protection of a
tubular joint gave the same life as free corrosion, but with slower initiation
 Section 7.2.3

and faster crack growth (Ref. /lo/). (Compare Section 7.4)

Paint coatings will prevent corrosion fatigue as long as they remain
intact and are not scratched or cracked.

7.2.3 Significance of loading variables and materials proper ties.

In the as welded condition the applied stress ratio R has only a small effect
both in air and under free cprrosion (Fig. 7.7) (Ref. /9/), or no significant
effect at all (Ref. / 1/). If the joint is stress relieved, however, there is a signi-
ficant effect of R on the SN-curve as shown in Fig. 7.8 (Ref. 191). It will
also be seen that the effect of R is greater in a corrosive environment, in
other words the effect of corrosion is greater at R = 0.1 than at R = -1.

-
F u l l p e n e t r a t i o n w e l d , PWHT
0.1. a i r
0.
water 0 . 1 sea water
-1 air
-1 sea water

Air

Number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e , N f

Fig. 7.8 As Fig. 7.7, but with stress relieved specimens (Ref. /9/).

The frequency effect on corrosion fatigue depends on the conditions.

The contribution of corrosion to corrosion fatigue is greatest in the initiation
period, and lowering the loading frequency, markedly reduces initiation life.
During crack growth, the frequency effect is more pronounced at medium
and high stress intensity ranges than at low ones (Section 7.3.2). Corrosion
fatigue SN data should be determined with a frequency of the right order
of magnitude to ensure their validity in design.
High cycle corrosion fatigue strength does not increase with increasing
tensile strength of the material. High strength steels are usually the most sensi-
tive to hydrogen embrittlement, and this may reduce fatigue life, particularly
at low potentials. The quantitative effects of hydrogen embrittlement are
insufficiently investigated.
Section 7.3.1

The effect of sea water under variable amplitude loading is also insuffi-
ciently studied. However, a similar fatigue life reduction factor as reported
for constant amplitude seems to exist. An average factor of 2.2 was found
with a narrow band spectrum and with Raleigh and Gaussian peak distribu-
tions (Ref. 181). Ref. 1121 reported a factor of less than 2 under realistic
stress sequences. In this work it was interesting to observe that the loading
frequency did not significantly influence fatigue life in the range between 0.2
and 10 Hz, and that appropriate cathodic protection completely eliminated
the damaging effect of sea water (small specimens, f = 1-10 Hz, R = -1).

7.3 EFFECTS OF CORROSION AND CATHODIC PROTECTION ON

CRACK GROWTH
7.3.1 Different effects at different levels of crack growth

3 4 6 10 20 40 60 90 3 4 6 10 20 406090
Stress ~ntensity Stress intensity
r a n g e n K (MPaCrn) r a n g e A K (MPaTrn)

Fig. 7.9 Fig. 7.10

Mean crack growth curves showing Crack growth data. Free corrosion
tests in air, under free corrosion in in sea water. R = 0.5 (Ref. 1141)
sea water and with cathodic protec-
tion at two potentials. R = 0.5.
(Refs. 113, 14, 151)
 Section 7.3.2

Mean crack growth curves at R = 0,5,based on results from Ref. /13/ with
high crack growth rates and from Refs. /14,15/ with low growth rates, are
shown in Fig. 7.9. The effects of sea water and cathodic protection at diffe-
rent growth rate levels were also discussed in Section 7.1. Fig. 7.10 shows
growth rates under free corrosion, supplying background data for Fig. 7.9.

7.3.2 Significance of loading variables and materials properties

The effects of environment and cathodic protection at different AK-levels
are shown in Fig. 7.9.
It can be seen in Fig. 7.1 1 (Ref. / 131) that the growth rate under free
corrosion increases with increasing stress ratio R up to R = 0.7. A similar
dependence is found for growth under cathodic protection. In air, however,
the same authors found little or no effect of R in the actual high crack growth
region. In other words, the crack growth accelerating effects of corrosion and
cathodic protection in this region, as compared with air, are stronger at a
higher than at a lower R. For free corrosion this is in agreement with the
SN-curves in Figs. 7.7 and 7.8. A similar trend was found at lower AK-levels
at SINTEF (Ref. / 151).

1 A r
Free c a r r
1 2
d
.
3
mY
.4
.v

i CP I - Garwood
2 - Br siol
3 - Bardal
4 - Booth

Scatterband
(Lfndley and R ~ c h a r d s )

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

AK (MPaCrn) Stress rat 10, R

Fig. 7.1 1 Fig. 7.12

Effect of stress ratio R on crack Effect of stress ratio R on the
growth under free corrosion in sea threshold stress intensity range
water (Refs. / 13, 81). AKth (Ref. / 161, revised).
Section 7.3.3

At lower growth rates, there is a clear effect of R both in air, under

free corrosion and with cathodic protection, as is indicated by the effect on
the threshold value AKth in Fig. 7.1 2 (Ref. / 161).
In Ref. 1171, the R-influence under free corrosion has been taken into
account by replacing AK in the crack growth equation by AK + 4R. Thus, the
crack growth curve moves to the left by an amount of 4R when R is increased
above zero. These results were obtained in 3.5% NaCl solution, but tests in
synthetic sea water show a similar dependence (Refs. 113, 15, 191).
For growth rates below mmjcycle, loading frequencies between
1 and 0.1 67 Hz are giving the same growth rates, under free corrosion as well
as under cathodic protection (Refs. 14,201). However, at higher growth rates,
corresponding to AK = 10 - 40 M P a f i , a decrease of frequency produces a
marked increase of the growth rate. The effect is largest for specimens under
cathodic protection where a reduction of frequency by one decade may cause
a 4-8 times increase of da/dN (Refs. 121, 22, 231). This shows that many of
the earlier corrosion fatigue growth data which were conducted at increased
frequencies are in fact invalid. Only for low growth rates can some accelera-
tion be accepted (up to 1 Hz).
Corrosion fatigue crack growth under variable amplitude loading is
not sufficiently studied. Several investigations (Refs. 11, 24, 251) indicate
that corrosion has approximately the same effect on crack growth under
spectrum loading as under constant amplitude loading (Fig. 7.1 3). One
difference may be that the corrosive effect is clear also at rather high fre-
quencies (e.g. 6.5 Hz) for variable amplitude loading (Ref. 1241) (cf. the last
comment on SN-results in Section 7.2.3).
Crack growth rates of welded specimens are similar to those of the
base metal (Ref. 1271).
Within the class of low and medium strength structural steels (R, <
700 MPa) there seems to be no significant effect of strength and microstruc-
ture on the crack growth behaviour (Ref. / I / ) However, this is sparsely
investigated, and one might expect that cathodic protection at low poten-
tials would increase the growth rate in high strength steels.

7.3-3 Significance of environmental factors

A raise in temperature from a range of -1 - +5"C to a range of 20 - 24°C has
been found to increase the crack growth rate by a factor of 2 (Refs. / 1, 131).
In Ref. /27/ a factor of 5 was found for AK = 10 - 50 M P a f i , and the same
temperature raise. At lowerAK values, however, the effect is smaller (Ref. /I/).
In Ref. /28/ a temperature raise from 30 ti1 8S°C produced a threefold increase
of the growth rate.
 Section 7.3.3

66

i7
-8
0

0'
Const.rnean/Stat.rms
6'" --
S e a water t e s t s ;
Gauss
Const.rnin./Stat.rrns

Const.rnin./Stat.rrns
Linear
Const.mean/Stat.rrns
0
L
-L i n e a r
Const.mean/Var.rrns
I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 3 10 30 90
Stress i n t e n s ~ t yf a c t o r aKrms(~PalTm)

Fig. 7.13 Comparison of different crack growth curves for variable amplitude
loading of BS4360-SOD steel in air and sea water. Constant mean or
constant minimum load, and stationary o r variable root-mean-
square values. Gaussian spectrum with an irregularity factor of 1
and a crest factor of 4.5. Omission level 15% of maximum load.
Log linear spectrum composed of four Gaussian spectra.
f = 1 Hz, t = 12OC (Ref. 1251)

Water flow may prevent the unfavourable effect of strong cathodic

polarization as compared with free corrosion (Ref. /I/). This is illustrated
in Fig. 7.9 for AK = 10 - 40 MPaTm. As far as Ref. 1291 can be understood,
the applied water velocity has been lower than 0.1 m/s. A similar trend has
been found at SINTEF (Ref. /1 St), for water velocities of 0.2-0.4 m/s.
According to Ref. 1131, a reduction of the oxygen concentration in
sea water from 7 mg/l (air saturated) t o 1 mg/l causes a reduction of the
free corrosion crack growth rate by a factor of 4. There is no similar effect
when the specimen is under cathodic protection.
In some hydrocarbons and possibly in sea bed sediments, a considerable
concentration of H , S may be present. It is shown in Fig. 7.9 that a strong
degree of cathodic polarization produces a large increase in crack growth rate
at AK % 15 MPa fi (K,, == 30 MPaKm). H2Sin the water produces a
similar but much stronger effect under free corrosion as well as under catho-
Section 7.4

dic protection (Ref. 1301). In sea water saturated with H2S, the crack growth
is accelerated by a factor varying from 9 to 570 compared with growth in
air at AK = 30 M P a f i for R = 0 . 0 5 , and at AK = 12.5 M P a r m for R = 0.7.
The effect of H, S decreases with decreasing concentration (Ref. /31/). How-
ever, no information has been found on the effect of low H qS concentrations.

7.4 PREDICTION OF EFFECTS OF CORROSION AND CATHODIC

PROTECTION ON FATIGUE LIFE BY MEANS OF CRACK
GROWTH DATA
It has been shown (Ref. 1141) that the effects of cathodic protection com-
pared with free corrosion can be completely different for conditions resulting
in fatigue lives of 40 -300 years, as compared to conditions producing lives of
1 -- 10 years. Such differences can not be disclosed by SN tests, where the
whole life is spent in the test. However, long time effects of environmental
conditions can be shown by fatigue life calculations based on fracture mecha-
nics and crack growth data, assuming that reliable data are available at low
stress intensity ranges near to the threshold value AKth. That procedure is
based on the knowledge that the major part of the fatigue life of joints in
plates and tubulars is spent on crack growth under conditions that can be
described by linear elastic fracture mechanics.
Some results of fatigue life calculations are shown in the following
pages (Refs. 114, 151). Appropriate data for tests conducted with variable
amplitude loading are scarce. Therefore a linear load distribution is assumed,
and the crack growth is calculated based on the constant amplitude growth
rate curves in Fig. 7.9. It should be observed that by using this approach,
possible sequence effects escape attention.
A stress ratio of R = 0.5 is assumed, simulating high residual stresses.
The calculation is based on a numerical integration of Klesnil-Lukas equation:

where the values of A, m and AKth are taken from Fig. 7.9.
The following environmental conditions are considered: Air, free
corrosion, and cathodic protection with two different polarization levels,
viz. -800 to -850 mV and -1 I00 rnV (Ag;Agcl/sea water). The latter poten-
tial is considered the most unfavourable possible when sacrificial anodes
are being used.
The load spectrum constitutes a linear plot of AolAcr,, versus logN
 Section 7.4

and is divided into 73 blocks at 30 different load levels. The block succession
used in the integration process is drawn randomly and independently for
each return period of 1.6 15.604 cycles. Incremental crack growth Aa for each
individual block is calculated, and AK is updated for the new crack length
+
ai+l = ai Aa.
Crack growth lives have been calculated for three different defect-load
conditions:
A. A small initial defect, a ,constant nominal stress spectrum as the crack
propagates, and load levels giving life times of 20 - 200 years corre-
sponding to 1o8- 1o9 cycles. Such conditions apply to fixed platform
elements, where large defects have been disclosed by inspection and
repaired. The calculation has been carried out for an edge crack propa-
gating from a plane surface, and from a semi-circular stress raiser as
shown in Fig. 7.14. Initial and final crack lengths are respectively
ai = 1 mm and af = 10 mm, notch radius r = 2 mm.

Fig. 7.1 4 Model geometries applied in the calculations (Ref. / 141).

ai = initial crack length, af = final crack length.
B. A somewhat larger initial defect, assumed to have escaped detection
by the inspection after fabrication, a constant nominal stress spectrum,
and load levels leading to fracture after a period of 1 - 10 years. Geome-
trical conditions as shown in Fig. 7.14 with ai = 10 mm, af = 100 mm
and r = 50 mm. Unstable fracture may occur for a <af if AK >K,(l- R)
= 80(1 - 0.5)= 40 M P a f i .
C. Geometrical conditions as in case B. Redistribution of stresses during
crack growth so that AK is constant during crack growth. Constant nr(
is being approached when cracks propagate in tubular joints, Refs. 133,
341 and Chapter 8 in this book.
Section 7.4

Results.
Figs. 7.15 to 7.17 show the calculation results when the crack grows from a
plane surface. Similar results are obtained in the case of growth from the
semi-circular stress raiser. For case A with long life conditions (Fig. 7.1 S ) ,
corrosion decreases the life by a factor of three while a normal and high
degree of cathodic protection increase life by the same factor. Both compari-
sons refer to air life.
For case B with short life conditions (Fig. 7.16), the relative effect of
free corrosion is the same as in case A, that is a life reduction factor of three.
However, a moderate degree of cathodic protection does not increase the
life above that of free corrosion, and overprotection reduces it to two third
of the free corrosion life.
In case C with a stress redistribution during crack propagation, the
relative effect of free corrosion and normal cathodic protection is the same
as in case B, in that they both reduce life by a factor of three with respect
to air. However, overprotection is even more serious in this case since it
lowers the life by a further factor of two compared with free corrosion.
In case C the effect of overprotection is extreme: High stress ratio R, stress
intensities nearly as high as possible for variable amplitude loading, and a
very low protection potential.

- Q Q
N=16.4~10~.*..:.~
-
'~=1.86x10~ '. ~ = 5 . 6 5 x 1 0 ~ ~=16.7x10~..'
-
4'
-
2 1 3/
-

1 1
50
1 1
100
1 1 1
150
1 1 1
200
1 1
' Years a t 10 cpm)
250
1 1 1
300
1 1

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16x10~
N (cycles)

Fig. 7.1 5 a-N curves for a crack of initial length 1 mm under long life condi-
tions. Crack from a plane surface in air (1), under free corrosion in
sea water ( 2 ) , and with cathodic protection at -850 mV (3) and
-1 100 mV (4) (Ag/AgCl/sea water). Ao,,, = 28.4 MPa.
 Section 7.4

50
1 End o f c u r v e s ;
F r a c t u r e at AK,, =40MPa Tm

- . - - - - ~. = 0 . 0 7 3 ~ 1 0 ~
5 30- ...... N=o.(~s~(oB
m i ir ~ = 0 . 1 2 3 x l 0 ~ ..- ~ = 0 . 3 2 9 x 1 0 ~
c

( Y e a r s at I O c p m )
2 4 6 8 10
0 1
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I'

0 0.2 0.4 0 . 6 ~ o1 8

Fig. 7.1 6 a-N curves for a crack of initial length 10 mm under short life
conditions. crack from a plane surface in air (I), under free corro-
sion in sea water (2), and with cathodic protection at -850 mV (3)
and at -1 100 mV (4). Ao,, = 23.2 MPa.

ZOO
mV / //
250

/ ( Y e a r s at 10 c p m )
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
I I I I I I I 1
I I I I I I I I

Fig. 7.1 7 a-N curves for a crack of initial length 10 mm, grown from a plane
surface. Constant AK-spectrum with AK,, % 37.5 MPacm.

These results tally with SN test results concerning the effect of free
corrosion. As for cathodic protection they clearly show some features which
have also been revealed in a few SN tests: Normal cathodic protection is no
better than free corrosion at short lives (Ref. / lo/), but better than air at long
lives (Fig. 7.6). The calculation results may also explain the often contra-
Section 7.5 - 7.6
dictory conclusions on effects of cathodic protection drawn from SN tests.
The applied geometrical model is simplified. The calculation of the
relative effects of corrosion and cathodic protection is, however, thought to
be relevant for other geometries as well (Ref. 1141). The possible sequence
effects not considered may be an uncertainty. The main trends in the calcula-
tion result are, however, in agreement with SN tests with variable amplitude
loading (Ref. 1351). As mentioned earlier, the effects of corrosion and catho-
dic protection under variable amplitude loading are little different from those
under constant loading.

7.5 DESIGN GUIDE-LINES, BRITISH PROPOSAL

In "Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction" (Ref. /36/),
corrosion is accounted for in the SN-curves for unprotected welded joints by
a life reduction factor of 2 on air data. A slope of -3 is adopted for all lives.
The air curves are recommended for cathodically protected joints, as well
as for joints protected by paint coatings, provided that the coating remains
impervious to sea water. The recommendations are limited to steels with
Re < 400 MPa (Ref. 1371). The justification of the recommendations has
been questioned (Ref. /38/), but they are continuously under revision, and
will be adjusted when more reliable experimental results are available.

7.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The results reported in Sections 7.2 and 7.4 indicate that free corrosion in
sea water is fairly well taken care of in the British guide-lines. What is most
correct, a life reduction factor of 2 or 3 , is open for discussion.
The design basis for cathodically protected structures is less clear.
One trend should be noted (Ref. 1351):Cathodic protection gives fatigue data
as good as or better than air at long lives, while at short lives, moderate CP
and free corrosion may give about the same fatigue life. The change from one
behaviour to the other occurs at a lower N-region for small scale specimens
than for large scale joints. On the background of the results of the calculations
in Section 7.4 and Refs. 110, 391, it seems reasonable to use the same design
curves for cathodic protection as for free corrosion at least up to N = lo7
cycles, provided that overprotection is avoided. If there exists any risk for
insufficient cathodic protection at some sites, the free corrosion design
curves should be applied.
 Chapter 7. References

REFERENCES

1. Jaske, C.E., Payer, J.H.and Balint, V.S.:

Corrosion fatigue of metals in marine environments, Springer Verlag and Batelle Press,
1981.
2. Laird, C. and Duquette, D.J.:
"Mechanisms of Fatigue Crack Nucleationy',in Corrosion Fatigue Chemistry, Mechanics
and Microstructure, NACE-2, pp. 88-1 17 (1972).
3. Duquette, D.M.:
"Environmental Effect 1 : General Fatigue Resistance and Crack Nucleation in Metals
and Alloys", Fatigue and Microstructure, American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
Ohio (1979), pp. 335-363.
4. Bardal, E., Ssndenfor, J.M. and Gartland, P.O. :
"Slow Corrosion Fatigue Crack Growth in a Structural Steel in Artificial Sea Water
at Different Potentials, Crack Depths and Loading Frequencies", Proceedings of
European Offshore Steels Research Seminar,Welding Institute, Cambridge, UK, Nov.
1978, pp. VIIP16-1 - VI/P16-12.
5. Booth, G.S.:
"Constant amplitude fatigue tests on welded steel joints performed in sea water",
Ibid, pp. IV/P9-1 - IVIP9-14.
6. Haagensen, P.J.:
"PS6 - Improvement of the fatigue strength of welded joints': International conference
on steel in marine structures, Paris 1981, Institut de Recherches de la SidErurgie
Franqaise, Special and plenary sessions pp. 309-364.
7. Solli, 0 . :
"Corrosion fatigue of weldments of C-Mn steel and the effect of cathodic protection,
stress relieving treatment and saline atmosphere", Ibid., paper 2.2.
8. Walker, E.F.:
"PS4 - Effect of marine environment': Ibid., Special and plenary sessions,pp. 195-252.
9. Van Leeuwen, J.L., de Back, J. and Vaessen, G.H.G. :
"Constant amplitude fatigue tests on welded steel joints performed in air and sea
water", Ibid., paper 2.1.
10. Dijkstra, O.D. and de Back, J.:
"Fatigue strength of tubular X- and T-joints (Dutch tests)", Ibid, paper 8.4.
11. Berge, S.:
"Constant Amplitude Fatigue Strength of Welds in Sea Water Drip", Proceedings of
European Offshore Steels Research Seminar,Welding Institute, Cambridge, UK,Nov.
1978, pp. IVIP12- 1 - IVIP12-5.
Chapter 7. References

12. Schiitz, W.:

"PS5 - Procedures for the prediction of fatigue life of tubular joints", International
conference on steel in marine structures, Paris 1981, Institut de Recherches de la
Sid6rurgie Fran~aise,Special and plenary sessions, pp. 253-308.
13. Morgan, H.G., Thorpe, T.W., Rance, A., Sylvester, D.R.V. and Scott, P.M.:
"An investigation of the corrosion fatigue crack growth behaviour of structural steels
in sea water", Ibid., paper 5.1.
14. Bardal, E., Haagensen, P.J., Grovlen, M. and Szther, F. :
"Effects of cathodic protection on corrosion fatigue crack growth in a platform steel
in sea water", Proceedings of Fatigue 84, University of Birmingham, Ed. C.J. Beevers,
EMAS 1984, pp. 1541-1552.
15. Grsvlen, M., Bardal, E. and Eggen, T.G.:
"Fatigue crack growth in structural steels in air and in sea water with and without
cathodic protection", SINTEF Report, Trondheirn 1985.
16. Booth, G.S., Wylde, J.G. and Iwasaki, T.:
"Corrosion fatigue crack propagation and threshold determinations in structural steel':
Proceedings of Fatigue 84, University of Birmingham, Ed. C.J. Beevers, EMAS, 1984,
pp. 1471-1484.
17. Vosikovsky, 0.:
"Effects of Stress Ratio on Fatigue Crack Growth Rates in X70 Pipeline Steel in
Air and Saltwater", J. Testing and Eva., 8(2), 68-73 (March, 1980).
18. Havn, T.:
"Korrosjonsutmatting av st31 i sjsvann", Dr-ing. thesis, Institutt for rnaterialer og
bearbeiding, NTH, Trondheim, 1983 (In Norwegian).
19. Scholte, H.G. and Wildschut, H.:
"Fatigue crack propagation tests on welded specimens in air and sea water", Confe-
rence on steel in marine structures, Paris 1981, Institut de Recherches de la Sid6rurgie
Franqaise, paper 5.2.
20. Vosikovsky, 0 . :
"Effects of mechanical and environmental variables on fatigue crack growth rates in
steel. A summary of work done at Canmet", Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, - 19
(1980), pp. 87-107.
21. Austen, I.M.:
"Factors affecting corrosion fatigue crack growth in steels", Proceedings of European
Offshore Steels Research Seminar, Welding Institute, Cambridge, UK, Nov. 1978,
pp. 364-386.

22. Vosikovsky, 0 .:
"Fatigue-Crack Growth in an X-65 Line-Pipe Steel at Low Cyclic Frequencies in
Aqueous Environments", Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Mater. and Technol., Series H, 97(4),
298-304 (October, 1975).
 Chapter 7. References

23. Scott, P.M. and Silvester, D.R.V.:

"The Influence of Seawater on Fatigue Crack Propagation Rates in Structural Steel",
Department of Energy, UK Offshore Steels Research Project, Interim Technical
Report UKOSRP 3/03, (December 19,1975).
24. Haagensen, P.J.:
"Fatigue Crack Growth of Steel in Air and Sea Water under Constant Amplitude and
Random Loading", Paper presented at The Fourth International Conference on
Fracture, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, June 1977.
25. Brjasaeter, 0. and DrAgen, A.:
"Fatigue crack growth in sea water under random loading", Proceedings of Fatigue
84, University of Birmingham, Ed. C.J. Beevers, EMAS 1984, pp. 1553-1564.
26. Jaske, C .E., Broek, D., Slater ,J .E., Utah, D .A. and Martin, C.J. :
"Corrosion Fatigue of Cathodically Protected Welded Carbon Steel in Cold Seawater",
Final Report to American Petroleum Institute, Committee on Offshore Safety and
Antipollution Research, Dallas, Texas (February 1 1, 1977).
27. Socie, D.F. and Antolovich, S.D. :
"Subcritical Crack Growth Characteristics in Welded ASTM A537 Steel", Welding J.,
53(6), pp. 267-s-271 -s (June, 1974).
28. Telseren, A. and Doruk, M.:
"Temperature Dependence of Water-Enhanced Fatigue Crack Growth in Mild Steel",
Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 6(2), pp. 283-286 (September, 1974).
29. Sullivan, A.M. and Crooker, T.W.:
"Fatigue Crack Growth in A516-60 Steel - Effects of Specimen Thickness, Saline
Environment, and Electrochemical Potential", Proceedings of International Confe-
rence on Fracture Mechanics and Technology, Hong Kong, March 21-25, 1977, Vol. 1,
pp. 687-698.
30. Austen, I .M. and Walker, E.F. :
"Corrosion fatigue crack propagation in steels under simulated offshore conditions",
Proceedings of Fatigue 84, University of Birmingham, Ed. C.J. Beevers, EMAS 1984,
pp. 1457-1470.
31. Edwards, J.D.A.:
A study of the sulphide stress corrosion cracking behaviour of high strength low alloy
steels, Dr.ing. thesis, Institutt for materialer og bearbeiding, NTH, Trondheim, Norway,
1984.
32. Maddox, S.J.:
"A fracture mechanics analysis of fatigue cracks in fillet welded joints", Int. J. Frac-
11(1975), No. 2, p. 221.
ture, -
33. Gibstein, M.B. :
"Fatigue strength of welded tubular joints tested at Det Norske Veritas Laboratories",
Chapter 7. References

International conference on steel in marine structures, Paris 1981. Institut de Re-

cherche~de la Sid6rurgie Fran~aise,paper 8.5.
34. Wilson, T.J. and Dover, W.D. :
"Corrosion fatigue of tubular welded joints", Proceedings of Fatigue 84, University
of Birmingham, Ed. C.J. Beevers, EMAS 1984, pp. 1495-1 504.
35. Bignonnet, A.:
Resistance i la fatigue corrosion des aciers utilisgs dans les structures soudies marines,
Report RE1003 Institut de Recherches de la Sidirurgie Franqaise (IRSID) June 1983.
36. Offshore Installations: Guidance on design and construction, Dept. of Energy, Lon-
don, 3. Ed. (1984).

37. Background to new fatigue design guidance for steel welded joints in offshore struc-
tures, Dept. of Energy, London 1984.
38. Dower, W.D. and Dharmavasan, S.:
"Fatigue of offshore structures - a review", Proceedings of Fatigue 84, University of
Birmingham, Ed. C.J. Beevers, EMAS 1984, pp. 1417-1434.

39. Holrnes, R. and Booth, G.S.:

"Fatigue and corrosion fatigue of welded joints under narrow band random loading",
International conference on steel in marine structures, Paris 1981, Institut de Re-
cherche~de la SidCrurgie Fran~aise,paper 7.2.
 CHAPTER 8

FATIGUE OF TUBULAR JOINTS

M.B.Gibstein and Einar T. Moe

A .S VERITEC, Oslo

'y-ABSTRACT
Special aspects of fatigue life evaluation of tubular joints are treated in
this chapter. Procedures far the determination of stress concentration factors
and hot spot stresses are described. SN-curves for welded tubular joints are
presented, and a design procedure for the fatigue life verification of tubular
joints is outlined. In-service experience with welded tubular joints is discussed.
Furthermore some considerations have been given on the design of heavy
duty joints.

NOMENCLATURE

Ab - cross section area of brace

D - chord outside diameter
d - brace outside diameter
E - Youngs' modulus
e - eccentricity
g - gap
p - gap-parameter for gap between individual braces
L - length between supports of chord
11, l2 - length of weld, overlap joints
Mb - bending moment
P - axial load
R - chord radius
r - brace radius
N - number of cycles to failure
SCF - stress concentration factor
SCFb - brace SCF
Section 8.1

SCF, - chord SCF

SNCF - strain concentration factor
SNCFN- strain concentration factor perpendicular to weld front
T - chord wall thickness
t - brace wall thickness
W - cross section modulus
X - leg length of fillet weld
a - L/D
P - d/D
Y - R/T
eHS - hot spot strain (maximum numerical value of
the principal strain)
e HSN - hot spot strain perpendicular to weld front
EN
- nominal strain in the brace
ON
- nominal stress in the brace
v - Poisson's ratio
0 - brace angle with the chord
7 - thickness parameter t/T

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Offshore steel platforms are usually constructed as truss frameworks in
which tubular members constitute the structural elements (Fig. 8.1).
Tubes are well suited as structural members for offshore steel plat-
forms. Waves and currents generate comparatively small forces on tubular
members because of their low drag coefficient. Due to their uniform and
symmetrical cross section, tubular members exhibit minimal stress concen-
trations, outstanding buckling strength, and no sensitivity to lateral load
direction. The latter is especially important in the offshore environment,
where wind and wave forces can come from any direction. However, inter-
connections and joints, which in the case of offshore platforms usually are
welded, represent structural discontinuities which give rise to very high stress
concentrations in the intersection area (Fig. 8.2).
Lowered fatigue strength due to high stress concentrations at the
weld toes of the connecting welds is a major problem in welded tubular
joints. Proper design of tubular joints against fatigue failures must therefore
be based upon detailed knowledge of the magnitudes of the stress concen-
tration factors (SCF) and the corresponding values of the peak stresses at the
weld toes of the connections, and on empirical data obtained from fatigue
tests on tubular joints.
 Section 8.2

Fig. 8.1 Offshore platform constructed with tubular joints.

In principle terms, the design procedure to verify that tubular joints

have adequate fatigue strength, is one in which the sum of fatigue damage
arising from the expected magnitude and number of dynamic peak stresses
are compared with the fatigue lives of similar joints in laboratory tests.
See Section 8.3 and Chapters 4, 10 and 1 1 for more information.
Tubular joints must also be designed to sustain the ultimate static
design loads (i.e. 100-year storm conditions). Furthermore, the joints must
have adequate weldability and toughness to prevent brittle fractures.
_4FIT;n G ~ I - c L c * ~.

8.2 TYPES OF TUBULAR JOINTS

Tubular joints appear in a great variety of shapes and design types. Since such
joints are not regulated by standards, their configurations and dimensions
can be freely chosen to suit structural needs.
Tubular joints consist ordinarily of joints between main and secondary
Section 8.2

P
NUMBERS DENOTE S C F VALUES G / G N , GN = ~ ~ d f
.... INDICATES PHOTOELASTIC ANALYSIS
. .. .
INDICATES FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Fig. 8.2 Stress analysis of a cross joint under axial brace load.

member tubes. The former, which are larger in diameter, are denoted as
chords, and the latter, which consist of smaller sized tubes, are denoted as
braces (Fig. 8.3).
Tubular nodes may be classified and grouped in accordance with their
geometrical configuration, the action and transfer of loads, and the design
types. The design types fall into the following categories:
- simple welded joints
- overlapping joints
- complex joints
- cast steel nodes 1 heavy duty joints

Simple welded joints may appear as uniplane or multiplane designs

formed by welding of tubular members without overlap of the brace tubes
and without stiffeners or reinforcements. Fig. 8.3 shows some typical simple
uniplane joint types.
An overlapping joint is defined both by its geometry and its force
transfer. Such joints are designed with braces, which are partially joined
together at their connection with the chord. At least part of the loads are
transferred between the braces through their common weld. This results
 Section 8.2

A
X- j o i n t

-- .+, .-

Fig. 8.3 Simple (ordinary) welded joints.

in reduced shear force and smaller ovalization of the chord, and consequently
smaller stress concentrations and improved fatigue life.
Complex joints include :
- joints with internal stifferners
- joints with external stiffeners
- grout reinforced tubular joints
- less readily categorized joints of complex geometry and load transfer
mode
Complex joints are often "heavy duty" type nodes which possess substantial
improvements in fatigue and static strength performance, see Section 8.4.
 ,.'I)( A .
Section 8.3.1
Cast steel joints are nodes which have been fabricated by casting. The
connection weld bracelchord is thereby eliminated and replaced by fillet
transitions. Cast steel nodes (CSN) can be designed to exceptional efficiences
in terms of fatigue strength performance, see Section 8.4.3.

8.3 SIMPLE WELDED TUBULAR JOINTS

8.3.1 Definitions and symbols
The nodes in the main structure of offshore steel jackets are often multiplane
joints. Uniplane joints are found in the bracings between main legs in horizon-
tal planes and in secondary structural elements. In the present state of the art
the joints are normally classified and evaluated in tenns of the simpler uni-
plane joints such as T-, Y-, K-joints etc., disregarding the effect of braces
which are not lying in the considered planes (Fig. 8.3).
It should be emphasized that the classification should not be based
only on the geometry of the nodes, but also on the load transfer mode.
Thus for example, a joint of X-configuration may only be evaluated as an
X-joint if the vertical axial loads in the braces are equal and of opposite signs.
Similarly, a joint of K-configuration may only be evaluated as a K-joint if
the components of the axial forces in the braces perpendicular to the chord
are in equilibrium. For further illustration, a joint of X-configuration, in
which an axial brace load is applied to only one of the braces must be eva-
luated as a T-joint, despite its geometry (Fig. 8.1 9).

Fig. 8.4 Tubular joint symbols.

Fig. 8.4 shows the geometrical parameters which define simple welded
joints. They are :
- chord outside diameter D
- brace outside diameter d (cont. next page)
 Section 8.3.1

- chord wall thickness T

- brace wall thickness t
- brace inclination angle 8
- gap between braces g
- chord total length L
- eccentricity e

The non-dimensional geometrical parameters are:

- diameter ratio P = d/D
k
- cord stiffness r = R/T = C 1c - < ~ i r , A =
* .
..-
d
.

The y ratio gives an indication of the chord radial stiffness, and it plays
a dominant role in the SCF formulas and the ultimate strength of tubular
joints.
- wall thickness ratio T = t/T

- gap parameter P' g/D

The degree of overlapping braces is indicated by negative values of the gap

parameter. Other definitions are often found in the literature, such as g/d or
g sinold.
- chord length parameter a = L/D

For the fatigue analysis of tubular joints it is convenient to separate

the loads in multiples of three basic load cases, viz. axial load, in-plane
bending load and out-of-plane bending load (Fig. 8.5). Each load case has
its particular distribution of stresses along the intersection line and thereby
its particular influence on the fatigue life. The combined effect of the load
cases is discussed in Section 8.3.7.

kwrrl load l* plane bend i n one

AL I PB OPB

Fig. 8.5 w c twbulau joint load cases.

Section 8.3.2
i 1 >

8.3.2 Definition of the hot spot stress, and stress and strain concentration
factors

Global stress/SCF - distribution along the

intersection line of an axially loaded Y-joint

Hot Spot L o c a t i o n

Strain A

Local strain distrilJ ~ t l O n

' ~ t r a ~ n
.-t h ~
n n r m a l tn
..s.A.*".*
W P M tne 4
at the hot

Fig. 8.6 Example of global and local distribution of stresses/strains in

axially loaded Y-j oints.

The stress distributions at the intersection of tubular joints are very complex.
Fig. 8.6 shows the strains along the brace and chords of a Y-joint as well
as the stresses along the intersection line of the same joint. The locations, or
 Section 8.3.2

points at which the highest stresses occur, are called hot In welded
joints two diffemnt hot spots are found, one at the weld toe on the brace side,
the other on the chord side. The maximum stress value may be on the chord
side or brace side dependent on the design and geometry of the joint.
The stress concentration factor (SCF) is defined as the ratio of the hot
spot stress om, to the nominal stress in the brace:

Unless otherwise specified, the stresses considered in analysis of tubular

hour4
joints are the principal stresses. In the process of design evaluation, the hot
spot stresses on the chord and brace side of the weld must be considered
individually. SCF, and SCFb denote the SCF on the chord and brace side
respectively. They are both multiples of the same nominal brace stress.
The mod influential factor deciding the fatigue strength of tubular
joints, are the values of the SCF and the companding magnitudes of the
hot spot stresses. Reliable and accurate knowledge of the SCF and hot spot
stresses are therefore an absolute necessity in order to ensure adequate fatigue
strength. The sensitivity of the fatigue strength to the values of the SCF is
illustrated by the fact that an underestimation of 18% of the value of the
SCF may cause a 100% overestimation of the fatigue life prediction.
In order to be a useful tool in design, the definition of the hot spot
stress and the SCF must be compatible with the presently available SN-
curves. Some confusion exists in the literature regarding the definition of
the hot spot stress which also affects the definition and values of the SCF.
The fatigue life depends on the true peak stresses where the fatigue
cracks are expected to develop. In welded tubular joints, these locations are
the weld toes at the hot spots. Thus, theoretically, the hot spot stress should
be based upon the values of the maximum true stresses at the weld toe.
However, in welded joints the maximum true stresses are influenced by weld
shape irregularities such as unavoidable notches, and discontinuities. These are
highly localized and difficult to quantify and are therefore not suitable for
systematic stress analysis. Instead, the hot spot stress is defmed as the stress
at the weld toe localitions due to all geometrical influences except for the
!ocal weld notch effects at the weld toe;'
experimental determination of the hot spot stress value requires
I
therefore the extrapolation of the stress distribution curve to the weld toe
from a point which is located just outside the limit of the influence of the
notch on the stress distribution. For this purpose, strain gages are placed
in strips close to the weld, and the stress curve is extrapolated based upon
 Section 8.3.2

the measurements
- -- - - -- --- -from
- gages placed at-
the end of
--
the notch influence--zone.
-
This requires a knowledge of the limit of influence of the notch on the
stress distribution close to the weld toe. At present the manner and distance
of stress extrapolation to the weld toe are handled somewhat differently by
different research institutions resulting in slight differences in the values of
experimentally determined hot spot stresses.
Extensive research indicates that the hot spot stress definition should
be based upon extrapolation from a point located 0.25 T from the weld toe
on the chord side, and 0.25 t on the brace side. Furthermore, this distance
should not be less than 4 mm (Fig. 8.7).

b.) ,: ': - y
1

. f Strain

, 1 >,, ,
t

, ,

,-7 1
1 ' I i a- , ,
( r ; , '7 ,
#
C x I d , e. -;

Chord

Fig. 8.7 Determination of the hot spot strain value eHs at the weld toe by
linear extrapolation from the end of the notch affected zone.

The hot spot stress measured in this manner provides SCF values which
are in very good agreement with the values, obtained from finite element
(FE) calculations. Furthermore, and most important, it provides consistent
fatigue life results independent of the type and complexity of the tubular
joint design tested, see Ref. 1181 and Fig. 8.8.
The conditions at the weld toe, although not quantified by SCF defini-
tion, have a significant influence on the fatigue life. They can be graded as
follows (Ref. / 181) :
 Section 8.3.2

T-JOINTS
T - JOINTS, SEA WATER
D=508 T=l6mm

0=300 T=lOmm

2000-

..
1000-

-- ---
AW S - X 197 5 % SURVIVAL
500
A
200
\

--
100 ,
10 10 lo6 1 o7 lo8
CYCLES

Fig. 8.8 VERITAS fatigue test results based on VERITAS's SCF - and hot
spot definition. Note consistency and small scatter.

- Nafch fie, i.e. continuous stress distribution extending into the weld
toe (Fig. 8.9). Such conditions are found in ground welds, or quite
often on the brace side of the weld where smooth weld toe transitions
are more readily obtained in fabrication.
- Notch effect, weld toe discontinuity. The welds should be provided
with regular and smooth transitions. However, discontinuities at the toe
are to be expected. Fig. 8.10 shows the strain distribution resulting
from different notch effects. The majority of the welded tubular joints
tested at VERITAS showed an average notch No of about 1.2. (For
definition of notch No see Fig. 8.10.)
- Micro cracks. Micro cracks at the weld toe may be too small to be
detected by ordinary NDT-methods. Their presence is discernible from
their typical influence on the adjacent stress pat tern (Fig. 8.1 1). Micro
cracks or severe notches reduce the fatigue crack initiation period of
the fatigue life of the joint. Grinding of the weld toe may be a preven-
tive action. G,a x ( -f-,>,o ;
-
y

Hot spot location (l@U is the location of the very ma-urn stress at
the weld toe of the brace or chord members of the joint. In one and the
same joint the location is different for different loads. The locations
may also vary, to a lesser extent, depending on the geometrical para-
meters of the joint.
- Hot spot stress OH denotes the maximum value of the stress at the weld
toe at the hot spot obtained in the case of notch free weld conditions.
 tj(1, lrJ~\c
- -:'Y/' ?? {2(dT+-, ;/*f,? ;
"-
Section 8.3.2 e
-ri
fi :, n
.*d 1 i
,
- t

4 CHORD CHORD
5s
AXIAL LOAD = 7 TON AXIAL LOAD = 7.5 TON
500-
500-

NOTCH NO = 1.00 450

EHS =440 \
\
\ LIMIT O F NOTCH ZONE
400 -
400 -

300 - 300 \\
[ NOTCH NO. *
440
= 1.02

200- .
2
.
4
. -
6 8
-
10
,

12
2 0 0 - I
2 4
I
I
.
6
3

8 10
.

12
-
mm FROM WELD TOE mm FROM WELD TOE

I
BRACE BRACE
AXIAL LOAD = 10 TON OOP LOAD, M = 0.88 TON M
E SCF

I SCF = 8 6

1 L

0 1.6 3.6 5.6 7.6 9.6 0 1.6 3.6 5.6 7.6 9.6
mm FROM WELD TOE mm FROM WELD TOE

Fig. 8.9 Notch free stress and strain distribution at the weld toe of tubular T-
joints with D=508mrn, d=244.5 mm, T = 16mm, t = 10 and 12mm.

The strain concentration factor SNCF is defined as the ratio of the hot
spot strain eHs divided by the nominal brace strain eN . That is:
SNCF = eH s , (8.2)
1

The corresponding concentration factor for the hot spot strain perpeGdicular
to the weld front, SNCFN,is defined as:
 Section 8.3.2
CHORD CHORD
AXlAL10AD=15T(*1 AXIAL LOAD = ISTON
Y- JOINT

300 , ,I , , , , - 300J , , , , ,,
7 4 6 8 10 12 2 I b 8 1 0 1 2
mrn FROM WELD TOE rnm FROM WELD TOE rnrn FROM W E L D TOE

Fig. 8.10 Effect of notch on the strain distribution at the weld toe of tubular
joints. D = 508 mm, T = 16 mm, d=244.5 mm, t = 10 mm, a=4S0.

Most design calculations are based on the SCF values although the
fatigue tests and SN-curves are based on the SNCFN values. Even where
SN-curves are given in terms of stress range, the latter are based on uniaxial
strain, i.e. o = E H S E. Assuming that the hot spot strain, which is perpendi-
cular to the weld front direction, coincides with the direction of the prin-
cipal stress at the hot spot, the following conversion formula between SCF
and SNCF can be used:
1+ e2 /eHSN
SCF = SNCF
1 -v2
where: e2 = hot spot strain normal to eHsN
v = Poisson's ratio
In a similar manner, the conversion between the biaxial hot spot stres.:
and the uniaxial stress E E H s ~used in SN-curves reads :

In the majority of hot spot locations in ordinary tubular joints, the

ratio between e2 and eHSis found to be about 0.24-0.28 from which follows:
SCF r 1.2 SNCF
Therefore, when entering SN-curves with calculated hot spot stresses,
the designer should be aware that the results may include a conservative factor
of about 1.2 in terms of stress value, corresponding to a factor of about
2.0 in the fatigue life.
325
Section 8.3.3

STRIP GAUGE ( 1 ) STRIP GAUGE ( 2 )

400 -

30,- I
I
NOTCH
ZONE ,
I

I I Fig.8.11b)
I
I
, ! . , , , -
MICRO 2 6 '0 O 2 L 6 0 1 0 1 2
CRACK DISTANCE FROM TOE mm DISTANCE FROM TOE mm

1
E I
v= I
'HS 440 Axial load 2.5 ton
t = 12mm llmm DZSOII

400-
T = 16 ))
1
I I
L---J
NOTCH ZONF
300-
I I
1
I
Fig. 8.1 1 a) and 8.11 b) S U P E R IMPOSED

FIG. 8.1 1~
20
0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2
DISTANCE F R O M TOE mm

Fig. 8.1 1 Determination of the notch zone by superposition of strain readings

taken 11 mm apart. Note that VERITAS definition provides the
same value independent of notch.

8 -3.3 Methods for stress analysis of tubular joints

The most common techniques for stress analysis of tubular joints are:

8.3.3.1 Finite element analysis

Stress analysis with the finite element method (FEM) is by far the most
 Section 8.3.3.1
common approach to determine the stress distribution and hot spot stress
in tubular joints.
\
r \
Brace w a l l
mi dd l e sur face

ml dd l e sur face

Node a t middle
surface Intersection

Fig. 8.12 Model representation based on thin-shell elements. Note that the
weld cannot be accounted for with this element type.

The shell elements have traditionally been ones with mid-plane nodes
only (Fig. 8.12). This allowed no possibility of modelling the geometry in
the weld region which in this case is idealized to the intersection line. Fig.
8.13 shows a typical thin-shell element mesh for a T-joint.

-
BRACE

PLUG
7

CHORD

Fig. 8.13 Typical thin-shell finite element mesh for T-joints.

Section 8.3.3.1

Gibstein, Ref. /15/, compared steel model tests and thin-shell FEM
calculations and found that the experimental chord SCF's were well approxi-
mated by the values in the integration points immediately adjacent to the
mid-plane intersection line. On the brace side he found that the FEM stresses
at the corresponding points exceeded experimental values by 20%.
FEM analyses of tubular joints have previously been very expensive,
mainly due to the man hours involved in generating the finite element mesh.
Since the beginning of 1980, finite element analysis of tubular joints has
undergone a spectacular and rapid development. It is currently the most
efficient, reliable and economical tool for detailed stress analysis of tubular
joints. The main reasons are:
- The increased efficiency of equation solvers, requiring less CPU-time.
- The very large reduction of the cost of computers.
- The introduction of programs featuring automatic (and semiautomatic)
meshing of tubular joints, thus eliminating very time consuming manual
work.
- The possibility of weld modelling and the inclusion of 3-D solid ele-
ments at the intersection.

Stress analysis by FEM remains the work of specialists which must be

fully aquainted with the analysis programs as well as with the special problems
related to modelling and interpretation of results. When properly carried out,
FEM-results are accurate, reliable and compatible with the experimental re-
sults and corresponding SN4ata.
There are at present ( 1984) two program packages which are of princi-
pal interest:

PMBSHELL
PMBSHELL is a FEM program designed for effective stress analysis of tubular
joints. PMBSHELL was developed by PMB SYSTEMS ENGINEERING INC.,
and features automatic mesh generation of simple joints with or without over-
laps. Complex joints, such as stiffened joints and multiplane joints, can be
effectively modelled semiautomatically. Fig. 8.14 shows the element con-
figuration used in PMBSHELL. Chord and brace are modelled with 16 node
shell elements, each having two nodal planes. The weld is modelled with
either eight or twelve node solid elements according to AWS specifications,
Ref. /2/. The program has efficient post processors, which facilitate the ease
and efficiency of representation of analysis results, such as:
 Section 8.3.3.1

Fig. 8.14 Element configuration used in PMBSHELL. Ref. 1341

- nodal displacements
- surface stresses (principal and von Mises)
- strain at the integration points
- principal stresses extrapolated into the weld toe
- summary of stresses along the intersection lines, and indication of
maximum and minimum stresses and their location.

PMBSHELL is a linear elastic finite element program and operates in

batch mode only.
In addition to the testing undertaken during development, MPBSHELL
has been independently calibrated at VERITAS. It has been found that by
extrapolating stresses to the weld toe, reliable SCF values are obtained with-
out further adjustment.

WJAP
TUJAP is an interactive semiautomatic mesh generator developed by SINTEF
and VERITAS, and is the latest and most efficient dedicated program for
tubular joint analysis. Being interactive, TUJAP represents a further enhance-
ment over PMBSHELL. The semiautomatic approach is more efficient than
the automatic mesh generation featured in PMBSHELL, and furthermore
extends to all types of joints. TUJAP also models grouted joints and includes
also fracture mechanics applications.
The finite element scheme, utilized in TUJAP, is shown in Fig. 8.15.
It consists of eight node mid-plane shell elements for the tubular members,
twenty node solid elements in the weld, and transition elements adjacent
Section 8-3.3.2

Number of
Group Illustration Name and description
nodes pr.node
d.0.f.
S
H SCQS, Subparametric 8 6
E curved quadrilateral
L thick shell
L

TRSI, Transition
element between
T
R
A I HEXIIPRI elements
N may be coupled with
S the SCQSISCTS
I elements. Three
T versions of the
I transition element
0 are needed:
N TRSI 18 316
TRS2 15 316
TRS3 12 316
TRS3

S IHEX, Isopararnetric 20 3
0 hexahedron
L
I
D

Fig. 8.15 Element configurations used in TUJAP. Ref. 1351

to the weld. The modelling of the chordlbrace intersection is highly efficient,

and allows different weld shapes, and even transition fillets.
TUJAP utilizes SESAM 80 interface files and is compatible with this
system. The system has also non-linear analysis capabilities.

8.3.3.2 Strain gage measurements on scaled steel models

A full stress analysis of a tubular joint is usually carried out in two steps:
1. Instrumentation in order to determine the stress distribution along
the line of intersection on the chord and brace side, and thereby find
the hot spot locations.
2. Detailed instrumentation of the hot spots in order to determine SCF
and SNCF at the weld toe.
An example of the instrumentation of a tubular joint with strain gages
is shown in Figs. 8.16 and 8.17.
 Section 8.3.3.3 - 8.3.4.1

Because the strain at the weld toe may vary significantly over just a
few millimeters and because it is difficult to measure the strain at the weld
toe due to the physical size of the gage, an extrapolation procedure is re-
quired. The hot spot stress or strain has to be determined by extrapolation
from measurements taken some distance away from the weld toe.
The stress gradient close to the weld toe may be very steep. Therefore
the value of the extrapolated hot spot stress may be very sensitive to the
position of the strain gages, which should be located just outside the notch
affected zone as indicated in Figs. 8.9, 8.10 and 8.1 1. It follows that due
attention should be paid to the extrapolation methods as well as t o the
stress calculations when reviewing tubular joint fgtigue test results or com-
paring results from different investigators.
Testing of steel models is a highly specialized undertaking which also
requires complex and costly test rigs and instrumentations.

8.3.3.3 ikbrntory methods

Pkroto ehtleityi Three-dimensional photo elasticity is a highly efficient
experimental approach for analysis of complex joints, or for analysis of very
local stress peaks of geometrical details. Photo elasticity is also most efficient
in systematic studies related to optimalization of weld profiles, grind repairs or
specialized items of the design (Ref. 1201). It is a highly specialized discipline.

A c ~ l i cmodels: The method utilizes models of acrylic plastics fitted with

strain gages. It is recommendable for stress analysis where rough approxima-
tions are adequate.

8.3.4 concentrationfactors
8.3.4.1 *m @f IiPfiemntpmmetde f o m l a d
In Appendix A four tables with parametric formulas for stress concentration
factors developed at different institutions are presented.

Table No. A1 (Kuang's formulas) Refi / I 4 / .

The formulas in Ref. / 14/ are based on thin-shell FEM-analysis of the different
joint<onfigurations and are listed in Table No. Al. The hot spot stress con-
centration factor is taken at the intersection of the brace- and chord-wall
midplanes. The stress evaluated is the maximum principal stress at the hot
spot.
Kuang's formulas provide incorrect representation of the influence of
the parameter /3 on the SCF. This is so for all load cases except for out-of-
plane bending load. Because of this, the SCF values are too conservative when
Section 8.3.4.2

6 < 0.5. The Kuang formulas also tend to be overconservative for the SCF in
the braces independent of 6. Therefore in the recommended design formulas in
Table A4 the SCF on the brace side is reduced according to Marshall, Ref. 171.

Table No. A2 (Smedley and Wordsworth's formulas) Refs. 126, 271.

The formulas in Ref. /26/ are based on measurements with strain-gages on
scaled-down acrylic models and are listed in Table No. A2. The models were
fabricated as straight pipes without including the weld. The authors propose
a correction factor to account for the influence of the weld leg length as
follows:

where: SCF = stress concentration factor at the weld toe

X = weld leg length

It is recommended to use X = T in the calculation, i.e. K = 0.794.

That weld leg length and that correction factor are also used for X-joints in
the recommended design formulas listed in Table A4.

Table No. A 3 (Gibstein 's formulas) Re5 11.51.

The formulas in Ref. /15/ are based on thin-shell FEM-analysis of T-joints
and are listed in Table No. A3. The indicated hot spot stress is taken at the
integration point nearest to the intersection of the brace- and chord-wall
midplanes.

8.3.4.2 Comments on the parametric formulas

As can be seen above, the basis and the evaluation procedures have differed
between the various sets of parametric formulas, and the computed SCF's
may differ. Hence care should be taken when selecting parametric equations
for a specific design purpose.
An important limitation of the formulas is that they have been de-
veloped for uniplane nodes only. An actual joint will often have braces adjoin-
ing in two or more planes. The incorporation of a second-plane brace may
alter considerably the state of stress in a joint. An example is given in Fig.
8.18, Ref. 1261. Here, a simple T-joint with a loadfree brace perpendicular
to the loaded vertical brace has been analysed. The full lines show the strain-
distribution along the circumference of the chord. Broken lines show corre-
sponding strain-distribution for a simple T-joint, i.e. with the horizontal brace
removed. By loading axially brace B, the strain concentration may be greatly
increased beyond that shown in this figure.
 Section 8.3.4.2

.-

STRAIN DISTRIBUTION
WITH BRACE B
REMOVED

Fig. 8.18 Strain distribution in joint with axial load on brace A. Broken lines
indicate strain distribution with brace B removed. Ref. 1261

Formulas for stress concentration factors are referred to the geometry

of the joint, and a prescribed load condition. For the X-joint in Fig. 8.19 a
the joint is acting as assumed in the parametric formulas. The joint in Fig.
8.19 b, although it appears to be an X-joint , behaves more like a T-joint and
should be evaluated by the parametric formulas for T-joints when values of
PZ are small.
In Fig. 8.19 c a K-joint with balanced forces in the braces is shown. This
is the configuration used for derivation of parametric formulas. Fig. 8.19 d
shows the same geometry but with another load configuration, leading to
quite different stress concentration factors depending on the relative magni-
tudes of the forces.
Therefore, when parametric formulas are used for fatigue design, it
must be verified that they represent the physical behaviour of the joint
under consideration. Furthermore, the formulas should not be used outside
the validity range they have been developed for. In cases in which the load
conditions, or limit of validity, significantly depart from those representable
Section 8.3.4.3

'p2
-PI =2P+P2 PI sine, =-P s l n 0 2 - 2 P
X-joint for s m a l l v a l u e s of P K - j o i n t f o r r m a f l v a l u e s of P
T - j o i n t for s m a l l v a l u e s of P 2 Y - j o i n t for s m a l l v a l u e s of P2

Fig. 8.19 The effect of load configurations on the joint type evaluation.

by the parametric equations, an ad. hoc. analysis of the joint in question must
be carried out.

8.3.4.3 Genenrl considemtiom concerning stress concentrations in tubular

joints. Cross sectional ovalization.
The designer should be aware of certain basic principles related to the SCF
values of tubular joints.
The SCF values are basically related to the degree of ovalization of the
chord section under the action of the brace loads. In X-joints the vertical
forces acting at each side of the cross section, produce a greater ovalization
than the single load in a T-joint. Therefore SCFx is greater than SCFT.
In a Y-joint only the vertical component of the force contributes to the
ovalization, consequently SCFT is greater than SCFy . In the case of a K-
joint, the load transfer occurs through the braces, and the chord is only
slightly affected. This is even more accentuated in overlap Ktjoints, in which
direct force transfer takes place through the braces.
 Section 8.3.4.4

Thus, when the geometrical parameters are equal :

SCFx > SCF, > SCF, > SCF,
SCF's for different joint types with the same geometrical parameters
are shown in Table 8.1. SCFx follows from the corrected Wordsworth/Smedley
formulas, SCFT and SCFY from Gibstein's formulas, whereas SCFK is ob-
tained from FEM analysis. The values for the overlap K-joint are calculated
by a parametric formula developed at VERITAS.

Table 8.1 SCF values with braces under axial loads.

Joint type X-joint T-joint Y-joint K-joint Overlap K-joint

SCF, 2 1.9 13.6 10.6 5.9 4.8
SCFb 14.8 9.6 7.5 4.3 4 .O
p = 0 . 6 , y = 1 5 . 8 8 , ~ = 0 . 8 3 1 , 0= 6 0 ° , e = 0

8.3.4.4 of geometrical pruvrrneters y, P and r on the SCF in

tubular joints
Within each group of joints, the influence of the geometrical parameters
may be evaluated from the parametric equations for SCF. However, to give
the designer some general guidance on the influences of the geometry, the
following observations can be made:
The influence of 4 The SCF increases with increasing 7 , see for example
Fig. 8.20. These results were derived for a T-joint with an axial load in the

Fig. 8.20 The influence of y on the principal stress distribution at the chord
side of a T-joint. Ref. / 151
Section 8.3.4.5

brace, Ref. 1151. According to Kuang, Gibstein and Marshall, Refs. /7,14,15/,
the SCF is a power function of y, while Smedley has assumed a linear relation-
ship.

Fig. 8.21 Influence of P on the SCF at the chord side of a T-joint for axial
load in the brace. Ref. 1151

The influence of 0. The influence on the SCF is parabolic (Fig. 8.21), Ref.
/ I S / . This figure shows the SCF at the chord side and has been derived for
T-joints with axial loads in the brace. Similar shapes are obtained at the
brace side and for the other loading conditions. Maximum SCF is measured
for p in the region around 0.5, and SCF approaches a minimum as 0 approaches
1.O. These observations are generally valid for all tubular joint types.

The influence of T . The SCF increases with increasing T (Fig. 8.22). In this
figure the SCF is a power function of r. The Kuang formulas show corre-
sponding relations, while Smedley has assumed a linear relationship.

The infltlence of boundary conditions. During FEM-analysis or experiments

it is difficult to simulate the actual behaviour of the joint in an offshore
structure with the true boundary conditions. For example, the real life
boundary for the chord in a T-joint is neither fixed nor free to move. In
FEM-analysis it is advisable to use pin supports because this is somewhat
more conservative than using fixed supports.

8.3.4.5 Design SCF,the relative magnitudes of SCFc versus SCFb

Both SCF, and SCFb must be considered in fatigue evaluation. Which of the
SCF is most critical and relevant for the fatigue strength will depend on
their relative magnitudes.
 Section 8.3.5

CfiORD Y :20

I
AXIAL LOAD IN BRACE
i

Fig. 8.22 The influence of T on the SCF in a T-joint.

Gibstein has shown that the value of the SCFb may become equal to,
or even larger than the SCF, when the thickness ratio T is about 0.4-0.5 or
smaller. Furthermore, SCFb may become larger than SCFc when SCFc is
less than 3 .O-3.5. mm pwthah attention must be given to the SCFb when:

8.3.5 Fa#guc testing, expimental results and establishment of SN-curves'

Based on experimental results, SN-curves for design against fatigue failure of
tubular joints are presented in different rules and regulations, Refs. / 1,4 and 51
and Chapter 11 in this book.
The curves are relationships between the hot spot stress range Ao
and the allowable number of stress cycles at a stress range Ao:

where: log Z = intercept of the curve of the logN axis

-l/m = the slope of the curve
Section 8.3.5

The basic values of log Z and m for the different curves are given in
Table 8.2 for structures in air and in sea water with cathodic protection.
Table 8.2.
Curve log a m Remarks
MIX 15.06 4.38 cut off level at N = 2 x 10'
VERITAS X 14.57 4.10 cutofflevelatN=2x10'
DEn T 12.16 3.00 f0rN>10~:10~Z=15.62,m=5,00

The AWS X-, API X-, VERITAS X- and DEn T-curves are shown in Fig.
8.23. The AWS- and API-curves are lower envelopes of fatigue test results,
while the VERITAS- and DEn-curves are determined through statistical
analysis of fatigue test results, and represent a 97.6% probability of survival.
DEn, NPD and VERITAS intend to incorporate a size effect in their
next revision of the fatigue design rules. This size effect, or wall thickness
effect, can be justified theoretically as explained in Chapters 4 and 10, and
has also been observed in some fatigue tests on plate specimens.

lo5 lo6 lo7

cycles -
lo8

Fig. 8.23 SN design curves for tubular joints according to AWS, API,
10'

VERITAS and DEn. Refs. 12, 1 , 4 , 5 /

 Section 8.3.5

The number of cycles to failure is given versus the hot spot stress range,
although generally in experimental results, the strain range is reported. The
stress range has been obtained on the basis of uniaxial stress, i.e. by rnulti-
plying the strain range with the Young's modulus, i.e.

The true stress at the intersection, or the stress obtained by calculations,

is a biaxial stress (Section 8.3.2), defined as:

It was shown in Section 8.3.2 that the biaxial stress is about 1.2 times
the uniaxial stress at the hot spots of ordinary tubular joints. Thus, when

ENDURANCE (CYCLES)

Fig. 8.24 Experimental results expressed i terms of the number of cycles

to through-wall cracking, N2 . Ref. / 121
Section 8.3.5

entering SN-curves with calculated hot spot stress ranges, the results contain
an inherent underestimation of the fatigue life of about factor 2.
The fatigue crack growth in tubular joints shows a rather different
behaviour from that of less complex welded connections. In the latter, a
fatigue crack grows rather slowly in the beginning, but accelerates rapidly
towards the end of the fatigue life. In tubular joints, the growth rate is nearly
constant throughout the fatigue life, even when the crack depth represents a
considerable fraction of the chord wall thickness. This means that even if a
large crack is found in a tubular joint, a significant part of the fatigue life may
still remain. Thus the presence of a sizable crack may not be immediately
critical provided no significant load shedding to adjacent members has taken
place and that the remaining static capacity is still sufficient to sustain the
forces occurring during the design storm. In brittle materials, however, even
shallow cracks may be critical.

10 10 10'
ENDURANCE ( CYCLES)

Fig. 8.25 Experimental results expressed in terms of number of cycles to

end of test, Ng . Ref. / 12/
 Section 8.3.5

Figs. 8.24 and 8.25 are taken from Ref. 1121 and deal with simple
non-overlapping unstiffened joints. Fig. 8.24 shows the number of cycles
g. 8.25 the number of cycles to end of test.
which may be partially explained as follows:
- A consistent method to measure the hot spot stress has not always
been used by the experimental workers. Furthermore, inappropriate
definition and approach to the measurements may lead to serious
misrepresentation of the results, and to "fabrication" of undue in-
fluences. Thus, if the manner of measuring the hot spot stresses is
inappropriately related to the joint dimensions, the results will "intro-
duce" an undue fatigue size effect. Indeed, for this same reason, serious
doubts have been expressed concerning the validity of the "size effect"
which some of the fatigue test results seem to indicate.
Side B 1 Side A Side B I Side A

T= chord thickness T= chord thickness

N= 282 220 N= 400 000
Side 6 1 Side A Side B I Side A

T= chord thickness T= chord thickness

N= 488 000 N= 1 005 450

Fig. 8.26 Development of a fatigue crack in an axially loaded K-joint. The

depth of the crack is drawn in a scale ca. 2.6 times larger than the
scale of the outer section line. Ref. 1231
Section 8.3.5

- The influence of the notch, i.e. the stress peaks due to local discon-
tinuities at the weld toe are not included in the hot spot stress. This
local stress concentration will vary from specimen to specimen due to
differences in welding process, weld shape etc., as explained in Section
8.3.2.
- Different workers have used different failure criteria, such as through-
thickness crack, crack branching into the chord wall, length of crack,
specimen becoming too flexible, etc.

Side A I Side B SideA I SldeB

T= chord t 4 ickness T= chord tAlckness

N= 506 070 N= 616 110
Side A I Side B SideA I SldeB

1 I
T= c h o r d t h i c k n e s s Tzchord t h i c k n e s s
N= 696 420 N= 796 220

Fig. 8.27 Development of a fatigue crack in an axially loaded Y-joint. The

depth of the crack is drawn in a scale ca. 2 -3 times larger than the
scale of the outer section line. Ref. /3 1 /
 Section 8.3.6

In spite of the presence of a sizable crack, the global joint stiffness

remains unchanged until rather late in the fatigue life. Therefore, in a jacket
structure, significant changes in the global load transfer due to early fatigue
cracks are not to be expected.
Fig. 8.26 shows a typical example of the fatigue crack development in
a K-joint.
Fig. 8.27 shows the fatigue crack development in an Y-joint, Ref. /3 11,
and Fig. 8.28 shows the surface crack development in an axially loaded
T-joint, Ref. 1171. The linear, non-accelerating character of crack develop-
ment in tubular joints is very beneficial from a point of view of safety. It
facilitates early detection and repair of cracks.

I I

500.000 1 .000.000 1.500.000

Number o f c y c l e s

Fig. 8.28 Surface crack development in percentage of the intersection circum-

ference in an axiallly loaded constant amplitude fatigue tested
T-joint, Ref. / 171.

8.3.6 n and fabrication

With respect to joint design and fabrication the following recommendations
are given to improve fatigue properties:
- Design for joint-configurations with low SCF.
- The angle between brace and chord axes should not be less than 30"
in order to enable good access for welding.
- Due regard should be paid to local stress raising if external or the inter-
nal stiffeners are used in the design.
Section 8.3.7

- Measures should be taken t o avoid the intersection of welding seams.

Any girth- or longitudinal weld should be positioned away from in-
coming braces by at least twice the chord wall thickness. Otherwise
post weld heat treatment and grinding of weld seams should be per-
formed.
- Attention should be paid to the preparation of weld grooves and the
contour of the finished weld (Ref. 141). The finish of the weld toe may
be improved by grinding, as explained in Chapter 6 .
- Generally, welding of secondary members, such as brackets, fittings
etc., should be avoided closer to the bracelchord connection than
twice the chord- or brace-wall thickness.
- If the stress concentration is too high, it may be considered to reinforce
the chord, and hence reduce local chord ovalization.

8.3.7 Procedure for fatigue evaluation of tubular joints

For the prediction of fatigue life of tubular joints, a procedure based on the
hot spot stress, SN-design curves and the linear cumulative damage summation
is most appropriate.
The hot spot stress range and stress distribution along the chordlbrace
intersection should preferably be determined through FEM-calculations
or tests. However, 'estimates of SCF can also be derived from parametric
formulas, Section 8.3.4, but due regard should be paid to validity restrictions
and the uncertainties of the results.
It is recommended that the fatigue life is checked at 8 points along the
bracelchord intersection (Fig. 8.29). In each point and for each load-case
considered, the stresses due to the elementary load-cases, i.e. axial load, in-
plane bending and out-of-plane bending should be superimposed. A common
practice is to use a linear superposition:

0, = a1SCFx ox -PISCFy omy

02 = a2SCFx ox - P2 SCFy omy + 7 2 SCFz om,
o3 = a3SCFx ox -I-7 3 SCFz ' Omz
o4 = a4SCFx ox + P4SCFy omy + 7 4 SCF, om,
+
o, = a, SCF, ox P5 SCFy omy
o6 = a6SCFx ' Ox + P6SCFy omy -y,SCFz ' om,
o, = a7SCFx ox - 77 SCFZ O ~ Z
 Section 8.3.7

A x i a l load Moment Loading

a,, SCF, I n plane
qy, SCF,

Fig. 8.29 Superposition of stresses in fatigue analysis of tubular joints.

ox, any and a, are maximum nominal stresses due to axial load and
bending loads respecti-l ss shown in Fig. 8.2**& 106 yi m y be under-
st& as variabla reflecting that the hot spot stresses may occur at different
places along the periphery dependent on the loading situa ig. 8.30).

b b b 3.27
AXIAL LOAD OUT - OF - P L A N E IN - PLANE -
BENDING BENDING

Fig. 8.30 Distribution of principal stress in chord in a T-joint for the three
basic load cases. a = 5.3,P = 0.65,y = 30,T = 0.71.
Section 8.3.8

As the SCF is only given as a maximum value without specifying the location,
it is recommended that all the ai,Pi and Ti factors be set equal t o 1.0 when
using the equations for design purpose. In that case maximum stresses will
occur at point Nos. 2, 4, 6 and 8 , and therefore a Miner analysis should be
performed with respect to these points.
The calculation procedure for the Miner-analysis is described in Chap-
ters 10 and 1 1, and the corresponding SN data for tubular joints (T-curve)
are shown in Tables 1 1.1, 1 1.2 and 8.2. For unprotected joints in corrosive
environment, Table 1 1.1 may be used when the resulting number of cycles
is reduced with a divisor of 2. No cut off level is allowed. The thickness effect
should be accounted for as described in Chapter 1 1.

8.3.8 In-service experience. Repair.

In 198 1 a systematic investigation was carried out in order to prepare a review
of repairs to offshore installations located on the North Western European
continental shelf, Ref. 1321.
The investigation included the early 1960 platforms located in 20-30 m
depths as well as the typical North Sea platforms at depths of 100-1 50 m,
yielding a valuable compilation of damage types and the most probable reasons
for their occurrence. The investigation showed that 35% of all major repairs to
offshore installations were performed t o correct metal fatigue damage. How-
ever, the reanalysis and subsequent fatigue evaluation of all the cases reported
have indicated that the actual joints were underdimensioned. Fatigue damage
could have been avoided if the joints had been properly designed.
The reasons for the occurrence of the fatigue problems appear to be:
- Fatigue analysis of secondary structural elements, such as conductor
frames, caisson manifolds, riser clamps etc., had been inadequate.
70% of all fatigue cracks occurred at such elements.
- In cases where the main structure had cracked, the main reasons appear
to be increased environmental forces due to marine growth, i.e. the
maintenance of the structure had been insufficient, or the value of SCF
had been underestimated at the design stage.

There is presently (1 984) no evidence based on cases of fatigue damage

on offshore structures located on the North Western continental shelf which
indicate inadequacy of present fatigue design data and procedures. However,
the need for repair of tubular joints is already very substantial due to damage
caused by collisions, dropped objects etc., and it is expected that this need
will increase as platforms get older.
 Section 8.3.9 - 8.4
Substantial research is currently being undertaken by VERITAS on
proper repair procedures and data over the remaining fatigue life of repaired
tubular joints. Additional research projects sponsored by the industry will
begin at VERITAS in the near future:
- Grind repairs of welded structures 1984
- Grind repairs of tubular joints 1984-1985
- Improved design of grouted clamps 1984-1 985
- Weld repairs of tubular joints 1985-1986

The fracture mechanics approach to predict fatigue crack propagation in

tubular joints is receiving increasing interest, but is still at an early stage of
development. The theory and methodology is at hand, but the tools available
are not yet sufficiently powerful to deal with such complex structures as
tubular joints in a systematic manner. There is a general need for more effi-
cient FEM computer-programs to determine stress intensity factors and in
particularZTor pre-processors for automatic mesh-generation that can deal
with cracks of variable geometries in the model. This will reduce the high
costs of element-generation by hand.
A problem with the fracture mechanics approach is the paucity of
relevant experimental data for the calibration of the calculation procedures.
Unfortunately, in many experimental series, numerous parameters regarding
the fatigue crack growth have been recorded, but there are few reported
results detailing the step by step development of fatigue cracks. Nevertheless,
it is anticipated, that fracture mechanics will give a significant contribution
to the science of predicting fatigue crack growth in tubular joints in the
future.

8.4 HEAVY DUTY JOINTS

4 With the development of offshore exploration into progressively deeper waters
and arctic conditions, structures will become correspondingly larger and more
demanding. In order to avoid extreme wall thicknesses with the associated
heavy costs and severe problems related to fabrication and welding, designers
will make increasing use of heavy duty nodes. They represent somewhat more
complex node designs, but provide significant improvements in t e m s of
fatigue and static strength performance. Heavy duty joints include over-
lapping joints, complex joints and cast steel nodes. Each type will be discussed
in turn.
Section 8.4.1

8.4.1 Overlapping joints

Fig. 8.31 Photograph showing details of the intersection in an overlap K-joint

tested in VERITAS' laboratories. The continuous brace is to the
right.

Overlapping joints are such in which part of the brace forces are directly
transferred between the overlapping braces through their common weld (Fig.
8.3 1). They can be designed as uniplane - or multiplane joints. K-joints with
equal brace diameters are the most common types.
The geometric parameters defining an overlapping K-joint are given in
Fig. 8.32 and Fig. 8.4. The joint consists of a through-brace and an over-
lapping brace. The gap g between the braces is negative. In the literature

P = g/D, gld or *
the nondimensional gap parameter is defined variously as:
sin 8

The dimensions l1 and l2 are often used to define the weld length as
shown in Fig. 8.3 2.
 Section 8.4.1

1 Through
brace
Over l a p p i n g
brace I

We l d concea l e d
by the o v e r l a p

N e g a t i v e gap "g"

Definition of parameters applicable to overlap joints:

1, : Circumference of the portion of the considered brace which con-
tacts the chord.
1, : The projected length of the overlapping weld (one side) measured
perpendicular to the chord.
8 , : Angle between chord and through-brace.
O 2 : Angle between chord and overlapping brace.
g : Overlap (see sketch above).
Other parameters are as for simple welded joints, see Section 8.3.1 and Fig. 8.4.

Fig. 8.32 Definition of geometrical parameters for overlappingjoints.

Overlapping K-joints represent an improved design in terms of obtain-

able fatigue and static strength compared to ordinary K-joints, as discussed
in Section 8.3.4.3. When the braces are under axial loads, SCF reductions up
to 50% may be achieved. Overlapping IS-joints are being increasingly used in
jack-up rigs, in which favourable strengthlweigth-ratio is an important aspect,
as well as in jacket structures.
Section 8.4.1

Parametric formulas for the SCF in overlapping joints are presently not
available in the literature (1984). To obtain the most benefits of the design, it
is recommended that numerical stress analysis by FEM is carried out. Com-
puter programs in which the weld is included and modelled by 3-D solid ele-
ments should be preferred. Where FEM results are not available, it has been
common practice to substitute the gap parameter p = g/D in the ordinary
K-joint formulas (see Kuang's formulas in Table A l ) by the value p = 0.0 1
which will give a conservative estimate of the SCF in overlapping K-joints.
Systematic research into the fatigue behaviour of overlapping K-
joints were carried out at VERITAS in the years 1982-1 984. Stress analysis
was carried out with the object of deriving parametric formulas for SCF.
Fatigue tests were conducted in order to verify the validity of the hot spot
definition and the applicability of the SN-curves to overlapping joints. Parti-
cular attention was given to the study of crack propagation rates and mode of
failure of such joints. The following general comments and recommendations
are based on the investigation :
- Overlapping K-joints represent a heavy duty joint type and can be
designed to provide improved fatigue strength properties compared to
ordinary joints.
- Overlapping joints do not seem to represent a superior alternative to
ordinary K-joints when the /3 ratio is greater than 0.85.
- A gap parameter, p = g sine Id, greater than 0.8 should be avoided.
- The stress level of the "concealed" part of the joint, i.e. the throug-
brace chord intersection which is covered by the overlapping brace,
is generally quite moderate and does not seem to represent an hazard
to the safety of the connection.
- Overlapping K-joints tend to have the maximum SCF at the brace.
And, the joints tested failed due to cracks developing on the brace
side.
- The mode of failure was typical for brace failures in as much as the
joint failed shortly after the cracks had passed the through-thickness
stage.
- The application of overlapping joints can provide considerable bene-
fits, provided that the design is undertaken with the necessary exper-
tise.
 Section 8.4.2.1
8.4.2 Complex joints
8.4.2.1 General
Complex joints are joints in which the chord has been reinforced by various
systems of welded plates or by grouting.
Figs. 8.33, 8.34,8.35 and 8.36 show a number of methods of stiffening
by welded reinforcement. They include:
- internal ring stiffeners
- external ring stiffeners
- internal longitudinal stiffening ribs
- internal diaphragms
- through gussets
- external gussets
- external wing plates
Generally, welded reinforcement influences the joint behaviour iri two
ways:
- The reinforcement increases the joint stiffness, reduces ovalization and
reduces the general stress level.
- The reinforcement, if not properly designed, can produce high local
stiffness. This can attract force, and give rise to high local stresses.

The efficiency of welded reinforcements is quite dependent on the

node type and the node's design as well as the load type. Thus, as was the
case with overlapping joints, the efficiency of the reinforcement depends
on the node's initial stiffness against ovalization. Reinforcements are most
effective in flexible joints such as X-, T-, and Y-joints with high y-ratios
and small P-ratios. Reinforcements are less effective in stiff joints. For in-
stance, the incorporation of stiffeners and reinforcements in an overlapping
K-joint of p = 1 has shown to be counter productive except in the case of
out~f-planebending loads.

Fig. 8.33 Tubular joints with internal ring stiffeners.

353
Section 8.4.2.1

Fig. 8.34 Tubular joints with external ring stiffener.

Fig. 8.35 Tubular joint with through gusset plate.

r d l agona 1

Fig. 8.36 Tubular joint stiffened by wing plates.

 Section 8.4.2.2

Internal ring stiffeners are the most frequent forms of welded stiffeners.
Longitudinal stiffeners are often used in conjunction with internal ring stiffe-
ners in large complex joints as, for instance, in semi-submersible rigs.
External ring stiffeners may be used in cases where access for internal
welding is difficult, or in situations when post fabrication upgrading is carried
out.
Through gusset plates are occassionally used at lifting points. External
gussets and wing plates have been used to strengthen tubular joints when
static strength upgrading was deemed necessary. Gusset plates are not re-
commended when fatigue strength is important, because high stress concen-
trations may be generated at the gusset plate welds. Further research on this
point is needed.
r)

8.4.2.2 Ring stiffenedjoints

The following general recommendations concerning the positioning of ring
stiffeners are based on literature review and studies at VERITAS in 1983-
1984.

AXIAL LOADS:
One stiffener : Place stiffener at the saddle position.
Two stiffeners : Locate the stiffeners at a distance of 0.7 d/sine symmetri-
cally about the brace axis intersection with the chord.
Three stiffeners : Place one stiffener at the saddle position and the other two
at, or near, the ends of the intersection line bracelchord.

Analysis shows that a single ring stiffener can be quite effective in

reducing SCF. Two stiffeners provide only a modest additional improvement,
and three stiffeners provide very little further improvement.

MOMENT LOADS :
One stiffener : One stiffener is quite efficient for out-of-plane bending
loads. However, one stiffener is not recommended in the
case of in-plane bending loads.
Two stiffeners : Locate the stiffeners as for axial loads.
Three stiffeners : Locate the stiffeners as for axial loads.
Parametric formulas for ring stiffened joints are not available. Finite
element analysis or tests are required in order to determine the SCF and
stress distributions. A number of "equivalent thickness" - and "smear out"
Section 8.4.2.3

approaches have been proposed for approximate evaluations of the SCF in

ring stiffened joints, see Ref. 1331. However, these approaches lack numerical,
or experimental substantiation.
When designing ring stiffened joints, careful attention should also be
given to ensure adequate strength of the weld between the chord and the
stiffener.
When adequatly designed stiffened joints are tested to failure under
fatigue loads, they ordinarily fail by cracks developing at the hot spots at the
chordlbrace intersection. The tests indicate that the hot spot stress approach
and SN-curves for ordinary joints are applicable to ring stiffened joints.

8.4.2.3 Grout reinforced tubular joints

A double skin Bout reinforced tubular joint and the parameters defining
the joint are shown in Fig. 8.37. Double skin grout reinforced (DSGR) joints
represent an efficient alternative design to joints with welded stiffeners.
In both designs, the reinforcement stiffens the chord against ovalization.
However, contrary to the case of local stiffeners, in DSGR joints the rein-
forcement is continuous and provides smooth and low peaked stress distri-
bution.

Fig. 8.37 Double skin grout reinforced tubular joints.

In new platform designs, DSGR joints can be used to very great ad-
vantage whenever a combination of superior ultimate strength and fatigue
strength is required, and where added weight is not a serious detriment.
Many existing structures have tubular piles driven through and grouted
into the legs of the structure, thus creating a large number of DSGR joints
along the legs as shown in Fig. 8.38, where the circled locations represent
DSGR joints.
 Section 8.4.2.3

Fig. 8.38 Locations circled represent double skin grout reinforced tubular
joints in a jacket stmcture due to grouted piles throughout the leg.
Section 8.4.2.3

DSGR joints provide a number of important practical advantages

which greatly enhance their use in offshore applications:
- Grouting is a straight forward operation, which can be carried out
expediently on location.
- Grouting can be carried out on short notice and does not require long
fabrication time.
- The costs involved in fabrication of grout reinforced tubular joints
are considerably lower than the corresponding costs for joints rein-
forced by welded stiffeners.

Substantial research and development work into DSGR joints has

been going on in VERITAS since 1978 with the object of gaining detailed
knowledge of DSGR-joint's ultimate strength and fatigue strength behaviour,
Ref. /21/. A large number of stress analyses and fatigue tests were carried
out on X-, T-, Y-, K- and overlapping K-joints. Furthermore, the FEM
approach has been applied with considerable success for the numerical ana-
lysis of the tested joints. DSGR tubular joints have also been investigated
in the U.K.
The results of VERITAS research are at present (1984) unavailable for
publication. However, the following general comments can be made:
- The grout reinforcement provides remarkable increases in the static
strength of the connections, which may amount t o four fold or higher,
even under tensile axial brace loads. Under compressive axial loads the
DSGR-chords are virtually undestructible.
- Remarkable SCF reductions (versus ungrouted joints) are obtainable.
SCF reductions to the order of 1/3 are readily obtainable. Even larger
reductions can be obtained.
- The stress concentration factor of grouted joints is load dependent.
The dependency is non-linear.
- The SCF reductions (versus ungrouted state) under compressive loads
are larger than those under tensile loads.
- The SCF and general behaviour of DSGR joints are stable under fatigue
load conditions.
- Grouted joints can be evaluated for fatigue strength using SN-curves
applicable t o ungrouted joints.
 Section 8.4.3

- DSGR joints can be numerically stress analyzed. This requires the use
of non-linear FEM calculations. Otherwise the SCF must be determined
by laboratory tests.
- The use of "equivalent thickness" approach to analyze DSGR joints
is unsafe and should be avoided.

8.4.3 Cast steel nodes (CSN)

The advantages of cast steel nodes over ordinary welded tubular joints are
substantial. Cast steel nodes can be designed and fabricated to virtually
arbitrary configurations and can be optimized to provide very low SCF
values. Furthermore, the designs are provided with regular and smooth fillets
at the bracelchord transition, a fact which further reduces the SCF and
improves fatigue strength. Most important, cast steel nodes do away with
welds at the locations of high SCF's, which is a major problem with ordinary
tubular joints.
Cast steel nodes are suitable for multi-unit - or mass production, and
this is one of the reasons why they have already made their debut in jack-up
rigs. Even in the case of single-unit production, CSN may be a viable and cost
effective solution for joints of complex geometries and large wall thicknesses.
In order to make full use of CSN, the designers should develop structures
with high repeatability of nodal configurations.
High quality cast steel nodes can at present be delivered by British
Steel Corporation in the U.K. and Hoesch Huttenwerke in Germany. Kobe
Steel in Japan has commenced development of CSN and is expected to
receive certificate of approval of its concept shortly.
VERITAS has carried out numerous stress analyses, photoelastic
investigations and fatigue tests on prototype cast steel nodes, see Refs.
/ 19, 20, 221. The results of fatigue tests on 5 cast steel overlapping K-joint
prototypes manufactured by Hoesch Huttenwerke can be summarized as
follows:
- The SCF in the CSN was about half the value in the comparable welded
overlapping K-joint .
- The fatigue life of the CSN was about 100 times greater than the
fatigue life of comparable welded joints.
- Local weld repairs did not seem to influence the fatigue life of the CSN.
- Severe defects in one CSN of rejectquality influenced the fatigue life
only by factor 2 compared with that of bestquality nodes.
Chapter 8. References

- During the fatigue tests, the crack growth was found to be stable,
slow and non-accelerating during the major part of the life.

Due to the variations of shapes and dimensions, no parametric equa-

tions for SCF are available. The SCF values must be determined by FEM
analysis or model tests.
The SN-curves for welded tubular joints are not applicable to CSN
designs. SN-curves for the particular base material must be utilized.
The design of CSN requires specialized expertise, and should be under-
taken by, or in close cooperation with the respective foundry.

REFERENCES

1. American Petroleum Institute :

"Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore
Platforms". API RP2A, Thirteenth Edition 1982 Plus Supplement 1, March 1983.

2. American Welding Society :

"Structural Welding Code". AWS D l , 1-82, 1982.
3 . Norwegian Petroleum Directorate :
"Regulation for the Structural Design of Fixed Structures on the Norwegian Conti-
nental Shelf ', 1977.
4. Det norske Veritas:
"Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Fixed Offshore Structures".
DnV, 1977.
5 . Department of Energy:
"Offshore Installation Guidance on Design and Construction, New Fatigue Design
Guidance for Steel Welded Joints". Issue May 1982.
6. Marshall, P.W.:
"General Consideration for Tubular Joint Design". Proceedings of Welding Institute
Conference. Welding in Offshore Construction, Newcastle, February 1974.
7. Marshall, P.W.:
"A Review of Stress Concentration Factors in Tubular Connections". Report CE-32,
Shell Houston, April 1978.
8. Bouwkamp, J.G.:
"Concept of Tubular Joints Design". Proceedings ASCE, Vol. 90 no. st. 2 1964.

9. Bouwkamp, J.G.:
"Tubular Joints under Alternating Loads". Proceedings, Third Conf. on Dimensioning,
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest 1968.
 Chapter 8. References

10. Wardenier, J.:

"Hollow Section Joints". Delft University Press, 1982.
11. Graff, W.J.:
"Introduction to Offshore Structures". Gulf Publishing Co., Houston 1981.
12. Department of Energy:
"Background to New Design Guidance for Steel Welded Joints in Offshore Structures':
March 1982.
13. Department of Energy :
"Guidance on Design and Construction. New Fatigue Design Guidance for Steel
Welded Joints in Offshore Structures". Revision Drafting Panel. August 1983, Issue N.

14. Kuang, J.G., Potvin, A.B. and Leick R.D.:

"Stress Concentrations in Tubular Joints". Paper OTC 2205, Texas 1975.
15. Gibstein, M.B.:
''Parametric Stress Analysis of T-joints". Paper 26, European Offshore Steel Research
Seminar, Cambridge, November 1978.
16. Gibstein, M.B.:
"Fatigue Strength of Welded Tubular Joints". Conference Steel in Marine Structures,
Paris, October 1981.
17. Gibstein, M.B.:
"Fatigue Failures of T-joints". European Offshore Steel Research Seminar, Cambridge,
November 1978.
18. Gibstein, M.B.:
"Stress Concentration in Tubular Joints, its Definitions, Determination and Appli-
cation". Conference Steel in Marine Structures, Paris, 1981.
19. Gibstein, M.B. and Harsem, 0.:
"Consideration concerning Strength Evaluation of Prefabricated Cast Steel Nodes".
yeritas Report No. 77-247,1977.
20. Gibstein, M.B.:
"Photoelastic Stress Analysis of Cast Stee1 K-node Designed by Hoesch. Veritas
Report 81-0023,1981.
21. Gibstein, M.B.:
"Double Skin Grout Reinforced Tubular Joints". Proposal for Joint Industry Project.
Veritas 1983.
22. Moe, E.T .,Gibstein, M.B. and Kristiansen, P. :
"Stress Analysis and Fatigue Testing of Cast Steel K-Nodes". Veritas Report No.
82-1096,1982.
23. Moe, E.T. and Gibstein, M.B.:
"Stress Analysis and Fatigue Failure of K-joint". Veritas Report No. 80-1 127, 1980.
Chapter 8. References

24. Bberg, T.:

"Stress Analysis of Overlapping Tubular K-joints". Veritas Report 83-0249, 1983.
25. Laursen, H.K. and Bberg, T.:
"Stress Analysis of Tubular K-Joints with Diameter Ratio P = 1. Veritas Report No.
82-0407.
26. Wordsworth, A.C., Smedley, G.P.:
"Stress Concentrations at Unstiffened Tubular Joints". Paper 3 1, European Offshore
Steel Research Seminar, Cambridge, Nov. 1978.
27. Wordsworth, A.C.:
"Stress Concentration Factors at K - and KT Tubular Joints". Proceedings Fatigue
in Offshore Structural Steels, London Fabruary 1981.
28. Gantke, F.:
"Design Concept of Cast Steel Nodes". Conference Steel in Marine Structures, Paris,
1981.
29. Edwards, C.D. and Fessler, H. :
"Design and Stress Analysis of a Cast 90°-45' K-joint". Conference Steel in Marine
Structures, Paris, October 1981.
30. Rodabaugh, E.C. :
"Review of Data Relevant to the Design of Tubular Joints for Use in Fixed Offshore
Platforms". Welding Research Council Bulletin 256, New York.
3 1. Moe, E.T. and Gibstein, M.B.:
"Fatigue Failure of Y-Joint". Veritas Report No. 80-0796
32. Repairs to North Sea Offshore Structures - A Review UEG Report UR21.
33. Complex Joints and Loading Fatigue Study.
Lloyds Register of Shipping. Report No. OSG/T3/83001.
34. PMBSHELL.
Tubular Joint Analysis Program. Phase 11: Program Verification. PMB Systems Engi-
neering Inc.
3 5. Tubular Joint Analysis Program (TUJAP).
Program Description. Cornputas, October 1983.
 APPENDIX A

Parametric formulas for stress concentration factors

Table A4
RECOMMENDED STRESS

AXIAL LOAD

- 3.88(0 - 0.47)~1. .

+:4-& -1 , ~ g c y [1.5 sh1.694

8
-

z X 1.35 -
7 r W2.42 2.28 p2.2) ~ i n f l ~ ( ~ ' - ~ ~ . ~ f l ) O
C
kU
U
m ~-1 1.51 .yo.67. p-o.s9, ,1.1, po.067, sh1.52 e ,30°<e<900

.
1-83 y0.54. p . 1 2 . 71.07,

13.8 . 0-0.36. 70.68. (P,+P2)0.13. sin2'98, 45" < 0 < 90"

K-3 4-89 y0.12. 0-0-4. ,0.68. +~~)0.16

sin2-27
. B

The following reduction may be performed for all brace

side SCF's with exception o f X-, Y- and T-joints:

0.5T + ) but not less than 0.7

a
should not be taken less than 2.5.
SCFbrace
 Table A4
CONCENTRATION FORMULAS

[0.95 - 0.65@- 0.41)~] 7°.29- sin0.218 p.76 - 1.92(p- 0.72)'] r0-47*sin2.038

0.794+ 0.63 SCFc 0.794 + 0.63 SCFC

2-83. P-0.35. To.3s, sino.s e ,0°<8<900 See T & Y

See K-1 See T & Y

See K-1 SeeT&Y

RANGE OF VALIDITY

T & Y-TYPE X-TYPE K-TYPE

 <

APPLICATION KUANG'S STRESS CONCENTRATION FORMULAS VALIDITY RANGE

see e n d of table
/ Chord

Brace
SCF = 4.076 . yo-55. e - 1 . 3 5 ~ 3 . ,. 2 . sinl.94 8

I - I Chord

/ - 1 Brace
.
SCF = 1.301 y0.23. 0-0.38. +).38. si,0.21 8

Chord
.
SCF = 1.024 +.014. 0 0.787. 70.889. ,i,1.557 8
S C F = 0.462 . r l . 0 1 4 . p-0.619. ,0.889, sinl.557 8

Brace
SCF = 1-52. y0-852. 00 .801. 70.543. ,i,2.033 8

/ Chord
 APPLICATION KUANG'S STRESS CONCENTRATION FORMULAS

Chord
VALIDITY RANGE

I1 +
I
I
SCF= 1 8 3 . y o - 5 4 . P 0.12. ,-1.068, oO G e c 900
Brace normal to chord and inclined I1 +
SCF = 4-80. y0-123. P-0.396. ,0.672, @1+p2)0.1S9. sin2.267 8 2

SCF = 6.056 .To.'. 0-0.36. p . 6 8 . (Pi + P 2 ) ~ . 1 2 6 . sin^.^ 8 o0 g e G 450

1 I Chord
Table A2
Table A2
Table A3
 CHAPTER 9

UNSTABLE FRACTURE

Stephen ~latcher*and Jon ~ereim**

* ~ e r i t a sResearch, Oslo, * * ~ e tnorske Veritas, Oslo

ABSTRACT
Various failure modes that may represent the end of the fatigue lifetime are
mentioned. Most of the chapter concentrates on the failure mode of unstable
fracture. Simple methods for calculating the critical combinations of load and
crack length are described and illustrated by examples. The material property
that is required in these calculations is fracture toughness, the definition of
which is very closely linked to the testing procedures. For this reason the
testing procedures are briefly described, and examples of test result calcula-
tions are included. Because fracture toughness can be very sensitive to small
changes in conditions (e.g. temperature), some of the factors that influence
fracture toughness are discussed in the final section of this chapter.

9.1 FAILURE MODES

Fatigue failure occurs when a fatigue crack grows to a length that leads to
failure of the structure. There are at least four possible failure modes for a
structure or component:
O V n s t a b l e fracture: Unstable fracture occurs when a critical combination
of tensile load and crack length is attained, and is the failure mode
given most consideration in this chapter.
a* Plastic collapse: This is also considered briefly, in Section 9.5.3.
Buckling: Fatigue crack growth can significantly reduce the buckling
load of a structure. Some guidelines for the inclusion of the effect of
cracks on the buckling load are given in PD 6493 (Ref. / 11).
&t Leakage: This will occur if a fatigue crack grows through the thickness
of a container or pipe.
Section 9.2

9.2 MODES OF UNSTABLE FRACTURE

When a cracked structure is loaded, there are three possible modes of fracture
for metals:
1 . Brittle fracture (Fig. 9.2):
The body behaves in a linear-elastic fashion right up to the point of
fracture. In other words, the macroscopic behaviour of the body is
brittle. In such cases, the microscopic mode of fracture is usually also
brittle and is known as cleavage fracture.

A i s the displacement
b e t w e e n two points
( e . g . A , B ) on either
s ~ d eo f the c r a c k

Fig. 9.1 Definitions of P and A to be used in Figs. 9.2-9.4.

Fig. 9.2 Brittle fracture - macroscopic fracture behaviour, and fractograph

showing a cleavage fracture (see Fig. 9.1 for definitions of P and A).
 Section 9.2

/ Fracture

Elastic-plastic
behav i our
------
t Linear-elast i c
behav i our

Fig. 9.3 Elastic-plastic behaviour with cleavage instability - macroscopic

behaviour, and fractograph showing a cleavage fracture (see Fig. 9.1
for definitions of P and A).

P o i n t where f i b r o u s
crack s t a r t s t o extend

Fig. 9.4 Failure by fibrous crack growth and plastic collapse - macroscopic
behaviour, and fractograph showing a ductile fracture (see Fig. 9.1
for definitions of P and A).

2. Elastic-plastic behaviour with cleavage instability (Fig. 9.3):

The structure shows some degree of macroscopic plasticity before
fracture. However, the final fracture, which may be preceded by a small
amount of ductile crack growth, is by cleavage, i.e. it is microscopically
brittle.
Section 9.3.1

Failure by ductile crack growth and plastic collapse (Fig. 9.4):

In this case the fracture is ductile in both a macroscopic and micro-
scopic sense. As the load increases and the net section ligament deforms
plastically, the fibrous crack extends in a stable fashion, until a point
is reached when the rate of reduction of load bearing capacity due to
crack growth is equal to the rate of work hardening. At this point
the load reaches a maximum value. If the load is not dropped, the
system will become unstable at this point, and the structure will fail by
a combination of unstable fracture and plastic collapse.

9.3 TOUGHNESS PARAMETERS

9.3.1 Charpy toughness
Notched bar impact testing is often used to determine the susceptibility
of steels to brittle fracture. By using a notched test piece and impact load-
ing, brittle fracture is encouraged in the steel, and therefore the test is able
to give reasonable indications of how brittle the steel would be in service.
The notched bar impact test that has found most general acceptance is the
Charpy V-notch test.
To obtain the maximum amount of information, a full transition curve
should be established, Fig. 9.5 (Ref. /2/).The region of interest is the transi-
tion regime. Here the fracture mode changes from a low energy absorbing
mode that involves cleavage fracture and little plastic deformation, to a high

-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40

Test temperature ( " c )
Fig. 9.5 Example of a Charpy V-notch transition curve for the weld metal of
an E70 16 type electrode (Ref. 121).
 Section 9.3.2

energy absorbing mode that involves ductile fracture and considerably more
plastic deformation. One way of characterising a steel by the Charpy V-notch
test is to determine the temperature at which this transition in properties
takes place.
The Charpy V-notch test is also applied as a simple quality control test
by merely specifying a minimum allowable energy absorption at a particular
temperature. It is used in a similar way as a welding procedure acceptance
test. For this purpose, the required Charpy toughness should depend on the
strength of the weldrnent, and the test temperature should be related to the
design temperature.
It should be emphasized that the only way that Charpy test results may
be used in design is through empirical methods based on prior experience.
It is not advisable to extrapolate these empirical methods to new situations.
For quantitative engineering design against fracture, it is preferable to use an
approach based on fracture mechanics.

9.3.2 Fracture mechanics parameters to characterise unstable fracture

As explained in Chapter 3,
bor&~dM y is a function of the s acting on the body, the size of tho
md geometry of the crack and the bod#. If the structure behaves in
r-elastic fashion prior to fracture, the fracture will initiate from a pre-
existing crack or sharp defect when the stress intensity factor reaches a
critical value.
If the body shows a significant amount of plasticity, the stress intensity
factor approach becomes invalid and an elastic-plastic fracture mechanics
parameter must be used to describe the crack tip stresses and strains. The
parameters most widely used are the J-integral and the crack tip opening
displacement (CTOD), also referred to as the crack opening displacement
(COD). Although there now exist engineering methods for the application
of the J-integral (Refs. 13-51), they have not yet reached the same level of
recognition by standardising institutions as K and CTOD based methods.
For this reason the J-integral will not be discussed further in this chapter.
Physically, the CTOD is the displacement of the crack surfaces, as
measured at the position of the original crack tip (Fig. 9.6). Like the stress
intensity factor, the mOl3 38 ahw a function of the on the body,
ahkk size, aMil She @metry of the crack and structure:' The CTOD
describes the crack tip stresses and strains both before and after significant
amounts of yielding (if the yielded area is surrounded by material that has
experienced only elastic deformation), and therefore fracture occurs at a
Section 9.4

F o r z e r o load, t h e r e On a p p l i c a t i o n o f load,
i s no c r a c k opening the c r a c k opens

Fig. 9.6 Definition of the crack tip opening displacement ( 6 ) . It is defined

to be the displacement of the crack surfaces at the position of the
original crack tip.

critical value of CTOD. Unlike the stress intensity factor which is usually
related t o stresses acting on the body, the CTOD is conventionally related
to strains. Rigorous relationships between the CTOD, strains and crack size
are unfortunately not readily available for most geometries, but by making
suitable approximations, the CTOD has proved to be valuable in establishing
defect acceptance criteria (see Section 9.5).
The principle behind the use of fracture mechanics is the same for
both the K and the CTOD approach. Namely, the critical values of K or
CTOD are determined using small scale tests. Then, by using these critical
values and a knowledge of the defect sizes and shapes present, critical loads
may be calculated for the structure of interest. Alternatively, knowing the
loads to which the structure will be subjected, maximum allowable defect
sizes can be calculated. These procedures will be discussed in more detail in
Sections 9.4 and 9.5.

9.4 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS (KI, AND CTOD) TESTING

The procedures for fracture mechanics testing are relatively sophisticated
and therefore only a brief summary can be given here. For full details, the
relevant testing standards should be consulted. For KI, testing, it is probably
best to consult either the ASTM standard E 399 (Ref. 161) or the British
Standard BS 5447 (Ref. 171). The two standards differ in detail but are
essentially the same. For CTOD testing the British Standard BS 5762 (Ref.
/8/) is usually used. The theoretical background for fracture toughness testing
and fracture mechanics design are dealt with in Chapter 3 in this book.
 Section 9.4.1

9.4.1 KI,testing
According to the standards, two test piece types may be used; the compact
tension test piece or the bend test piece. The bend test piece uses somewhat
more material, but is cheaper to machine. If welds are being tested, then the
compact tension geometry usually gives no saving in the length of weld per
test piece, making the bend test piece the usual choice. In Figs. 9.7 and 9.8
these test pieces and the modes of loading are illustrated, and the symbols
describing the test piece dimensions are defined.

Width = W
Thickness B 0.5W
Half loading s an = L = 2W
E f f e c t i v e cracR length = a 0.45~-0.55~
Load = P

Fig. 9.7 Standard bend test piece for fracture toughness testing.

Net w i d t h = W
Total width C = 1.25W
B r e a d t h = B = 0.5W
H a l f h e i g h t = H = 0.6W
E f f e c t i v e crack length
= a = 0.45W-0.55W
Load = P
Fig. 9.8 Standard compact tension test piece for fracture toughness testing.
Section 9.4.1

Before testing, a sharp fatigue crack is grown from the notch to a depth
of approximately 0.5W.To ensure consistent KI, values, the standards specify
maximum fatigue loads. Then the test piece is loaded monotonically at a
rate that is slow enough to avoid dynamic effects. The displacement across
the notch mouth is measured by means of a clip gauge (Fig. 9.9) and plotted
against load on an X-Y recorder. This is done for two reasons; to verify that
the test piece behaves in a linear elastic fashion prior to fracture (as in Fig.
9.2), and to help determine the load at which fracture initiates.

gauge Output
x-ax i s
plotter

Fig. 9.9 Schematic diagram of the knife edge and clip gauge arrangement
used to measure the notch-mouth opening displacement in a
fracture toughness test.

After testing, the crack length, a, is measured on the fracture surface

and a provisional KIc value, KQ, is calculated:

where PQ is the load at fracture initiation, and Y is a function of a/W given

in the testing standards. The dimensions of the test piece that ensure plane
strain conditions, and a valid KIc , test are given by :

a and I3 2 2.5I?[ 2

If all the requirements of a KIc testing standard have been met, the KQ
value may then be called a ISI, value.
 Section 9.4.1

A valid KIc value is a material property that may depend on the orien-
tation of the test piece. However, if the ISI, value is invalid, it may be depen-
dent on parameters such as the test piece thickness or the fatigue pre-cracking
loads. Invalid KIc values may be useful, but they should be employed with
great caution and a knowledge of the errors likely to arise. If a KI, test has
proved to be invalid, it is usually preferable to calculate a CTOD value for the
material, rather than merely quote an invalid KIc value. The KIc and CTOD
test procedures are almost identical, so it is no problem to reanalyse an
invalid KIc test in terms of CTOD, providing the displacement axis of the
test record is calibrated.

EXAMPLE 1: Calculation of KIc .

The KI, value of a high strength low alloy steel of yield strength 1580 MPa is
required. A standard bend test piece of width 50 mm is machined, fatigue
pre-cracked and tested. The load rose to a maximum value of 3 1.6 kN, where
there was a rapid load drop indicating that fracture initiation had taken place.
The crack length was measured and found to be 25.7 1 mm.
a = 25.71 mm
W = 50.00mm
B = 25 .OO mm
Pa= 31.6 kN
Re = 1580 MPa

Solution.
a/W = 0.5 14, therefore using the table in E 399 or BS 5447, Y = 11.1 1.

We must now ascertain whether or not the test is valid. We will assume
that all the necessary checks on the maximum fatigue load, quality of the
fatigue pre-crack, and the linearity of the test record have been made.

As both the crack length and test piece thickness are greater than 4 mm,
the test piece is large enough to make the test valid, and the KQ value may be
quoted as a Krc value.
Section 9.4.2

9.4.2 CTOD testing

For lower yield strength materials, the test piece size requirements for a valid
KIc test become restrictive due to testing machine capacity and the avail-
ability of material in sufficiently thick sections. The CTOD test was developed
to provide a more convenient test that is of greater practical significance for
lower strength, tougher materials. It is relevant to those situations described
under points (2) and (3) in Section 9.2.
According to BS 5762, three point bend test pieces are to be used for
CTOD testing. The dimensions are not rigidly specified but the geometry
illustrated in Fig. 9.7, with the test piece thickness equal to the plate thick-
ness, is preferred. The CTOD testing procedure is basically as for KIc testing,
the main difference being that the notch-mouth opening displacement axis
of the test record must be calibrated.
If the fracture initiated from the fatigue pre-crack tip as a cleavage
fracture, the critical CTOD value should be denoted by 6,. If the fracture
initiated from the fatigue pre-crack by stable ductile crack growth, and
cleavage fracture subsequently initiated from the ductile crack, the critical
CTOD value should be denoted by 6,. In both these cases the load versus
notch-mouth opening displacement plot will look like that in Fig. 9.10.
The two cases may be distinguished by examination of the fracture surfaces.
If the final fracture occurs solely by fibrous crack growth, the critical CTOD
should be denoted by 6,. In this case, the load versus notch-mouth opening
displacement plot will be similar to that shown in Fig. 9.1 1. The CTOD at
the initiation of ductile crack extension, denoted by ai, is more difficult to
measure and apply, and will not be considered further here.
Load / P

Notch-mout h opening displacement

Fig. 9.10 Schematic test record for a CTOD test that gives a 6, or 6, value.
 Section 9.4.2

Load 1 P

,/Measurement p o i n t
( f i r s t attainment
, o f maximum l o a d )

ine constructed
, p a r a l l e l t o Loading line

Notch-mouth opening displacement

Fig. 9.1 1 Schematic test record for a CTOD test that gives a ,6 value.

If a 6, value is to be calculated, the load, P, and the plastic notch-

mouth opening displacement, Vp, are measured as shown in Fig. 9.10, and the
crack length, a, is measured from the notch mouth to the tip of the pre-
crack. If a 6, value is to be calculated, P and Vp are measured as shown in
Fig. 9.1 0, but the crack length is measured to the tip of the ductile crack.
If a 6, value is to be calculated, then P and Vp are measured at the first
attainment of maximum load as shown in Fig. 9.1 1, and the crack length
is measured to the tip of the pre-crack.
K is calculated using

and the CTOD (6,, 6 , or )

,
6 by

where v is Poisson's ratio, Re is the yield strength, E is Young's modulus, and

B and W are defined in Fig. 9.7, and z in Fig. 9.9. The first term of Equation
(9.4) represents the CTOD due to the elastic deformation of the test piece,
and the second term the CTOD due to the plastic deformation.

EXAMPLE 2 : Calculation of CTOD .

A full-thickness test piece of the preferred geometry was taken from a 20 mm
thick plate of a structural steel with a yield strength of 450 MPa. After fatigue
pre-cracking and testing according to BS 5762, the fracture surface was
Section 9.5 - 9.5.1

examined. There was a small amount of fibrous crack growth before the
cleavage fracture, and the distance from the notch mouth to the tip of the
fibrous crack was 22.5 1 mm. The load at which the cleavage instability
occurred was 18.2 kN, and the plastic notch-mouth opening displacement
was 0.81 5 mm. The knife edge height was 3 mm. What was the critical CTOD
value of this steel?
a = 22.51 mm Vp= 0.815 mm
W = 40 mm (W = 2B) R e = 450 MPa
B = 20 mm Assume :
z = 3mm E = 200 GPa
P = 18.2 kN v = 0.3

SoEution.
a/W = 0.563, which according to the table in BS 5762 gives Y = 13.14.

As there was some fibrous crack growth prior t o the cleavage fracture,
the critical CTOD value should be quoted as a 6, value.

9.5 APPLICATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS TO UNSTABLE

FRACTURE
There are now several more or less standardised methods for assessing the risk
of unstable fracture (Refs. / 1, 3-5 and 9-1 61). In this section a brief descrip-
tion of the principles behind some of these methods will be given, together
with examples to illustrate how the principles may be applied in simple
practical situations.

9.5.1 The stress intensity factor approach

This approach, which is the basis of many fracture mechanics design and
Section 1 1.5.3

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Fig. 11.18 Tubular joints in air. Surface cracks at the weld toe.
m = 3.1. Ref. /8/.
Section 9.5.1
9% Ni steel. Fracture mechanics testing was carried out on the steel at the
design temperature of -155°C. At the lower bound of a large scatter band,
valid KI, values of 75 MPa fi were obtained. If the design stress, od, of the
tank is 150 MPa, at what length could a through-thickness fatigue crack be-
come critical?

Solution.
We will assume here that the case may be treated as a through-thickness crack
in an infinite plate subjected t o uniform tensile stresses (F= I):

where a is the half-length of the crack. Unstable fracture occurs when a

reaches its critical value, ac,it. This may be calculated from the critical form
of the above equation:

i.e. the total length of the critical crack is 160 mm. This value is unacceptably
small; after the discovery of a crack, there should be enough time for the
tanker to get to a harbour before the crack grows to a critical size. It may be
concluded that another steel should be selected for the LNG tank. Note that
assuming F = 1 actually gives an slightly unconservative analysis (see Fig. 20 1
of Ref. / 191).

EXAMPLE 4: Calculation of the critical defect size in a large rotor forging.

A fatigue crack initiates from an irregularity on the surface of a large rotor
forging. The maximum stress, rrd, in the region of the crack is 800 MPa, and
the KI, of the forging steel is 1 15 MPa fi. The crack grows as a semi-circle.
At what crack depth will the rotor fail?

Solution.
We will use the notation in Fig. 9.1 3 (Ref. /19/). The rotor forging is large,
therefore c/b is approximately zero. Also the crack is semi-circular, so c/a = 1.
From Fig. 9.13 it can be seen that in this case &/KO = 0.65. From the equa-
tion in Fig. 9.13 it can be seen that
 Section 9.5.1

9.13 F factors (ISI/% = F) to give the stress intensity factor at point A

on a semi-elliptical crack subjected to a uniaxial tensile stress
(figure taken from Ref. 1191).
Section 9.5.2

which is actually Equation 9.5 with different notation. The critical form may
be written:
KIc = (KI/Ko) Od '4-
KI, - ] ' = + . 0.65
[ ~ ~800
] ~ . 1 0 3 = 1 6 ~ ~
cc=l .[
(KI/Ko) Od

9.5.2 The CTOD design curve

In this semi-empirical approach which is used in PD 6493 (Ref. /I/), the
critical CTOD value (here called 6, even if it is actually a 6, or ,6 value)
is related to the strain e in the region of the crack, and the maximum allow-
able defect size, am. The design curve incorporates a degree of conserva-
tism so is not a critical crack size, but represents a crack size that may be
safely tolerated. Also note that refers to the half-length of a through-
thickness defect in an infinite plate loaded in tension. If the actual configura-
tion differs significantly from this situation, the - kvalue must be converted
to a defect size for the actual situation such that the defects in both cases
have equal severities. This process will be illustrated by example at the end of
this section. The critical CTOD values to be used in the CTOD design curve
should be obtained using full-thickness test pieces of the preferred geometry,
as described in Section 9.4.2. It is common practice to run three parallel
CTOD tests and use the lowest measured critical CTOD value.
Due to the design curve's empirical basis, in some cases the analysis
may be extremely conservative, with safety factors as high as 20; in other
- will be very close to the critical crack size. The main advantage of
cases a,
the CTOD design curve is that it is relatively simple to use, and if the result
indicates that the weld or structure is satisfactory, a more complicated ana-
lysis is unnecessary.
The CTOD design curve actually takes the form of a plot of 4 against
the applied strain normalised by the yield strain, e/ey, where 4 is the dimen-
sionless CTOD and defined by
2) c
a = -
2 * r 0 e y*amdX
The design curve is defined by
= (~/e,)* for < 0.5
4 = (€ley) - 0.25 for e/ey > 0.5
The CTOD design curve is illustrated in Fig. 9.1 4.
 Section 9.5.2

-
Fig. 9.14 The CTOD design curve, 8 = Sc/2 T ey am.

EXAMPLE 5 : Calculation of maximum allowable crack size in an LNG tank.

Another candidate material, also a 9%Ni steel, with Re = 800 MPa, was tested
for possible use in the LNG tank described in Example 3 in Section 9.5.1.
None of the fracture toughness tests gave a valid KIc value, the lower bound
of the critical CTOD values being 0.28 mm. Estimate the maximum allowable
fatigue crack size.

Solution.
As the design stress does not exceed the elastic limit:

The dimensionless CTOD :

Q , = --ti c
- 0.28 l o 3 -200 1o3 - 0.01 11 assuming
- -
2*n*ey*a, 2*n.800*-+ amax E = 200 GPa

e/ey < 0.5, therefore use the relationship

The maximum allowable crack size is therefore 640 mm.

Section 9.5.2

EXAMPLE 6: Calculation of the maximum allowable defect size in a butt weld.

Ultrasonic inspection revealed a crack located in the weld metal of a stress
relieved butt weld in a 150 mm thick plate. It was a surface crack with an
aspect ratio c/a of approximately one (Fig. 9.1 3). The yield stress of the weld
metal is 470 MPa and its minimum critical CTOD was determined to be 0.36
mm. To what depth may the crack be allowed to grow before the structure
is replaced? Assume that the weldment is loaded in uniaxial tension perpen-
dicular t o the crack plane, and that the stress in the weldment does not
exceed 0.75 of the yield stress of the weld metal.

Solution.
e/ey = 0.75

e/ey > 0.5, therefore use the relationship

-
a = ( e / e y ) - 0 . 2 5 ~ 0.0244 = 0.75 -0.25
amax
- = 0.049 m = 49 mm
a,

This now needs to be converted to the crack depth of a semi-circular surface

crack of equal severity. The assumption is usually made that cracks of equal
severity have the same stress intensity factors for uniform tensile loading,
regardless of whether or not the actual loading causes significant plasticity.
For the through-thickness crack of half-length Z in an infinite plate subjected
to uniaxial tension, F is equal to one, i.e.
K= o e J Z
But for any other crack geometry subjected to uniaxial stresses, F is not
generally equal to one, and must therefore be included in the formula that
relates K to the crack depth c:

Now if the cracks of half-length and depth c are of equal severity for the
same stress,
 Section 9.5.3

In this example the aspect ratio of the crack will remain reasonably
constant as it grows. According to Fig. 9.13, F is approximately 0.7 for
a/c = 1, and c/b values of about 0.75. Therefore, the maximum allowable
crack depth c is 100 mm.

9.5.3 The R6 failure assessment diagram

The COD design curve allows cracks to be assessed with respect to unstable
fracture, but does not make any allowance for the fact that the presence of
a crack will also reduce the plastic collapse load of the structure by reducing
the net cross-sectional area. For long cracks in rather tough materials, plastic
collapse will be the predominant failure mode, and this fact should be allowed
for in design and defect assessment.
While the check for plastic collapse should be performed as a separate
step in addition to a K based or CTOD design curve analysis, the R6 failure
assessment diagram (also known as the CEGB or CERL failure assessment
diagram) combines the criteria for brittle fracture and plastic collapse into
a single procedure (Ref. / I I/). Two parameters are considered in the R6
procedure; K, and S, :

K, = stress intensity factor

fracture toughness
applied load (stress o or pressure P)
S , =-
collapse load (stress ol or pressure PI )

Some examples of plastic collapse solutions for simple pressure vessel

geometries are given below. The pressure vessels are of internal radius R1
and external radius R2,and contain a long surface crack of depth a. The
flow stress, of, is usually taken to be the mean of the yield stress Re and the
ultimate tensile strength R, .

Internal axial crack:

External axial crack:

Internal circumferential crack:

Section 9.5.3

External circumferential crack:

See Ref / 1 I / for other plastic collapse solutions.

Like the CTOD design curve, the R6 failure assessment diagram has a
semi-empirical basis. It is based on a 'strip yielding model' that, strictly speak-
ing, is only applicable to thin sections of materials that do not work-harden.
However it has been demonstrated that the R6 diagram provides an approxi-
mate lower bound solution for practical situations. It takes the form of the
failure locus that is illustrated in Fig. 9.1 5 and expressed mathematically by

u
0 . 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
sr
Fig. 9.15 The R6 failure assessment diagram. K, is the ratio of K to KIc and
S, is the ratio of load t o limit load (Ref. 1111).

To use the failure assessment diagram, values of K, and S, must be

calculated for the structure under consideration. If the point (S,, K,) lies with-
in the failure locus the structure will be safe, but if it lies outside the failure
locus the structure will be unsafe.
A useful concept that may be derived from the R6 procedure is the
load factor, L:
 Section 9.5.3

where OA and OB are defined in Fig. 9.1 5 for a given K, and S, . The load
factor is the safety factor on the applied load, and enables the relative safety
of various situations to be quantified. If L is less than one, the situation is
unsafe. If L is greater than one, the situation is safe and the higher the value
of L the greater the degree of conservatism.

EXAMPLE 7: Calculation of the critical defect size in a pressure vessel.

A cylindrical pressure vessel of internal radius 5.00 m and external radius
5.25 m contains a long axial external surface crack, which is growing by
fatigue. The steel from which the pressure vessel is constructed has a yield
strength of 340 MPa, a UTS of 460 MPa, and a KI, of 100 MPa*. If the
maximum pressure inside the vessel is 5 MPa, what is the crack length at
which failure of the vessel will occur?

Solution.
We will calculate S, and K, for the crack depths: a = 0.08, 0.09, 0.10, 0.11
and 0.12 m.

Use Equation 9.12 to calculate Pl ,where

1
Of = - (Re
2
+ R,) = 400 MPa

The S, values for the various crack lengths are shown in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1.
Section 9.5.3

Fig. 9.16 Stress intensity factors for an external radial edge crack subjected
to a uniform internal pressure (Ref. / 191).
 Section 9.5.4

To calculate K for the various crack lengths, use Fig. 9.16 (Ref. 1191). From
this figure it can be seen that K (called K1 in the figure) is given by

Substituting for P, R1 , and R2,gives

R1/R2= 0.95, therefore the factor KI/KO, as a function of a/(Rz - R1), must
be read off this curve in Fig. 9.16. The K, values for the various crack lengths
are shown in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2.

Each crack length thus corresponds to a point (S,, K,) on the R6 failure
assessment diagram. These points are plotted in Fig. 9.17, where it can be
seen that the failure boundary is reached when the crack reaches a depth
of approximately 0.105 m. Also it may be seen that the pressure vessel is
predicted to fail at a load considerably lower than its plastic collapse load, and
at a K value slightly lower than its KI,.

9.5.4 Stress concentrations and residual stresses

If the crack under consideration is close to a stress concentrator (e.g. a hole,
notch or weld toe), this must be allowed for in the calculation of the stress
intensity factors for use in a K based procedure. For some cases, the appro-
priate F factor for the actual stress concentrating geometry may be available.
Otherwise, stress intensity factors may be estimated from a knowledge
of the stress concentration factor, SCF. Take the example of a short crack
Section 9.5.4

'3r
Fig. 9.17 The R6 failure assessment diagram with points representing a grow-
ing crack at constant load.

growing from a circular hole in an infinite plate (Fig. 9.18). Here, the stress
concentration factor is 3; i.e. the stresses at the edge of the hole are raised
by a factor of three. Thus the situation in Fig. 9.18 may be approximated
by that in Fig. 9.19 for which the F factor is readily available (F = 1 .12 for an
edge crack in a semi-infinite plate with remote tensile loading). However, as
the distance from the edge of the stress concentrator increases, the stresses
fall off rather rapidly, so this approach can be very conservative for longer
d

d
Fig. 9.18 Small crack at a large hole in an infinite plate with a uniaxial tensile
stress, o.
 Section 9.5.4

Fig. 9.19 Equivalent situation to that in Fig. 9.18 - small edge crack in a semi-
infinite plate with a uniaxial tensile stress of 30.

cracks. If the crack is long compared with the size of the stress concentrator,
the effect of the stress concentrator may be ignored completely; e.g. if a crack
at the toe of a fillet weld is greater than 0.15 of the thickness of the plate it
is growing into, the stress concentrating effect of the weld geometry may be
ignored (PD 6493, Ref. /I/). For cracks of intermediate length a knowledge
of the F factors for the geometry in question are necessary for an accurate
analysis.
When using the CTOD design curve for cracks in the presence of a stress
concentrator, the nominal applied strain is usually assumed to be raised by a
factor equal to the SCF, providing this does not increase the strain to a value
greater than 2ey (PD 6493, Ref. / 1I),in which case a full elastic-plastic stress
analysis should preferably be performed.
It is also important to consider residual stresses in design against brittle
fracture. For welds that have not been stress relieved, it is common practice
to assume that the residual stresses are of yield strength magnitude. The
residual stresses must be added to the applied stresses to give the stress that
is to be used in the calculation of the stress intensity factors. Adding the
residual stresses to the applied stresses will probably give stresses that are
high enough to cause extensive crack tip plasticity, invalidating a K based
design approach. Therefore 'plastic zone correction factors' may be used
to allow for the plastic deformation, as described in the R6 procedure (Ref.
/11/) for example. When using the CTOD design curve, it is recommended
that the estimated residual stresses, o, be converted to strains using Young's
modulus, and added to the applied strain eapp, to give the E to be used in
the procedure.
Section 9.6 - 9.6.1

EXAMPLE 8: Calculation of maximum allowable size for a crack in the weld

metal of an as-welded fillet weld.
A surface fatigue crack has been found growing from the toe of an as-welded
fillet weld into the base plate material. The yield strength of the base plate
material is 360 MPa and its critical CTOD value at the design temperature is
0.46 mm. Given that the nominal strain to which the plate is subjected is
0.6 of the yield strain and that the SCF at the toe is 2.5, calculate the depth
to which the crack may be allowed to grow.

Solution.
E = (eapp SCF) + ((rres/E)= 0.6 cy 2.5 + ey = 2.5 ey

> 0.5, therefore use the relationship

E / E ~

-a, = 0.018 m = 18 mm

This defect size must then be converted to a surface crack defect size of the
appropriate geometry using the procedure given in Example 6, Section 9.5.2.

9.6 FACTORS AFFECTING FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

There are many ways in which the fracture toughness, and hence fatigue life,
may be influenced; some of these will be briefly discussed here.

9.6.1 Thickness
If toughness is defined as the K value, Kc, at which the initiation of fracture
occurs, then the toughness can vary with test piece thickness (Fig. 9.20).
However, for test pieces greater than a certain thickness, the Kc value is con-
stant and called the plain strain fracture toughness, KIc. Similar effects are
also found if critical CTOD values are plotted against plate thickness (Fig.
9.21, Ref. 1201). This variation of CTOD with thickness partly explains why
the thickness of the preferred CTOD test piece is equal to the plate thickness.
 Section 9.6.2

Fig. 9.20 Showing the variation of Kc with test piece thickness.

Test ternperature,oC
o -40
0 -25

50 100
0 , t h i c k n e s s (mm)
Fig. 9.21 Variation of critical CTOD values with test piece thickness.
Data for a ship hull steel (~ef.'/20/).

9.6.2 Temperature
The comments here apply primarily to bcc metals, an important class of
materials that includes most engineering steels apart from austenitic stainless
steels. Austenitic stainless steels, aluminium alloys and other fcc metals show
a less marked temperature dependence.
The fracture toughness (Kc or critical CTOD) varies with temperature
in a similar fashion to the Charpy energy (Fig. 9.22, Ref. 121). That is, there
is a high temperature regime of relatively high toughness values, a low tempe-
rature regime of low toughness, and a transition regime in which there is a
Section 9.6.3

-1 5 0 -50 50
Test temperature ( O C )

Fig. 9.22 Variation with test temperature of critical CTOD values of the weld
metal of an E7016 type weld metal (Ref. 121).

rapid change of toughness for little variation in temperature. Also as with

Charpy testing, the high toughness regime corresponds to the ductile mode
of fracture, the lower toughness regime corresponds to the cleavage mode
of fracture, and the transition regime to mixed fracture modes. However,
note that the Charpy V-notch transition temperatures cannot be readily
correlated with fracture toughness transition temperatures. It is also impor-
tant to note that, unless valid KI, values are obtained for the whole tempera-
ture range, the transition temperature is very dependent on the test piece
size or plate thickness.
Therefore, it is important to measure a material's toughness with a
full thickness test piece (unless it is a valid KI, that is being measured), and to
perform the test at the design temperature. If there is a lot of scatter in the
toughness values, it is possible that the material is being tested in its transition
regime, in which case one should be particularly careful to establish a true
lower bound toughness for use in design or defect assessment.

9.6.3 Strain rate

In the KIc and CTOD testing standards, it is specified that the loading rate
should be within certain limits. This is because for impact loading conditions,
the toughness may vary considerably with strain rate (Fig. 9.23, Ref. /2 11).
For bcc materials, increasing the strain rate encourages the cleavage mode
of fracture, and thus has a similar effect to that of lowering the temperature.
Therefore, if the structure of interest is subjected to high strain rates,
one should be wary of applying conventionally obtained toughness values.
 Section 9.6.4

Fig. 9.23 Variation of maximum load CTOD values (6) with the CTOD
rate (5). Data for a ship hull steel (Ref. /2 I/).

The toughness values should be obtained at the strain rate corresponding to

the practical situation. A testing standard that covers high strain rate fracture
mechanics testing, is currently being prepared (Ref. 1221).

9.6.4 Metallurgy
It is difficult to cover briefly such a wide topic as the effect of metallurgical
variables on toughness. However, two broad generalisations may be made.
One is that most microstructural features that contribute to strength
tend to reduce the toughness. This often leads to an inverse correlation be-
tween strength and toughness (Fig. 9.24, Ref. /23/). An exception to this
rule is that refining the grain size improves both strength and toughness. Note
that higher strength materials are also expected to carry greater stresses. Thus
the introduction of high strength materials can lead to smaller critical defect
sizes and unstable fracture problems, due both to a reduced fracture tough-
ness and to greater design stresses.
The second generalisation is that increasing the non-metallic inclusion
content usually lowers the upper shelf toughness. Because the volume fraction
of inclusions increases with the content of sulphur and oxygen in the steel,
varying the sulphur content of a steel can affect the fracture toughness (Fig.
9.25, Ref. 1241). In plate material, the inclusions are usually elongated in the
rolling and transverse directions, and this can lead to marked anisotropy in the
upper shelf toughness properties, as shown in Table 9.3 for a case hardening
steel (En 32 B, which is approximately equivalent to B.S. 970 080 M 15).
The notation used to describe the test piece orientations is standard and given
in Fig. 9.26 (Ref. / 2 5 / ) .
Section 9.6.4

0 I I I I
500 1000 1500 2000
R,(MPal
Fig. 9.24 Figure illustrating the inverse relationship bet ween strength and
fracture toughness that is usually found for particular alloy systems
(Ref. 1231).

100 Sulphur content

0 0.008%

1.4 1 . 6 1.8 2.0

Rm(GPa)
Fig. 9.25 Effect of sulphur content on the room temperature upper level frac-
ture toughness of a quenched and tempered alloy steel (Ref.1241).

Fig. 9.26 Standard fracture toughness test piece orientations.

 Chapter 9. References

Table 9.3.

Orientation Initiation CTOD value (mm)

LT 0.13
LS 0.10
TS 0.09
ST 0.06
TL 0.04
SL 0.04
.
Thus, particularly if the fracture mode is fibrous, test pieces should
ideally be taken from the material such that the crack and crack tip lie in the
plane and direction of practical interest. Also it should be noted that impurity
elements can cause temper embrittlement. This is relevant for certain classes
of alloy steels (particularly Ni-Cr steels). Trace amounts of impurity elements
such as P, Sb, As and Sn can sometimes, at certain temperatures, segregate
to and thereby weaken the grain boundaries of these steels, thus substantially
reducing the fracture toughness.

REFERENCES

1. British Standards Institution:

Guidance on some methods for the derivation of acceptance levels for defects in
fusion welded joints, PD 6493 :1980.
2. Slatcher, S., Saether, S. and Lereim, J.:
Post Weld Heat Treatment of Welded Constructions - C Mn Manual Metal Arc Weld-
Metal Toughness, Veritas Report No. 82-07 18,16.08.82.
3. Turner, C.E.:
"Further Developments of a J-Based Design Curve and Its Relationship to Other
Procedures", Elastic-Plastic Fracture: Second Symposium, Volume I1 - Fracture
Resistance Curves and Engineering Applications, ASTM STP 803, C.F. Shih and
J.P. Gudas, Eds.,American Society for Testing and Materials, 1983, pp. 11-80-11- 102.
4. Shih, C .F., German, M.D. and Kumar, V. :
International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, Vol. 9, 1981, pp. 159-196.
Chapter 9. References

5. Kumar, V., German, M.D. and Shih, C.F. :

"An Engineering Approach for Elastic-Plastic Fracture Analysis", EPRI Topical
Report NP-1931, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, USA,
July 1981.
6. American Society for Testing and Materials:
Standard Method of Test for Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials,
E 399.
7. British Standards Institution:
Method of test for Plane strain fracture toughness (KI,) of metallic materials, BS
5447:1977.
8. British Standards Institution:
Methods for Crack opening displacement (COD) testing, BS 5762:1979.
9. American Society of Mechanical Engineers :
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I11 - Rules for Construction of Nuclear
Power Plant Components.
10. American Society of Mechanical Engineers:
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section XI - Rules for In-Service Inspection of
Nuclear Power Plant Components.
11. Harrison, R.P., Loosemore, K., Milne, I. and Dowling, A.R.:
Assessment of the integrity of structures containing defects, CEGB Report RIHIR6-
Rev 2, April 1980.

12. Japan Welding Engineering Society Standard :

Method of assessment for defects in fusion-welded joints with respect to brittle
fracture, WES 2805- 1980.
13. Denys, R.M.:
The wide plate test and its application to acceptable defects, Paper 12, Int. Conf. on
"Fracture Toughness Testing", The Welding Institute, 9-10 June 1982, London.

14. Denys, R.M. and Miisgen, B. :

Gross section yielding crack tolerance of STE 36 and STE 70 steels, Paper 13, Int.
Conf. on "Fracture Toughness Testing", The Welding Institute, 9-10 June 1982,
London.
15. Soete, W.:
The wide plate test and the gross strain criterion, Paper 24, Int. Conf. on "Fracture
Toughness Testing", The Welding Institute, 9-10 June 1982, London.
16. Kiefner, J.F., Maxey, W.A., Eibner, R.J. and Duffy , A.R. :
"Failure Stress Levels of Flaws in Pressurized Cylinders", Progress in Flaw Growth
and Fracture Toughness Testing, ASTM STP 536, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1973, pp. 46 1-48 1.
 Chapter 9. References

17. Shih, G.C.:

Handbook of Stress-Intensity Factors, Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics,
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1973.
18. Tada, H., Paris, P. and Irwin, G.:
The Stress Analysis of Cracks Handbook, Del Research Corporation, Hellertown,
Pennsynvania, 1973.
19. Rooke, D.P.and Cartwright, D.J. :
Compendium of Stress Intensity Factors, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London,
1976.
20. Lereim, J.:
Elastic-plastic fracture analysis of heavy walled structural elements, Paper 13, The
Second International Conference on Offshore Welded Structures, The Welding Insti-
tute, London, 16-1 8 November 1982.
21. Larsson, T-B., Lereim, J. and Saether, S.:
Influence of strain rate on J- and COD-fracture toughness of steel plates of DnV
qualities NVA, NVD and NVE 36, Veritas Report No. 83-0194,25.02.83.
22. The UK Briefing Group on Dynamic Testing, IIW Commission X, Paper 35. Proposed
standard test methods for measuring K I ~and CTOD at high load rates, Fracture
Toughness Testing - Methods, Interpretation and Application, Welding Institute,
London, 9-10 June 1982.
23. Broek, D.:
Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 3rd Edition, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,
The Hague, Holland, 1983.
24. Birkle, A.J., Wei, R.P.and Pellissier, G.E.:
Transactions of the American Society for Metals, Volume 59, pp. 981-990, 1966.
25. Willoughby, A.A., Pratt, P.L.and Baker, T.J.:
Advances in Fracture Research, Ed. Francois, Proceedings of 5th International Con-
ference on Fracture, Cannes, France, 29th March3rd April, volume 1, 179-186, 1981.
 CHAPTER 10

FATIGUE LIFE CALCULATIONS

Inge htsberg* and A. ~lmar-N-** (Example 9)

*A.S VERITEC, Oslo, ** Norges tekniske hegskole, Trondheim

$ - ABSTRACT
The importance of fatigue life estimation at the design stage is pointed out
in order to arrive at feasible and cost-effective solutions considering the total
lifetime of the structure. of fatigue lives by use of SN-data and
Miner-Palmgren approach have been discuss&, Constant and variable arnpli-
tude loading have been considered. Closed form equations for fatigue life
predictions have been derived. Stresses to be used for calculation of fatigue
lives are defined. Prediction of fatigue lives based on crack growth analysis
has been discussed. Examples of fatigue life predictions and crack growth
analysis are given. Some of the main uncertainties associated with fatigue life
prediction are discussed. Three formats for fatigue design are presented. Some
practical guidelines and considerations on the application of the allowable
stress format are given. At the end the effect of yield strength and relieving
of residual stresses on fatigue is discussed.

10.1 RTANCE OF FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION AT THE

DESIGN STAGE
After a design of an offshore structure has been finished, there are rather
small possibilities for increasing the fatigue life. Some improvements may be
made during the fabrication, see Chapter 6. So far, however, grinding of the
transition weldlbase material has been the only practical and reliable method
for increasing fatigue life. It is generally accepted that a factor of approxi-
mately 2 on fatigue life may be achieved by grinding, assuming good work-
manship. Such grinding should preferably be carried out by a rotary burr. The
process is time-consuming and will only be cost-effective in few designs.
Section 10.2.1

During the design period it should be kept in mind that the need for in-
service inspection is rather depending on the calculated fatigue lives for the
different joints. The extent of in-service inspection with respect to fatigue
cracks is normally based on the calculated damage ratio during design, Ref.
/ 1/. It should be mentioned that the reliability of in-service inspection may be
rather uncertain and depends on several factors. Thus, the considered areas
must be cleaned in order to ensure a reliable inspection, and the associated
costs are rather large. Also, inspection for fatigue cracks below water level is
generally very expensive. The effort of required in-service inspection should
therefore be considered at an initial design stage, in order to achieve a cost-
effective design solution.
To obtain a good design, the total costs should be considered, i.e. costs
of the fabricated structure including control and inspection during design and
fabrication, and inspection costs during service. The expected costs associated
with a structural collapse may also be included. Such cost optimization may
be carried out with requirements to structural reliability as a boundary con-
dition. The optimum cost may be found for stricter requirements to structural
reliability than those specified as a minimum in the design codes. This may for
example be relevant for new types of structures in deep waters, Ref. 121.
In order to arrive at a cost optimal design, it is therefore necessary that
fatigue life estimates are carried out for the different design solutions. Such
estimates are also important at an early design stage for verification of the
code requirements. A change of design parameters is most easily carried out
at the beginning of the project. At this stage simplified assumptions of the
long term stress range distribution may be used (two-parameter Weibull-
distribution). For the final design, however, the stress range distribution
must be determined with sufficient accuracy, see Chapter 2.

10.2 PREDICTION OF FATIGUE LIFE BY USE OF SN DATA AND

THE MINER-PALMGREN APPROACH
10.2.1 General
The fatigue life is normally calculated by the Miner-Palmgren formula:

where : k = number of stress blocks

ni = number of stress cycles in stress block i with constant stress range
Aoi
Ni = number of cycles t o failure at constant stress range Aoi
 Section 10.2.1

The Miner-Palmgren equation assumes fracture for a damage ratio

D = 1. The calculated fatigue life is

i=k
where: Lo is the time for the total number of stress cycles no = Z ni.
i= 1
For constant amplitude loading the number of cycles to failure for a
given stress range AD, is determined by going into the SN-curve as shown in
Fig. 10.1. Different SN-curves are reproduced in Chapter 1 1. It may also be
calculated from the analytical expression for the SN-curve:
LO^ N = log a - m logAa (10.3)

where: m = the inverse negative slope of the SN-curve

log Z = the intercept of the logN axis
Values of m and ii are given in Chapter 1 1 for different types of welded joints.

N 6 log N

Fig. 10.1 SN-curve, schematic.

ress range distribution

onstant stress F&. 10.2. The damage
es within each block is calculated, and
the summation is carried out according to the Miner-Palmgren rule. Following
this procedure the cut off level in the SN-curve is accounted for in the
calculations.
Section

Log n

Fig. 10.2 Stress distribution divided into stress blocks.

EXAMPLE 1

Fig. 10.3 Section through tube wall.

What is the fatigue life of a tube welded from one side and subjected
to the long term stress range distribution in Fig. 10.2? The tube weld is shown
in Fig. 10.3.
The tube thickness t = 40 mm. The tube is part of a structure in sea-
water. It is assumed that the cathodic protection is working.

According to the joint classifications in Chapter 1 1, the welded connection

falls in class F2. Including the thickness effect, the corresponding SN-curve
reads:
log N = log a - a
4
log$$) -m logno

= 1 1 . 6 3 - p3*0
a log(--)40 - 3 .O logAo
4 .o 22
l o g N = 11.44 - 3 . 0 logAo

According to the damage calculation in Table 10.1, the total damage

 Section 10.2.2

ratio is 0.32. The number of cycles to failure is then:

Table 10.1 Calculation of fatigue damage.

Block ni Aoi ---+ Ni ni/Ni

1 4 455 2924 0.0014
2 6 400 4303 0.0014
3 30 345 6707 0.0045
4 70 300 10200 0.0069
5 300 250 17627 0.0 170
6 700 210 29740 0.023 5
7 3000 170 56060 0.0535
8 7000 130 125363 0.0558
9 30000 90 377809 0.0794
10 70000 55 1655434 0.0423
11 300000 30 10200847 0.0294
no =411110 D = 0.3151

10.2.2 fonm fatigue life equations

It is assumed that a structural detail is subjected to no stress cycles in total.
It is further assumed that these stress cycles are randomly distributed with
a probability density function f(Ao). This means that the number of cycles
with stress range within Aa and (Aa + d o ) is no f(Au) dAa. The damage
ratio Eq. (10.1) is then:

where N(Ao) is the number of cycles producing failure at a constant stress

range Ao.
Combination of Eqs. (10.4) and (10.5) yields:

where Mm is the moment of order m of the probability distribution of the

stress range. Moments for different types of probability distributions of the
stress range may be found in the litterature, see eg. Ref. 131.
Section 10.2.2

For offshore structures the probability density function of stress range

may be represented by a two-parameter Weibull-distribution:

where h and q are Weibull parameters.

Combining Eqs. (10.6) and (10.7) yields for the damage ratio:

Introducing

we get

The gamma function is defined as:

Substituting Eq. (10.1 1) into Eq. (10.10) yields:

The gamma function is tabulated in mathematical handbooks, e.g. Ref. 141.

Some values are listed in Table 10.2.

It is convenient to eliminate the Weibull parameter q by introducing

the maximum stress range Aao during no number of cycles. The probability
that the stress range Ao is exceeded is:

The interpretation of Q(Ao) is shown in Fig. 10.4. The total area below the
f(Ao) curve is equal t o 1-0.
Combining Eqs. (1 0.7) and (1 0.13) and integrating, yield for the exceedance
function:
 Section 1 0.2.2

Fig. 10.4 Density function of Weibull distribution of stress ranges

with h = 1.0

The probability that the maximum stress range Aa, is reached or exceeded
for a total of no stress cycles is:

Combining Eqs. (10.14) and (10.15) yields:

and finally when Aoo in Eq. (1 0.1 6) is substituted into Eq. (10.14):

An example of $#e exceedance function Q(Ao) is shown in Fig. 10.5. It has

been derived for the Weibull probability function shown in Fig. 10.4 with
h = 1.O.

Since Q(Aa) represents the probability that Aa is exceeded, we have

for the number of cycles n that exceeds Ao:

"
Q(Ao) = no = exp -[(&
A00
lh inn,]
Section 10.2.2

Fig. 10.5 Probability of exceedance of the stress range Au for the Weibull
distribution in Fig. 10.4.
and
Ao = AD,[ 1 - logn ] l I h
1% no
n = number of stress cycles that exceeds Ao
Ao, = maximum stress range for a total of no cycles
no = total number of stress cycles
The long term distributions of stress ranges corresponding to waves
in a 20 year period with no = lo8 cycles according to Eq. (10.19), is shown
in Fig. 10.6 for different values of the Weibull parameter h.

I: 0
,

1
hz0.5 Q7 a9 1.0 1.1 1.3 15

,--,

2 3 4 5 6 7 8
log n

Fig. 10.6 Long term distribution of stress ranges.

 Section 10.2.3

Sometimes Eq. (10.1 9) is written with K = l/h, see e.g. Chapter 2 and
Ref. 151.
When no and Aa, are introduced instead of q, Eq. (10.16), we get for
the damage ratio (Eq. (1 0.12)):

This expression implies :

- the Miner-Palmgren rule
- an SN-curve with no cut-off level
- the two-parameter Weibull distribution for the probability density func-
tion of stress ranges
- Aq, is the maximum stress range for a total of no cycles
- h is the Weibull parameter describing the shape of the long term stress
range distribution. For guidance on selection of values for h, see Sec-
tion 10.6.2.

10.2.3 4hhlation of equivalent stress range

If the loading is variable, an equivalent constant stress range may be calcu-
lated. We divide the long term stress distribution into a stress histogram
consisting of a number k of constant stress range blocks, each block charac-
terized by its number of cycles ni and stress range Aui, Fig. 10.7.

"0
Number o f cycles

Fig. 10.7 Long term stress range distribution divided into a stress histogram.

Using the Miner-Palmgren rule Eq. (10.1) and assuming a straight

SN-curve without cut-off level Eq. (1 0.4), the damage ratio for the long term
Section 10.2.3
stress range distribution in Fig. 10.7 is given by:

We now want to calculate an equivalent stress range, (Aoeq .) (Fig. 10.8),

" 0
Number o f c y c l e s

Fig. 10.8 Equivalent stress range distribution giving the same fatigue damage
as the long term stress distribution in Fig. 10.7.

which by definition is constant through the total number of cycles and gives
the same damage ratio as that of Eq. (10.2 1). The damage ratio for this stress
distribution is:

Requiring that the two stress distributions in Eqs. (10.2 1) and (10.22)
result in the same fatigue damage, we obtain for the equivalent stress range:

If the stress distribution can be described by Eq. (10.1 7), the equivalent
stress range may be derived by setting equal the damage ratios of Eqs. (10.20)
and (10.22). It leads to:

where: (next page)

 Section 10.2.4

'I = gamma function

AD,= maximum stress range of no stress cycles
no = total number of stress cycles
h = Weibull parameter
m = negative inverse slope of the SN-curve
Some values of the gamma function are listed in Table 10.2.

EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the equivalent stress range and damage ratio for t term stress
distribution in Fig. 10.2. Use Eqs. (10.22) and (10.23).
Solution.
From Table 10.1:
11
no.= z n i = 411110 = l\i =
i=1
11 m
B AO:''* n i = 8.68 10" - C: ; - A(T 'QG-~~-.CL'C-.S { r r ~
i= 1 1 1 L

From Eq. (10.23)

-LC,i c ; L~i 0 .4

.
,68 10' 011/3.0
= 59.5 MPa
(8_411110
From Eq. (10.22)

This is equivalent to the result in Example 1.

10.2. &abe considered Ma !

The procedure for the fatigue analysis of welded structures is based on the
assumption that only the cyclic stress range is considered, i.e. the mean stress
is neglected.
In situations where the potential fatigue crack is located at the weld
toe, the relevant stress is the maximum principal stress range adjacent to the
potential crack location. The joint classifications and corresponding SN-
curves take into account the local stress concentrations created by the joints
themselves and by the weld profde. The design stress can therefore be re-
garded as the stress, adjacent to the weld under consideratio&. If the joint
is situated in a region of stress concentration resulting from the gross shape
of the structure, this must be taken into account in calculating the local
415
Section 10.2.4

Table 10.2 Table of the complete gamma function.

n r(n+ 1) log n n + 1)
5.10 142.451 2.153668
5.20 169.406 2.228929
5.30 201.813 2.304949
5.40 240.833 2.381717
5.50 287.885 2.459219

5.60 344.701 2.537443

5.70 413.407 2.616378
5.80 496.606 2.696012
5.90 597.494 2.776333
6.00 719.999 2.857332

6.10 868.956 2.938998

6.20 1050.317 3.021320
6.30 1271.423 3.104290
6.40 1541.336 3.187897
6.50 1871.254 3.272132

6.60 2275.032 3.356987

6.70 2769.830 3.442453
6.80 3376.921 3.528520
6.90 4122.709 3.615182
7 .OO 5039.999 3.702430

7.10 6169.593 3.790256

7.20 7562.288 3.878653
7.30 9281.392 3.967613
7.40 11405.88 4.057 129
7.50 14034.40 4.147 194

7.60 17290.24 4.237801

7.70 21327.69 4.328943
7.80 26339.98 4.420615
7.90 32569.40 4.512809
8.00 40319.99 4.605520

8.10 49973.70 4.698741

8.20 62010.76 4.792467
8.30 77035.55 4.886691
8.40 95809.45 4.981408
8.50 119292.4 5.076613

8.60 148696.1 5.172299

8.70 185550.9 5.268463
8.80 231791,8 5.365098
8.90 289867.7 5.462199
9.00 362879.9 5.559763

9.10 454760.7 5.657782

9.20 570499.0 5.756254
9.30 716430.6 5.855174
9.40 900608.9 5.954536
9.50 1133278. 6.054336

9.60 1427482. 6.154570

9.70 1799844. 6.255234
9.80 2271560. 6.356324
9.90 2869690. 6.457835

- 10.00 3628799. 6.559763

 Section 10.2.4

Fig. 10.9 Local stress when the weld is situated in a region x of stress concen-
tration resulting from the gross shape of the structure.

stress. For example, for the weld shown in Fig. 10.9 a) the local stress would
be the tensile stress, AD, on the cross-section, whereas for the weld shown
in Fig. 10.9 b) it would be SCFglobal Ao, where SCFglobal is the stress
concentration factor for the hole. Another example of stress concentration
due to the gross shape of the structure is that produced by misalignment
during fabrication.
We have in general:
&IOC~ SCFglobal ' &*om inal
Values of SCFglObal is given in Chapter 11.
It is emphasized that the AulOol shall be used in connection with
Skurves D,E,F,F2 and G (Section 10.1.5).
@$g$&wrjoints, i.e. brace to chord connections, the local stress to
/ be used lisr iBt the i d d b d hot spor srrem sdjmt to the weld toe.
/ It is defined as the stress value produced by the extrapolation to the weld
toe of the maximum principal stress distribution immediately outside the
 Section 10.2.4

region --effected by the geometry of the weld. This is further discussed in

Chapter 8.
For potential cracks in the throat of load-carrying fillet welds, the
relevant stress is the maximum shear stress range in the weld metal.
I
c
It is important to make sure that the Aolocal calculated for design
1 1 ?I@ -;
I purpose corresponds to the Aolocal measured on the test specimens when
: the SN-data were established. If Aol,,,l is determined by finite element
analysis, due consideration must be given to type of element, element mesh
and procedure for extrapolation of stresses in order to evade that the part of
the stress increase caused by the joint itself, is included in Aolo al.
Correspondance between experimental SN-data and hot spot stresses
derived by finite element analysis of tubular joints is discussed in Chapter 8.

EXAMPLE 3

Fig. 10.10 Welded connections in Example 3.

Two plates A and B are connected by a double-sided butt weld. Another

plate C is welded to plate A by fillet welds as shown in Fig. 10.10. The plate
is subjected to cyclic loading with a constant stress range of Ao = 80 MPa
and a total number of cycles no = lo6. It is assumed that the fabrication
meets the required tolerances in Ref. / 6 / . Here, the maximum misalignment
of the butt weld is set to 3 rnm.
 Section 10.2.4

a) Where are fatigue cracks most likely to be expected?

b) Which SN-curves should be applied? Consult Chapter 11 Appendix A
for joint classification.
c) What is the fatigue damage for the welded connections?

Solution.
a) Fatigue cracks most likely develop at the transition between the weld
and the base material due to possible fabrication imperfections and geometric
stress concentrations. Fatigue cracks may therefore start at the butt weld
toe between plate A and B, Cracks may also start at the fillet weld toe in
plate A and most likely at the ends of plate C.
b) Chapter 11 Appendix A advices that SN-curve C be used for butt welds
and curve F for fillet welds. But as the fillet welds are going out to the edge
of the plate, G is the correct choice. (See detail 4.2 in Appendix A.)
c) Due t o the misalignment of the butt joint, a bending moment will arise
in the plates, Fig. 10.1 1. The corresponding bending stress range at the butt
weld is:

i
I
For a unit width of the plate: i
i

This yields:

The maximum stress range cstS the Butt weld: hl

According to Chapter 1 1 Appendix A for curve C, m = 3.5, log = 13.63. This

gives for the damage ratio, Eq. (10.22) :
Section 10.2.4

S t a t i c system;
ad
1
c)
38

A x i a l +bending
stress range

ad[l+ )
ad

-
Fig. 10.11 Misalignment and stress distribution in the plates in Example 3.
 Section 10.2.5

The local stress range at the fillet weld, Fig. 10.1 1 c), d), e), is:

According to Chapter 11 Appendix A for curve G, m = 3.0, log a = 11.39, and

we get for the damage ratio:

D is larger than 3.0 and the design is not acceptable.

10.2.5 SN-curves and joint c h ~ ~ c a t i o n s

For practical fatigue design, welded joints are divided into several classes, each
with a corresponding design SN-curve. All simple tubular joints are assumed
to be Class T, whereas other joints, including tube to plate, may fall into
one of the eight classes specified in Chapter 11, Appendix A, i.e. ByC, D, E,
F, F2, G or W depending upon:
( pa' v'~-''
i) the geometrical arrangement of the detail
ii) tke direction of the fluctuating stress relative to the detail C lmf)
iii) the method of fabrication and inspection of the detail ( kq A r ) > . I

In any welded joint, there are several locations at which fatigue cracks
may develop, e.g. at the weld toe in each of the two parts joined, at the weld
ends, and in the weld itself. Each location should be classified separately.
The basic SN-curves are based on statistical analyses of appropriate
experimental data. The design curves are linear relationships between log Ao
and log N, and are defined as the mean minus two standard deviations of
log N. Thus the SN-curves can be written
logN= l o g a - 2 logs-m -log(Ao) (10.26)
or
-
log N = log ii m log (Ao)

where: N = predicted number of cycles to failure for stress range Aa

log a = the cut of the log N axis by the mean SN-curve
log s = standard deviation of log N
m = the negative inverse slope of the SN-curve
log a= log a - 210g s
In Chapter 11 values of log Z and m are given for details in air and
details subjected to sea water with and without cathodic protection.
 Section 10.3.1

10.3 PREDICTION OF CRACK PROPAGATION BY USE OF daldn-AK

CURVES
10.3.1 General
Different formulas for crack growth calculations based on fracture mechanics
are discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. The formula proposed by Paris is most
frequently used :

: where: a
<
= crack depth
n = number of cycles

I
I[---
(
m = material constants
AK= range of stress intensity factor in mode I fracture = K,,, - Kmin
K = a * f l - F
o = nominal stress in the member normal t o the crack
i F = correction factor depending on the geometry of the member and
the crack
The crack length is found by integration of Equation (10.28).
Provided that the threshold stress range intensity factor AKth can
be sufficiently documented, a modified formula can be used for the crack
growth:

AKth is the stress range intensity factor below which no growth takes place.
Eq. (10.29) results in lower da/dn values than Eq. (10.28).

Normally, it is assumed that compressive stresses do not contribute

to crack propagation. However, for welded connections containing residual
stresses, the whole stress range should be applied, Ref. 171. Only stress com-
ponents normal t o the propagation plane are considered.
The stress t o be used in crack growth calculations is always the local
stress of the plate as calculated without the crack being present. In the case
of tubular joint the hot spot stress as defined in Section 10.2.4 is required.
If fatigue analysis based on crack propagation is used for design pur-
pose, the C-value determined as the mean plus 2 standard deviations should
be used in order to comply with the safety of the corresponding SN-curve.
 Section 10.3.2

10.3.2 Constant amplitude loading

For constant amplitude loading with stress range do and constant F, Equation
(10.28) integrates to:

where ai is the initial crack depth and af is the crack depth at unstable frac-
ture or yield of the remaining section (Chapters 3 and 4). An example of
crack growth in a simple butt joint without reinforcement is given below.

EXAMPLE 4
Crack
7

Fig. 10.12 Crack growth in a simple butt weld.

What is the number of stress cycles that the butt weld connection in Fig.
10.12 can endure before it fractures? The member is subjected to a constant
stress range Ao = 20 MPa.
The material properties are:
fracture toughness KIC = 70 MPa- ( K b-u-dd
m = 3.1
c = 3.3 lo-l3 mm
( M Pm~m)3.1
SoEution.
For the geometry in Fig. 10.12 when a < 0.7 W, Ref. 181:

With a/W = 0.7:

The maximum stress intensity factor for a = 0.7 W:

K = aJiFZaF= 20
o-TJ 6.0= 40MPa\/iii
Section 10.3.2

As K < KIC for a = 0.7W, fatigue crack growth according to Eq. (10.28)
may take place up to this depth. Setting the crack depth at failure t o af = 0.7W
= 35 mm will therefore give a safe value for the fatigue life.
The initial crack depth will depend on several factors as for example
welding procedure and workmanship. Even with good workmanship under-
cuts of a depth of 0.2 mm may result. In the bottom of undercuts micro-
cracks may be present. As no other information about initial crack depth
has been given, ai = 0.5 mm is assumed.
Eq. (10.30) was derived assuming constant F. For real structures, e.g.
that in Fig. 10.1 2, F is not constant and Nf is calculated by dividing the
crack growth into intervals, where F is assumed constant within each inter-
val. The number of cycles for crack growth from aj to aj+ 1 is then:

In Table 10.3, the crack growth from 0.5 mm to 35 mm has been

divided into four intervals, and AN calculated for each interval.

Table 10.3 Crack growth calculation.

The integration intervals should be shortest where the contribution

to the number of cycles is largest, i.e. at the beginning of the crack growth.
The crack growth is plotted against the number of cycles in Fig. 10.13.
 Section 10.3.3 - 10.3.4

Number o f cycles

Fig. 10.13 Crack depth as function of number of fatigue cycles

in the joint in Fig. 10.12.

10.3.3 Variable amplitude loading

Provided that threshold stress intensity factors are not included in the fatigue
analyses, Equation (10.23) or (10.24) may be used to calculate the equivalent
stress range, which is then inserted into Eq. (10.29) for Nf instead of Ao.

10.3.4 Geometry functions and crack growth integrals

The crack growth is found by integration of Eq. (10.28). Introducing a
nondimensional crack depth a = a/W, where W is the plate thickness, we
get the following expression:
pf da

where: Nf = number of stress cycles for increasing the defect from ai to af

Ao = stress range
To determine the number of stress cycles causing a certain amount
of crack growth, the integral:

is evaluated for the specific geometry and boundary conditions. The geometry
correction factor, F, may be a relatively complicated function of the crack
size and obtained by numerical analyses, e.g. finite element calculations.
Other methods are discussed in Chapter 3. The boundary conditions used
Section 10.3.4

in such analyses generally have an essential influence on the values of F.

Due consideration should therefore be given to the boundary conditions.
The depth of the initial crack, ai, to be used in the calculation should
be considered in each case, taking into account experienced imperfection or
defect sizes for various weldments and geometries, and access and reliability
of the inspection method. For surface cracks starting from transitions of
weldlbase material, a crack depth of 0.5 rnrn may be assumed if no other
documented information is available.
Since most of the stress cycles to failure are associated with the first
part of the crack growth, an exact definition of failure is not essential, and
may be assumed to be the crack growth through the plate thickness. For
high stresses or material with low ductility, the relevant crack depth at un-
stable fracture, af,should be used in Eq. (10.3 1).
In Chapter 11 the integral I in Eq. (10.32) has been calculated for a
buttweld, a cruciform joint and a simple tubular joint in air and in sea water.
The results are shown graphically in Figs. 1 1.1 1-1 1.19 as a function of ai
for a final crack size equal t o the plate thickness, i.e. for ai = 1.
The number of stress cycles required for the defect to grow from a,
t o a, is then:

For crack growth through the thickness, the number of cycles to

failure is :

EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the number of cycles to failure for the joint in Example 4 using
Eq. (1 0.34) and Fig. 1 1.12.
 Section 10.4.1

AD = constant = 20 MPa
W = 50mm

Solution.

Fig. 11.12 gives I(O.O1) = 2.2. Then from Eq. (10.34):

10.4 SENSITIVITY AND UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS OF FATIGUE

LIFE
10.4.1 General
There are many different uncertainties associated with fatigue life predictions
of offshore structures, Refs. 15, 9, 121. They may be associated with the
following parameters :
- Load calculation including
wave heights
wave periods
distribution of waves
wave theories
hydrodynamic coefficients
marine growth
- Stress calculation including
structural analysis
calculation of stress concentration factors
- SNdata including
natural scatter
corrosion protection
selection of SN-curve
definition of failure
thickness effect
- Fabrication tolerances
- Cumulative damage hypothesis
Section 10.4.2

In order to get some feeling about the influence of each of these

parameters on the fatigue life, an expression for the fatigue life as derived
from Eqs. ( 10.2) and ( 10.20) is considered :

where: Lo = fatigue life in years as required during design

noo = maximum stress range of a total of no cycles
no = total number of stress cycles in Lo years
m = negative inverse slope of the SN-curve
-a = the cut of the N-axis by the design SN-curve
h = Weibull parameter describing the shape of the long term stress
range distribution

10.4.2 Load calculation

The uncertainties with respect to the load calculation are rather dependent
on the length of the period used for collection of environmental data, marine
growth, the wave theory used, type of structure, calculation procedure etc.
Even with good information about environmental data, it is rather difficult
to give reliable estimates of uncertainties associated with the fatigue loading
calculation.
In general the uncertainties are estimated to be of the same magnitude
as those associated with the SN-data. In order to give more exact values,
more detailed investigations of the actual structure, environmental data and
type of analyses are required.
Assume that the error in wave periods and wave directions results
in an error of the estimated no of An,. Then from Eq. (10.35) the relative
error in fatigue life is:

-AL- - no ln(no + Ano) m/h

L no + An, * [
In no
I
Suppose that m = 3.0 and h = 1.0. no is the total number of stress
cycles during a design life of 20 years, and equal to 1.05 lo8 for a wave
period of 6 s. Equation (10.36) proves that an error of the total number of
stress cycles no of 10%results in an error of the fatigue life of 8%.
Error in the wave period may have a rather large influence on the cal-
culated force due to the inertia part of the Morison equation (see Chapter 2).
 Section 10.4.3

From Eq. (10.38) it is seen that the fatigue life is inversely proportional
to the maximum stress range Aoo in third power. Thus a moderate error
of the stress range may have a significant impact on the fatigue life.
From wave theories and the Morison equation it follows that the force
and hence the stress in the structure is proportional to the wave height for
inertia dominated structures. Correspondingly the stress is proportional to
the wave height in square for drag dominated structures, like jackets in
moderate water depths. As the wave heights become smaller, however, in the
region where the waves give the largest contribution to fatigue damage, the
force becomes inertia dominated also for these structures. Thus errors in
wave period, wave height, wave theories and hydrodynamic coefficients lead
to corresponding errors in the stresses. This may also be the case for marine
growth as the member diameters are increased. Marine growth may also
effect the value of the hydrodynamic coefficients depending on type of
species.
It is evident from Eq. (10.35) that the fatigue life is very sensitive to
the Weibull parameter h. This parameter depends on:
- distribution of waves
- water depth
- type of structure including structural behaviour
- position of the joint in the structure -J 1
For further consideration, see Section 10.6.2.

The fatigue life for a class F2 detail as a function of h is shown in

Fig. 10.14. The curve is based on Eq. (10.35) and the following data:
Lo = 20 years
no = lo8 cycles
-a -- 1011.63
m = 3.0
Aao = 250 MPa

10.4.3 Stress calculation

Uncertainties associated with structural analysis and calculation of stress
concentration factors are rather dependent on the refinement of the analyses.
Usually frame analyses of e.g. jacket structures are carried out using elements
going from center to center of tubular joints.
The accuracy of the structural analysis depends on whether eccentri-
cities at tubular joints are accounted for or not. Calculated stresses will also
Section 10.4.3

I I

1 .O 1.5
Weibull parameter h

Fig. 10.14 Fatigue life L as a function of the Weibull parameter h.

differ from the simplified analysis if the local flexibility at the tubular joint
is included in the analysis. The uncertainties associated with calculation of
stress concentrations are also rather dependent on how they are derived.
Calculation of stress concentration factors of tubular joints is frequently
based on parametric equations, as discussed in Chapter 8. The different
equations may produce a great scatter in the calculated SCF values, and the
equations leading t o the safest design are recommended. Also the combina-
tion of stresses due t o axial loading and bending about the two axis is some-
what uncertain. However, the procedure given in Chapter 8 should give results
on the safe side. If the combination of loads is known, the error may be
reduced by direct finite element calculation of the stress concentration
factors. Also the stress concentration factors are believed to be more accuratly
determined by finite element analyses carried out today than by parametric
equations which were established some years ago.
The uncertainty of calculated stress concentration factors depends
on the type of elements used, refinement of element mesh and the method
 Section 10.4.4

applied for extrapolation of stresses back to the weld toe. For a normal
analysis the results are considered to have an accuracy within + 20%. The
effect of this error on the calculated fatigue life is given by Eq. (10.35).
It should also be mentioned that the parametric equations for stress
concentration factors of tubular joints have been derived for "theoretical"
joints with members in one plane only. Several joints have members in diffe-
rent planes. This increases the uncertainty of the calculated hot spot stresses.
Another uncertainty is the determination of the type of tubular joint.
The behaviour of the joint is dependent not only on the geometry, but also
on how the joint acts in the structure, i.e. how the forces are transferred
through the joint as discussed in Chapter 8.

10.4.4 SN data
There is a rather large uncertainty associated with the determination of SN-
curves. The ratio between calculated fatigue lives based on the mean SN-
curve and mean minus two standard deviations SN-curve is therefore consider-
able. Using Eq. (10.35) to calculate the fatigue lives based on the mean SN-
curve and the design SN-curve, the following ratio is obtained:

For the F2-curve with a = 10' *.' and ii = 10' ',a/Z = 2.9.
The probability of having fatigue lives above that of the design F2-
curve for a given stress range is 97.6%,considering only the uncertainties of
the SN-data. Also it should be remembered that SN-curves are derived from
laboratory experiments. In real structures the fabrication tolerances are
likely to be larger.
There are few experimental SNdata for N > lo7 cycles. The uncer-
tainties associated with fatigue calculations with SN-curves are therefore
very large when the curves are extrapolated beyond lo7 cycles. Three diffe-
rent extrapolations are recommended, and the choice of curve influences
the calculated fatigue life as shown below, Ref. 1141.
Consider the basic F2xurve for N < 10' and three different extra-
polations for N > 10' ,~ i10.1
~ 5. .
1. Prolongation of the F2-curve beyond lo7 cycles. No cut-off level.
2. Prolongation of the F2-curve up to 2 lo8 cycles, then cut off. This
curve is recommended for cathodicly protected areas in sea water
(Chapter 11).
Section 10.4.4

I
I I I I

6 7 8 9 log N

Fig. 10.15 Extrapolation of SN-curves beyond N = l o 7 .

Table 10.4 Predicted fatigue lives.

1

SN-curve Predicted fatigue lives relative No

1 N1/No = 1.OO
2 N2 /No = 1.06
3 N3/No = 1.40

3. Change of slope at lo7 cycles from -113 to -115. No cut-off level.

The curve is recommended for areas in air (Chapter 1 1).
The predicted lifetimes in cycles relative to No are shown in Table
10.4 for a 20-year period with a total of No = no = 10' cycles. A long time
distribution of stresses as described by Eq. (10.19) was assumed with a
maximum stress range Aoo = 234 MPa. It is seen that the choice of extra-
polation beyond N = 10' has no serious consequence for the design life
for this type of long term stress distribution.
The three types of extrapolations with their recommended use, hardly
represent a true physical behaviour of the joint above lo7 cycles, but are
justified in that they agree with experience and are simple to use.

There is some uncertainty associated with classification of details and

selection of SN-curves. The error introduced in the calculated fatigue life
by wrong selection is indicated in Fig. 10.16.
The thickness effect is also a parameter associated with uncertainty.
It is rather dependent on the stress gradient over the thickness. This means
that the thickness effect will depend on type of detail as well as on type of
loading. For practical use, simplified expressions have been included in codes
and standards, as explained in Chapter 11.
 Section 10.4.5

G F2 F E F a t i g u e curve

Fig. 10.16 Fatigue ratio N/NG versus classification of detail.

The failure criterion used when SN-data are obtained, is another un-
certainty which should be kept in mind. Especially for tubular joints the
SN-data may be influenced by the chosen criterion. For the new design curve
for tubular joints (Chapter 1I), the failure criterion is crack growth through
the thickness. Other criteria such as crack growth along a larger part of the
circumference of the weld have also been proposed. In a real structure, the
load amplitude is variable, and one single load may be high enough to cause
unstable fracture even before the crack has grown through the thickness of
the considered chord or brace. The probability of that event depends on the
long term stress distribution, the stress gradient in the joint and the fracture
toughness of the material. For joints of normal thickness and fracture tough-
ness this type of failure has so far not been considered in design.

10.4.5 Fabrication tolerances

For simple joints like butt welds, even a small misalignment implies increased
stress. The increase is represented by a stress concentration factor:

As shown in Section 10.2.4, Example 3, e is the misalignment and t is the

thickness of the plates jointed.
With a normal allowable fabrication tolerance of e/t = 0.15, Ref. /6/,
the stress increases by a factor of 1.45. As the fatigue life for a butt joint
is inversely proportional to the stress range raised to a power of 3.5, the
fatigue life is reduced by a factor of 3.7. It may be even larger if the fatigue
Section 10.4.6 - 10.4.7

life is derived from an SN-curve with a cut-off level, in that stresses falling
beyond the cut-off level may be raised to values that give contribution to the
fatigue damage, if a misalignment is introduced. It is therefore recommended
that due attention is given to stress raisers produced by misalignment and
secondary deformations due to local restraint. For butt welds in tubulars the
misalignment effect is not as severe as in the example above. However, it's
importance increases with increasing diameter-thickness ratio D/T.
Misalignment of tubular joint connections is discussed in Ref. / 6 / .
The effect must be evaluated and quantified during design.
In section 10.2.4 the importance of correspondance between the
SNdata and the stresses calculated during design was pointed out. This state-
ment may now be enlarged by expressing that there should be correspondance
between the SN-data and the stresses "felt" at the considered hot spot. It
means that the weld shape of the fabricated structure should correspond to
that of the SNdata. Thus use of a specific SN-curve automatically implies
requirements to weld shape and workmanship. Determinations on weld shapes
and profiles for tubular joints are specified in the API-code API RP 2A
(Ref. /1 61) and in the Veritas-rules (Ref. 161).

10 -4.6 Cumulative damage hypothesis

The hypothesis on cumulative damage adds to a number of uncertainties
in fatigue life predictions.
Experimental studies of variable amplitude loading indicate that fatigue
failure occurs for damage ratios below 1.0, Ref. 1151. Values between 0.4
and 0.8 are reported and include all steels for which SN-data were available,
tested in air and under corrosion, and for all stress levels investigated. If a
damage ratio of 1.0 is used in design, it implies that the fatigue life is over-
estimated by a factor of 1.25-2.5.
Due to natural scatter in SN-data testing, it is difficult to quantify the
uncertainty associated with variable amplitude testing. The uncertainty
incorporated in the fatigue design due to the damage hypothesis is, however,
believed to be rather small as compared to the uncertainties in hot spot stress
and SN-data.

10.4.7 Probability of failure

Several uncertainties have been discussed in the preceding chapters, and one
should be careful in relying too much on the calculated fatigue lives. The
parameters used in the calculation should preferably be chosen so that they
lead to a conservative life. In particular one should be careful not to under-
estimate the stresses.
434
 Section 10.4.7

The probability of failure can be determined based on a suitable reliabi-

lity theory, when the variabilities of the parameters governing the fatigue
life are known, Ref. 1231. The calculated probability values should be looked
upon with a certain degree of scepticism, whereas the partial derivatives
of the probability with respect to the different parameters are considered
more reliable. A simple probabilistic analysis only including the variability
of the SN-data is shown below.

EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the probability of failure as a function of the design damage ratio
for a class F detail with a stress range Aa = 70 MPa. Only the variability due
to the uncertainties in the SN-data should be considered. A normal distribu-
tion of the SN-data is assumed.

Solution.
Neglecting the thickness term, we have for the design SN-curve, Eq. (10.26):

Inserting for an F detail values for log a, log s, and m according to Chapter 11,
Table 11.1 :

The probability of failure for a normal distribution of log N is, Fig. 10.17:

log N

Fig. 10.17 Graph of normal distribution illustrating reliability index 0,

failure surface and probability of failure.
43 5
Section 10.4.7

In this connection, p is generally referred to as the reliability index. With

f l = 2 and Pf = a(-2)= 0.023 we get:

By definition of the SN-curve, this value of N corresponds to a damage ratio

of 1.
Suppose that the allowable damage ratio is redused to 0.3. According to
Eq. (10.1):

This value of no results in a value of the reliability index 0:

and
Pf = 0(-4.2) = 2 10-5

Repeating this procedure, Pf can be plotted as a function of the allow-

able damage ratio, Fig. 10.18. It is seen that reducing the damage ratio is an
efficient means of reducing the probability of fatigue failure.

0.1 0.3 0.5 1 .O

ALlowable f a t i g u e damage r a t l o

Fig. 10.18 Probability of failure versus fatigue damage ratio for a

type F.
 Section 10.5.1

It is emphasized that probabilistic failure analyses can not take care

of gross errors in design, fabrication and installation, since such errors can
not be quantified. They may be due to limitation of knowledge and errors
in the design analysis, incorrect use of material, incorrect fabrication etc.
Sufficient inspection and control during the different phases of the project
are important measures to reduce the occurrence of gross errors.

10.5 DESIGN FORMATS

10.5.1 General
Depending on the refinement of the fatigue analyses different design check
formats may be used.
The simplest format is the allowable stress format:

where Au is the local stress range referring to a given probability of occurrence

during the design life. Often the maximum stress range occuring once during
the design life or during a defined period of for example 100 years is chosen.
Uallowable may be determined from SN-data, allowable cumulative
damage ratio, and knowledge about the stress distribution.
Most used today is the allowable cumulative damage format:

where: D = damage ratio

k = number of stress blocks
ni = number of stress cycles in stress block i
Ni= number of cycles to failure at constant stress range Aoi within
stress block i
q = usage factor or allowable damage ratio as given in the design
codes, see e.g. Refs. 16, 161.

The third format is based on partial coefficients. For many years

partial coefficients have been efficiently used in design with respect to static
loading, Refs. 16, 17, 181. Also codes for fatigue based on partial coefficients
have been presented, Ref. 1191. The design format can be written:
Section 10.5.2

where: Aoi = stress range in stress block i

ni = number of stress cycles in stress block i
noR= fatigue strength for ni = NR
m = negative inverse slope of SN-curve
k = number of stress blocks
yf = partial coefficient on loading
y, = partial coefficient on SN-data

The value of the partial coefficients is a function of factors like:

- environmental data
- type of structure
- type of detail
- importance of detail
- possibility for inspection and repair
The partial coefficients should be assessed by advanced probabilistic
analysis, so that the uncertainty of the different design parameters is suffici-
ently accounted for. So far, however, sufficient work has not been put into
determination of the coefficients, and in practical fatigue design only the
two first formats are being used, and only these will be discussed in the
next sections.

10.5.2 Allowable stresses

It is assumed that the long term stress distribution for an offshore structure
is represented by the two-parameter Weibull distribution described in Section
10.2.2, and the matching cumulative damage ratio :

where: Aoo = maximum stress range during no stress cycles

no = total number of stress cycles
m = negative inverse slope of the SN-curve
log;= the cut of the log N axis by the design SN-curve
h = Weibull parameter describing the shape of the long term stress
range distribution
r = gamma function

By allowing a cumulative damage D = q , we get for the maximum allow-

able stress range:
 Section 10.5.2

(10.42)

Some values of v r q are given in Table 10.5.

Table 10.5 Values of drq.

Values of maximum allowable stress range are specified in the design

codes, based on equations such as Eq. (10.42). It can be seen that a fixed
value of Aoo results if fixed values are given to the parameters q , a, m, h,
and no. Even if the stress range complies with the specified code values,
it is recommended that it be checked with Equation (10.42) or another
appropriate equation corresponding to the relevant stress distribution.

EXAMPLE 7
Calculate the maximum allowable stress range for a semi-submersible with a
long term stress range distribution as described by Eq. (10.19) and the Weibull
parameter h = 1.l. Total number of stress cycles no = lo8, allowable damage
ratio q = 1-0, class F weld with plate thickness less than 22 mm.

Solution.
The max. allowable stress range happening once is obtained from Eq. (10.42):
1.0. 1011.80 113.0. (1n10811/l-l
Aoo = ( -1 - 160 MPa
lo8

If the allowable maximum stress range is wanted for another value of q,

the result is scaled by a factor 111/3. For example for q = 0.3 the maximum
Section 10.5.3

allowable stress range becomes:

Ao, = 160 0 . 3 ~ '=~ 107 MPa
Eq. (10.42) is based on a linear SN-curve without cut-off level. Neg-
lecting the cut-off as done here yields conservative values of the fatigue life.

10.5.3 Allowable cumulative damage ratio

The design format most frequently used in design building codes is that of
allowable cumulative damage ratio. In most codes it is stated that the damage
ratio shall not exceed unity. Most codes also outline that the degree of re-
dundancy shall be considered when the allowable damage ratio is determined.
According t o AWS D1.l (1980), Ref. 1201, D should be limited to a
fractional value e.g. one-third for critical members whose sole failure mode
would be catastrophic.
API RP 2A, Ref. 1161 prescribes that D should in general be below 0.5.
For critical elements whose sole failure could be catastrophic, use of an addi-
tional margin of safety should be considered.
In the new proposal of Department of Energy's Guidance Notes, Ref.
/2 1/, it is said that D should be below 1 .O, and: "An additional factor on life
should be considered for cases of inadequate structural redundancy. In de-
fining this factor on life, account should be taken of the accessibility of the
joint and the proposed degree of inspection as well as the consequences of
failure. Because of the sensitivity of calculated life t o the accuracy of esti-
mates of stress, particular care should be taken t o ensure that stresses are not
underestimated ."
In the Veritas Rules, Ref. / 6 / , the same basic philosophy is presupposed.
In addition specific values of D are given, depending on importance of detail
and access for inspection and repair. If a detail of major importance can not
be inspected, D shall not exceed 0.1. In the proposed Norwegian Petroleum
Directorate regulations the requirements t o D are even stronger as D is set
equal to 0.1 for a non-redundant member, whatever the inspection possi-
bilities.
As shown in section 10.6, it may be difficult t o determine the Weibull
parameter h without detailed and large computer analyses of the structure. It
is assumed that the maximum stress range Ao, and the number of cycles no
in Eq. (10.19) are known from a computer analysis simulating the maximum
wave height. Then a similar analysis for another wave height is sufficient to
determine the value of h. The wave heights should preferably correspond to
those giving the main contribution to fatigue damage. This will depend on
 Section 10.5.3

Fig. 10.19 Contribution to fatigue damage from the different stress

blocks in a stress exceedance diagram.

type of structural behaviour. It is seen that the maximum contribution to

fatigue damage in Fig. 10.19 comes from waves with a frequency of 1O5 -1 O6
times in the design life.
For a detailed design, however, it is not usual to work with any para-
metric equations for the long term stress range distribution. In a deterministic
analysis one usually proceeds as follows:
a) The wave distribution around the structure is divided into a number
of sectors, for example 8 equal sectors.
b) Within each sector a wave height exceedance diagram is established,
Fig. 10.20 a).
I

c) In a sector a wave height Hi with the corresponding number of waves

ni is selected, Fig. 10.20 a). The wave period Ti belonging to Hi is determined,
Fig. 10.20 b).
d) Forces on the structure may now be calculated according to the Mori-
son equation, Chapter 2. The wave is stepped through the structure in inter-
vals - at least 6 intervals as shown in Fig. 10.20 c).
e) For each joint in the structure selected for fatigue calculation, the
stresses corresponding to the different positions of the wave referred to in c),
are calculated, Fig. 10.20 d) .
Section 10.5.3

Hi
1 y p n, e s

---------
s i: :

----

Ti T llog nl log n o
I log n
c 1 I
T I

log ni log no
log n
I
Fig. 10.20 Procedure for establishing the long term stress range
distribution in deterministic fatigue design.

f) After the stress at the considered joint has been determined for several
wave positions, the stress range Aoi is identified, Fig. 10.20 d).
g) The stress range Aai corresponding to ni cycles is now plotted in a
diagram for long term stress range distribution, Fig. 10.20 e).
h) The procedure c) - g) is repeated for a number of different wave
heights. At least four heights should be used for determination of the long
term stress range distribution. The number however, depends on the struc-
tural behaviour.
i) The procedure b) - h) is repeated for the other sectors, and the stress
range distribution for all sectors is determined.
 Section 10.5.4 - 10.6.1

j) The cumulative damage ratio Eq. (10.40) is now calculated for each
stress range distribution, as shown in Section 10.2.1 , Example 1. The sum-
mation is normally carried out numerically, in that the stress distribution
is divided into a number of blocks that may vary between 20 and 100, depen-
dent on the integration procedure.
k) Finally the damage ratios for each sector are added, and a total cumu-
lative damage ratio for the considered joint is obtained.

10.5.4 Comments on the design formats

In previous versions of the API Rules, Ref. / 161, the fatigue design was limited
to a check that the maximum stress range was less than a certain value. Such
values were specified in the codes, based on equations such as Eq. (10.42).
he allowable stress format is justified in cases when the long term stress
range distribution can be adequately expressed by closed form equations
such as Eq. (10.42). Today it is mostly used for pre-engineering design check,
whereas the allowable cumulative damage format is best suited for detailed
and final design.

10.6 ALLOWABLE STRESS FORMAT FOR PRE-ENGINEERING

DESIGN CHECK

10.6.1 Design chart

In Section 10.5.2 an example of calculation of the allowable extreme stress
range was given foi- fatigue class F. By carrying out corresponding calculations
for other SN-curves and for other values of the Weibull parameter h, the
design chart for Aao in Fig. 10.2 1 is obtained.
The thickness effect is disregarded in Fig. 10.21. For SN-curves B-W
when t > 22 mm the allowable stress in Fig. 10.21 is corrected as follows:
- 22 114
thickness effect included) - *'o(~i~. 10.21) ' (i)
where t is the actual thickness in mm.

For the T-curve when t # 32 mm:

- 32 1/4
Aoo(thicknesseffect included) - " o ( ~ i ~ .10.2 1) '
The allowable stress range in Fig. 10.2 1 is obtained for a usage factor
q = 1.O.. For other values of q :
Section 10.6.1

Fat i gue c l a s s

Fig. 10.21 Allowable extreme stress range as function of fatigue class for
different values of the Weibull parameter h. The usage factor
q = 1 and the total number of cycles no = lo8.

m is the negative inverse slope of the SN-curve for the considered fatigue
class, see Chapter 1 1 .
It is emphasized that the stresses in Fig. 10.21 are local stresses at the
detail as defined in Section 10.2.4.

EXAMPLE 8
In order to arrive at the first dimensions of a joint in a semi-submersible, we
want to calculate the maximum allowable stress range Ao, . We assume that
 Section 10.6.2
the joint is designed with stiffeners and that it is a class F2 joint. Further
assumptions:
Weibull parameter h = 1.1 (usual for a semi-submersible)
design life L = 20 years
usage factor q = 1.0
plate thickness t = 40 mm

Solution.
From Fig. 10.2 1 for class F2 the maximum allowable stress range :
Aa, = 140 MPa

From Eq. (10.43):

thickness effect included) = 40 (m)

22 'I4= 120 MPa

10.6.2 Considerations on the Weibull parameter h

The Weibull parameter h is an essential parameter when working with the
allowable stress format, as was shown in the sensitivity study in Section
10.4.2, Fig. 10.14. Naturally, the designer will ask how to determine the
Weibull parameter, but there is no straight forward answer. Two methods
are proposed :
a) Choose a suitable value based on experience from fatigue analysis of
similar structures.
b) Carry out numerical analyses as described in section 10.5.3. h is derived
from Eq. (10.19) after calculation of the stress ranges for two different
wave heights.

The value of the Weibull parameter depends upon such factors as:
1. wave climate (long term distribution of wave heights)
2. water depths
3. type of structure (e.g. drag versus inertia dominated)
4. dynamic amplification
5. position of the joint in the structure
A first estimate of h for pre-engineering purpose can be obtained
from Fig. 10.22, which is the result of an investigation by Marshall and
Luyties, Ref. 1221. The figure shows h for the Gulf of Mexico and for a
homogenous wave climate, that is a climate where the design storm wave is
Section 10.6.2

D e p e n d s on s h o a l i n g
(shelf profile)
Depends on
nat. period
Very narrow
0.5
Broad
Gulf of Mexico
I I I I I 1 1 I
10 20 30 40 60 80 120

(A) Water d e p t h ( m )

1.0 --
L
a
-
-l-J -
E -
0
L
0.5 --
0 Gulf of Mexico
n -
Water depth L 3 0 m
I I I I I I I I f
a,
a
o 5 MSL -5 -10 -20 -30 - 4 0 -60
L
U)

IB) Posttion in structure,

4
m below MSL
3
ea,
-
-

Gulf of Mexico

Water depth L 3Om

I I 1 I I

(C) N a t u r a l period ( s )

Fig. 10.22 Weibull shape parameter h, Ref. 1221.

 Section 10.7.1 - 10.7.2

the extreme wave of frequently occurring weathers during for example a 100-
year period. A homogenous wave climate prevails in the North Sea. It is seen in
Fig. 10.22 that h depends on the shelf profile when this is a relevant para-
meter. For structures in the North Sea the other parameters listed are more
important. Contribution from draglinertia in the Morison equation seems
to have the largest influence. As the natural period exceeds the 3-s. region,
this also becomes an important factor. The influence of the depth below
water level of the considered joint is also noted.

10.7 CONSIDERATIONS ON YIELD STRENGTH AND RELIEVING

OF RESIDUAL STRESSES
10.7.1 Yield strength
For carbon steel structures in air and in sea water with cathodic protection,
the fatigue strength is considered independent of the yield strength as long
as Re < 400 MPa. If the fatigue design is governing the element thicknesses,
material with less yield strength may therefore be considered. Such considera-
tions may, however, be in conflict with other failure criteria like yielding,
punching and buckling.

10.7.2 Post weld heat treatment

For laboratory specimens it is well known that post weld heat treatment
reduces the tensile stresses and increases fatigue lives provided that some
part of the stress range is compression. For real structures, however, one
should be careful to give credit for stress relieving of joints due to the follow-
ing reasons:
a) The relief of residual stresses in complex thick welds is not complete.
Experiments, particularly in the nuclear industry, indicate that relaxation of
weld residual stresses is very slow and may not occur at all, even if the heat
treatment is conducted in furnace.
b) The complete component would have to be heat treated in a furnace
with no later welding.
c) Long range built in stresses will still exist in the structure, because no
structure is perfectly aligned and no welds are made without distortions or
shrinkages.
d) Often local stress relief is performed in-situ, where there are only
Section 10.8

limited possibilities for thermal movements to occur freely. This will install
new residual stresses.
e) Should a fatigue problem arise in service, there may be no possibility
to make weld repairs which include stress relief treatment.
f) Even if stress relieving has been carried out successfully so that residual
stresses are relieved, stress concentration in the joints may imply that the
stress range at a hot spot becomes fully tensile after some loading with plastic
yielding.

For fatigue analysis of regions in the base material not significantly

affected by residual stresses due to welding, the stress range may be reduced
dependent on whether the mean cycling stress is tension or compression.
This reduction may apply to e.g. cut-outs in the base material for classifi-
cations of type 1, Appendix A, Chapter 11. Before entering the SN-curve,
the calculated stress range is multiplied by the reduction factor p as obtained
from Fig. 10.23.

Reduction
factor ,
u

6, = d d,=O cj = -ad
2 2 6,"
Compression Tenslon

Fig. 10.23 Stress range to be used in connection with SN-curves

for unwelded structures. Ao = p Aocalc..

10.8 EXAMPLE 9. REDESIGNING OF CROSS JOINT IN A LOADING

BUOY. DISCUSSION ON THE CHOICE OF SN-CURVE AND
POSSIBLE USE OF STRESS RELIEF HEAT TREATMENT.
After some years of use, cracks were discovered in the cross joint between
the cone and the funnel in the loading buoy shown in Fig. 10.24 a). Replace-
ment of the cracked section with the welded ring shown in Fig. 10.24 b) was
considered. The plate thicknesses in the ring were increased as compared to the
 Section 10.8

Fig. 10.24 a) Structure of loading buoy. b) Redesigned ring to replace the

original buoyancy tank-funnel transition. c) Redesigned cross joint.

original design, and the ring was to be welded into the buoyancy tank-funnel
transition, possibly after a stress relief heat treatment. A section of the
improved design cross joint is shown in Fig. 10.24 c). The highest stresses
were found at location 3.
The fatigue life of the redesigned cross joint is required.

Long-term stress range distribution

Based on the procedure described in Sec. 2.7.2, the long-term stress range
distribution in the joint was calculated for an average one-year period. This
distribution is shown in Table 10.6 and Fig. 10.25 for location 3, where the
highest stresses were found. The stresses are local stresses at the weld surface
perpendicular to the weld direction.

Selection of SN-curve
The fabrication regulations demand that the weld fillet at location 3 is ground
with a radius of 30 mm, and that the joint is inspected by ultrasonics. Defects
disclosed by the inspection are to be repaired.
The stress range distribution in Table 10.6 refers to the local stresses
at the surface. From a fatigue point of view, the joint can thus be com-
pared with a transverse butt weld with no overfill of type 3.1 in the Joint
Section 10.8

Table 10.6 Long-term stress distribution in one year and resulting damage for
the cross joint at location 3. SN-curve D has been assumed.

Mean Number of Accumulated Damage Accumulated

stress cycles number of Di dam age
range ni cycles D
Ao (MPa) n
16.0 1.351 E 5 7.851 E 5 0 0
19.7 1.000 5 6.500 5 9.348 E -4 9.348 E -4
22.9 1.OOO 5 5.500 5 1.468 -3 2.403 -3
26.7 1.000 5 4.500 5 2.327 -3 4.730 -3
31.6 0.626 5 3.500 5 2.415 -3 7.145 -3
35.4 0.525 5 2.874 5 2.853 -3 9.993 -3
39 .O 0.450 5 2.349 5 3.264 -3 1.326 -2
42.8 0.381 5 1.899 5 3.652 -3 1.691 -2
47 .O 0.320 5 1.518 5 4.062 -3 2.097 -2
5 1.4 0.266 5 1.198 5 4.416 -3 2.539 -2
56.4 0.217 5 9.320 4 4.760 -3 3.015 -2
61.6 0.175 5 7.150 4 5.001 -3 3.515 -2
67.2 0.139 5 5.400 4 5.157 -3 4.031 -2
73.4 0.109 5 4.010 4 5.270 -3 4.558 -2
80.2 0.834 4 2.920 4 5.260 -3 5.084 -2
87.4 0.628 4 2.086 4 5.126 -3 5.597 -2
95.2 0.463 4 1.458 4 4.884 -3 6.085 -2
104 0.333 4 9.95 3 4.580 -3 6.543 -2
113 0.234 4 6.62 3 4.128 -3 6.956 -2
123 0.160 4 4.28 3 3.640 -3 7.320 -2
133 0.106 4 2.68 3 3.049 -3 7.625 -2
145 0.678 3 1.62 3 2.527 -3 7.877 -2
157 0.420 3 9.42 2 1.987 -3 8.076 -2
171 0.247 3 5.22 2 1.510 -3 8.227 -2
185 0.140 3 2.75 2 1.084 -3 8.335 -2
202 0.740 2 1.35 2 7.457 -4 8.410 -2
218 0.370 2 6.1 1 4.687 -4 8.457 -2
236 0.170 2 2.4 1 2.732 -4 8.484 -2
256 0.6 1 7 1.231 -4 8.496 -2
278 0.1 1 1 2.627 -5 8.499 -2
302 0 0 0 0 8.499 -2
 Section 10.8
MPa
3 0 0 d

102 1 o3 1 o4 105 106

CYCLES

Fig. 10.25 Long-term stress range distribution at location 3 in the cross joint.

Classification in Chapter 11, Appendix A, corresponding to fatigue class C

or D. The choice between C and D depends on the care with which the grind-
ing of the joint profile and the inspection are conducted.
The cross weld is approximately 24 m long and 70 mm wide, and
would have to be ground with hand tools. Obviously, the perfect geometry
shown in Fig. 10.24 c) can not be achieved this way. Deviations will arise, and
any local deviation from the ideal geometry will increase the stresses. This
points to curve D rather than curve C. Also curve C requires that the joint is
proved free from defects. This can be difficult to achieve if the joint is pro-
duced by normal workshop procedures. So curve D seems to be the correct
choice.

Thickness effect
The effect of plate thickness discussed in Secs. 4.6.3 and 11.2.4, can be dis-
regarded if true local stresses are used in the calculation of accumulated
damage. However, the argument given for the choice of the D curve above,
involves that the true stresses may rise above those in Table 10.6, because of
local deviations from the ideal weld geometry, or of stress concentrations
around undetected weld defects. Therefore the SN-curve must be corrected
for the thickness effect.

Damage calculation
As welded.
We have for the SN curve D for joints in sea water and cathodic protection
(Table 11.2) :
Section 10.8

and for the accumulated damage

The cut-off stress So = 20 MPa, which means that stress ranges below 20 MPa
can be ignored. The result of the calculation is shown in Table 10.6, giving the
accumulated damage in one year as
D = 0.085
Most codes specify an allowable damage ratio of 113 for critical members
whose sole failure would be catastrophic. Thus the fatigue life becomes

L= 1 - 3.92 years
0.085 3
Limiting the allowable damage ratio to 113 should not be regarded as intro-
ducing a safety factor of 3. The Miner-Palmgren rule disregards the sequence
effect of the stress cycles, and experience shows that fatigue failure occurs
for a Miner's sum between 0.4 and 1.O.

Stress relieved.
Obviously a design life of 4 years is too short. A recalculation based on the
9N-curve C will give a design life of 12 years, or 25 years if the thickness
effect is disregarded. If curve C applies, true stresses have been assumed, and
logically, the thickness effect factor should be set equal to 1. However, it
is unrealistic to expect that the C curve will apply. Curve C might come closer
to realisation if a method could be developed for machining the weld surface
to the exact shape determined for the stress calculation.
Stress relieving of the joint will reduce the mean stress and thereby
increase the fatigue life. The various codes are, however, reluctant in giving
credit for stress relieving of joints as explained in Sec. 10.7.2. If we assume
that the complete welded ring shown in Fig. 10.24 b) is heat treated in one
piece, and caution is exercised when it is welded into the buoyancy tank, so
that long range stresses are kept within reasonable limits, then the stress
range for calculation of the damage increments can be reduced by the factor y
in Fig. 10.23. For zero mean stress, y = 0.8, which will decrease the damage
by a factor of ( 0 . 8 ) ~= 0.5 12. A further decrease results because the first two
damage increments in Table 10.6 are now below the cut-off stress level, and
 Section 10.8
1

do not count in the damage summation. We therefore have for the damage

and
-
Lstress relieved - 0.0423
1
.3 = 7.9 years

Consequently, stress relieving doubles the fatigue life of the joint.

Length of crack initiating fast fracture

There are two different approaches for calculating design lives: The SN-
curve approach and the crack growth rate approach. The latter computes
the time needed for the crack to grow to a length which might initiate fast
(uncontrolled) fracture.

As welded.
The CTOD approach yields for the allowable crack length, Sec. 9.5.2:

*= ~ .
6c
T ~
-
E
E
-
~
EY
- 0.25
~ & ~ ~

@ = nondimensional CTOD
6, = CTOD at fracture, measured to 0.23 mm
= yield strain of steel = 355/200 000 = 1.775 lo-'
ey
E = strain around the crack, including welding strain
imaX
= allowable half-lengt h of a through-thickness crack

It is assumed that the crack has run out of the stress concentration area
when fast fracture is initiated. The stress that drives the fast fracture is there-
fore close to the maximum nominal stress in the funnel wall, which has been
calculated to 55 MPa.

This t hrough-t hickness crack half-lengt h is now converted to the depth

c of a surface crack, assuming that the elastic stress intensities are equal for
both cracks. Assuming further an apex ratio c/a = 0.2, and using the proce-
dure explained in Sec. 9.5.2, gives
Section 10.8

F = shape correction factor for the surface crack.

Stress relieved.
We will make the conservative assumption that stress relief heat treatment
reduces the weld stresses to 5 5 MPa, that is to the value of the max nominal
stress in the funnel wall. That gives

and from Eq. (9.7)

Consulting Fig. 9.13, we find that F = 1.6 for a through-thickness crack with
c/a = 0.2 and -

We may therefore conclude that if the joint is stress relieved, the fatigue
crack may grow through the plate thickness without becoming critical.

Crack growth rate calculation

As welded.
Our first step is to calculate the equivalent stress range at the surface of the
joint at location 3, using Eqs. (10.21) and (10.22) and the accumulated
damage in Table 10.6

The stress concentration factor at location 3 has been calculated t o 2.6.

We assume that Aoeq falls off in the wall thickness direction so that it reaches
10 MPa at a depth of 20 mm below the surface, and stays at this value for the
remaining 40 mm (please correct figures in Fig. 10.24 c) accordingly). This gives
for the stress range distribution of equivalent stress in the thickness direction
 Section 10.8
when c is the distance below the fillet surface (Fig. 10.24 c)). The stress dis-
tribution above will give a mean stress in the section equal to the nominal
stress 4512.6 = 17 MPa.
We proceed by computing the time needed for the crack to grow to i
depth of 20 mm, using the procedure explained in Sec. 10.3. The number of
cycles needed to propagate the crack from a depth ci to a depth ci+] is given
by EQ.(10.33)
ai+l
An = 1 da
c.wO.5-1. S --
(A0eq,c)" ai ( F - E U ) ~

13 mm - (Table 11.4)
C = crack growth rate factor = 3.3 10-
(MP~ m)m
m = crack growth rate exponent = 3.1 (Table 1 1-4)
W = plate thickness = 50 mm

The value of the integral is determined by the graph shown in Fig.

11.12 (plane plate) and comes out as the difference Ii - Ii+ The results of the
calculation are shown in Table 10.7. The crack propagates to a depth of 20 mm
in the course of 1.393 10' cycles. Fast fracture takes place at 20 mm, so the
design life of the joint is

Also in this case the life must be reduced by the utility factor 113,
since we base the calculation of the equivalent stress on the Miner-Palmgren
principle.
The design life calculated by SN-curve D was 4 years, so the two
methods give comparable results. The crack growth rate life depends on the
assumption made for the stress gradient in the thickness direction, a para-
meter which is generally not part of the stress computation.
Stress relieved.
We have concluded that for a stress relieved joint, the crack may grow through
the plate thickness without becoming critical. Furthermore, stress relief
reduces the part of the stress range that produces fatigue by a factor of 0.8,
thereby increasing the fatigue life by a divisor of 0.8'.'. The design life of
the stress relieved joint is therefore (Table 10.7)
- - 2.513- lo7 -- -- 2 1 years
LstreSSrelieved 7.851.105.0.501.3
which should be compared with 7.9 years found by the SN-curve approach.
Chapter 10. References
Table 10.7 Crack growth through the cross joint.
Number of stress cycles.
*

Crack a 1
Accumu-
- Ci
2
+ Aoeq,& lated
depth - ci M P ~ Ii Ii - Ii+ 1 of cycles number of
ci (mm) 50 ci+ An
cyclesn
0.5 0.01 2.40
0.75 43.7 0.9 2.605 E6 2.605 E6
1.0 0.02 I
1.50
1.5 42.4 0.59 1.875 6 4.480 6
2 0.04 0.91
2.5 40.6 0.25 9.090 5 5.389 6
3 0.06 0.66
3.5 39.0 0.15 6.178 5 6.007 6
4 0.08 0.5 1
4.5 37.1 0.10 4.808 5 6.488 6
5 0.1 0.4 1
5.5 35.4 0.06 3.335 5 * 6.821 6
6 0.12 0.3 5
6.5 33.6 0.05 3.269 5 7.148 6
7 0.14 0.30
7.5 31.9 0.05 3.839 5 7.532 6
8 0.16 0.25
8.5 30.1 0.04 3.677 5 7.900 6
9 0.18 0.21
9.5 28.4 0.03 3.030 5 8.230 6
10 0.20 0.18
12.5 23.1 0.1 2.086 6 1.032 7
15 0.30 0.082
17.5 14.4 0.04 3.613 6 1.393 7
20 0.40 0.040
35.0 10.0 0.04 1.120 7 2.513 7
50 1.O 0
i

REFERENCES

1. Mjelde, K.M., Lotsberg, I. and Lee, P.C.S.:

Cost - Reliability - Consequence of Resource Allocation. Application t o an Offshore
Structure. To be published in Ocean Engineering.
 Chapter 10. References

2. Sletten, R., Mjelde, K.M., Fjeld, S. and Lotsberg, I.:

Optimization of Criteria for Design Construction and In-service Inspection of Off-
shore Structures Based on Resource Allocation Techniques. European Petroleum
Conference. London. 1982.
3. Gran, S.:
Evaluation of High Cycle Fatigue in Welded Steel Connections. Det norske Veritas.
Report No. 76-339.
4. Abrarnowitz, M. and Stegun, I.A.:
Handbook of Mathematical Functions. Dover Publications. New York.
5. Wirsching, P.H.:
Probability - Based Fatigue Design Criteria for Offshore Structures, API-PRAC
Project 81-15, January 1983.
6. Veritas Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures,
1977.
7. Publication Document 6493 : 1980. Guidance on Some Methods for the Derivation of
Acceptance Levels for Defects in Fusion Welded Joints. British Standard Institution.
8. Hellan,K.:
Introduction to Fracture Mechanics, McGraw Hill, New York, 1984.
9. Gran,S.:
Fatigue and Crack Failure Prediction Methods in Marine Structures. Veritas Report
No. 80-0688, May 1980.
10. Moan,T.:
Safety of Offshore Structures. Fourth International Conference on Applications
of Statistics and Probability in Soil - and Structural Engineering. Firenze 1983, pp.
41-85.
11. Engesvik, K.M.and Moan, T. :
Probabilistic Analysis of the Uncertainty in the Fatigue Capacity of Welded Joints,
Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 743-762,1983.
12. Lotsberg, I., Fines, S. and Foss, G. :
Reliability of Calculated Fatigue Lives of Offshore Structures. To be presented at
Fatigue 84. Birmingham. Sept. 1984.
13. Edvardsen, G. and Halvorsen, R.:
Calculation of Stress Concentration Factors in Chord and Brace after Different For-
mulas. Veritas Report No. 8 1-0367, April 1981.
14. Gran, S.:
Comparison between different S-N Curves used in Design of Offshore Structures.
Veritas Technical Note, Aug. 1981.
Chapter 10. References

15. Schiitz, W.:

Procedures for the Prediction of Fatigue Life of Tubular Joints, Steels in Marine
Structures. Int. Conf. Paris. Oct. 1981.
16. API RP 2A. Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms. Thirteenth Edition, January, 1982.
17. Regulations for the Structural Design of Fixed Offshore Structures on the Norwegian
Continental Shelf, Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 1977.
18. NS 3472 E. Design Rules for Steel Structures. Norges Standardiseringsforbund, May
1973.
19. Eurocode 3, Common Unified Code of Practice for Steel Structure, Draft, March
1983.
20. AWS Dl .1 -83. Structural Welding Code, American Welding Society, 1983.
21. Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction. New Fatigue Design
Guidance for Steel Welded Joints in Offshore Structures, Department of Energy
"Guidance Notes" Revision Drafting Panel. August 1983, Issue N.
22. Marshall, P.W. and Luyties, W.H. :
Allowable Stress for Fatigue Design, Boss 82, Boston, Aug. 1982.
23. Thoft-Christensen, P. and Baker, M.J.:
Structural Reliability Theory and Its Applications. Springer-Verlag, 1982.
 CHAPTER 11

FATIGUE IN BUILDING CODES

BACKGROUND AND APPLICATIONS

Inge Lotsberg and H&an Andersson

VERITEC, Oslo

ABSTRACT
This chapter produces a brief review of the various building codes for fatigue
design. Simple joints and tubular joints have been examined. Recently de-
veloped design codes are presented with examples explaining fatigue design
based on fatigue strength tests. Similarly, new fatigue design regulations based
on crack growth tests and fracture mechanics are produced and discussed.
Damages caused during installation or service are debated, and repair and
reinforcement methods are described.

1 1.1 THE VARIOUS CODES ON FATIGUE REQUIREMENTS

The aim of the various fatigue design codes is to ensure that the structures
are designed so that adequate fatigue lives are obtained. Fatigue design may
be carried out by methods based on fatigue strength tests (SN-curves) and/or
methods based on crack growth rate tests (da/dn - AK curves). For design
purposes, fatigue analysis based on fatigue strength tests is normally the most
suitable methods, evaluating the actual design against a set of standard details
as shown in Section 11.2. For assessment of in-service cracks with respect to
maximum inspection intervals or time before repair, the crack propagation
is evaluated by means of fracture mechanics and da/dn curves.
The principles for establishment of design SN-curves were outlined in
Chapters 4 and 10. Detailed background for fatigue design codes is given in
Refs. 11, 21. Ref. / l / has been used as basis for several codes relating to
simple joints 13, 4, 51. Also BS 5400, Ref. /6/, which is a code for fatigue
design of bridges is founded on Ref. / I / .
Section 1 1.I

At the present time several fatigue design codes and regulations are
being revised. A revision of the Department of Energy's Guidance Notes
has been going on for the last few years, Ref. / 7 / . For simple joints the
fatigue design in these notes is still based on the work presented by Gurney,
Refs. 11, 21. In Refs. 13, 4, 5 / the slope of the SN-curves is kept constant
below N = 2 l o 8 , with a horizontal cut-off level at this number. In Ref. /7/
the slopes are constant and equal to the values in Ref. / 1/ and Table 1 1.1
up to 10' cycles, where they all change to -115. In Ref. /7/ also a thickness
effect has been included. This will be further discussed in Section 1 1.2.
The new proposal by the Department of Energy on new fatigue design
guidance, has been the basis for the revision of the Veritas' rules for design
of offshore structures, Ref. /8/ and NS 3472, Design rules for steel structures,
Ref. /9/. In a coming revision of the regulations of the Norwegian Petroleum
Directorate, reference will be made to NS 3472 regarding fatigue design.
This means that the fatigue design codes in U.K. and Norway will be equal,
except for cathodicly protected areas when N > l o 7 , Section 11.2.
The SN-curve for design of tubular joints in the Department of Energy's
Guidance Notes and the Veritas' Rules, Refs. 14, 51, is identical to that of
the AWS of 1972, Ref. /lo/. In the Guidance Notes this curve is denoted Q,
Ref. 141, and X in the Veritas' Rules. The AWS X-curve has later been modi-
fied. The X-curve of AWS of 1980, Ref. 11 11, is shown in Fig. 11.1 together
with the modified AWS X-curve of 1983, Ref. 1121. Except for the c u t ~ f f
level, the X-curve of API, Ref. 1131, is equal to that of the modified AWS
X-curve. Two SN-curves recommended by API are shown in Fig. 11.2. For
further use of the AWS and API curves the reader is referred t o Refs. 112, 131.

C y c l e s of load, N

Fig. 11.1 SN-curves for tubular joints from AWS, Ref. 1121.
 Section 11.1

0
t- Permissible cycles of load N

Fig. 11.2 SN-curves from API, Ref. / 131.

The API X-curve results in a fatigue life which is in the order of 30%
less than that of the X-curve and Q-curve in Refs. / 10,5,4/. Certain require-
ments to the shape of the weld must be fulfilled when the API X-curve is
employed. If this requirement is not satisfied, the API Xt-curve should be
used. It reduces the calculated life by a factor of approximately 2.2 for
typical offshore structures as compared to the API X-curve.
The reason for API to modify the AWS X-curve for large values of
N is the uncertainty about the behaviour of cathodicly protected joints
in sea water. Experiments indicate that below N = lo7 cycles, fatigue lives
of cathodicly protected joints are of the same magnitude as of joints in
air. No test has been carried out for N > lo7. Due to uncertainties about the
efficiency of the cathodic protection, such as shielding effects etc., and of
threshold effects during crack propagation, it has been decided by API that
a more conservative SN-curve should be used for design of joints in sea water
than for joints in air when N > 10" cycles. The same uncertainties are also
considered in the revision of the Norwegian fatigue design codes, Refs. /8,9/.
In the last years, rather large test programs on tubular joints have been
conducted. The test results have been taken into account by the Department
of Energy in the establishment of a new design curve for tubular joints,
namely the T-curve, Ref. 171. The T-curve will also be used in Norway, Refs.
18, 91. The slope of the T-curve is -1 13, while that of the older X-curve and
Q-curve was -1 14.1, Refs. / 10, 5, 41. The curves are intersecting at approxi-
Section 11.2.1 - 11.2.2

mately N = 4 lo5 , which implies that the calculated fatigue lives for typical
offshore structures will not be much different for these two SN-curves,
provided the thicknesses of the considered joints are about 32 mm. As the
thickness increases, the T-curve with the included thickness effect will result
in shorter calculated fatigue lives than those of the X-curve.
Fatigue life considerations based on da/dn - AK curves and fracture
mechanics are included in the Veritas rules for design of offshore structures,
Refs. /5,8/.Application of the rules is discussed in Section 1 1.4.

1 1.2 FATIGUE DESIGN REGULATIONS BASED ON FATIGUE

STRENGTH TESTS
11.2.1 General
In the following the New Fatigue Design Guidance for Steel Welded Joints
in Offshore Structures by the Department of Energy and NS 3472: Design
rules for steel structures, will be reviewed, Refs. /7,9/.
The SN-curves are obtained by experiments. The fatigue life calculation
is founded on the assumption of linear cumulative damage (Miner-Palmgren
rule). Application of this assumption implies that the long term distribution
of stress range is replaced by a stress histogram, consisting of a convenient
number of constant amplitude stress range blocks. The fatigue criterion then
reads for the damage D:

where: k = number of stress blocks

ni = number of stress cycles in stress block i
Ni = number of cycles t o failure at a constant stress range Aoi
noi = stress range in block i
q = usage factor
The number of stress blocks, k, should be large enough to ensure
reasonable numerical accuracy and generally not less than 20. This, however,
depends on the integration method used.

1 1.2.2 Stresses to be considered

Fatigue analysis of welded joints is based on the assumption that only the
cyclic principal stress range is considered, i.e. the mean stress is neglected.
In situations where the potential fatigue crack is located in the parent material
 Section 1 1.2.3

at the weld toe, the relevant stress is the maximum principal stress range
adjacent to the potential crack location. For a tubular joint, the stress is the
idealized hot spot stress range defined as the greatest value of the extra-
polation to the weld toe of the maximum principal stress range distribution
immediately outside the region effected by the geometry of the weld. For
examples see Chapter 8 and Chapter 10.

11.2.3 SN-curves and joint classifications

For practical fatigue design, welded joints are divided into several classes,
each with a corresponding design SN-curve. All tubular joints are assumed to
be Class T, whereas other joints, including tube to plate, may fall in one of
the eight classes specified in Appendix A of this chapter, i.e. B, C, D, E, F, F2,
G or W depending upon:
i) the geometrical arrangement of the detail
ii) the direction of the fluctuating stress relative to the detail
iii) the method of fabrication and inspection of the detail
Each construction detail at which fatigue cracks may develop, must
be placed in its relevant joint class in accordance with the criteria given in
Appendix A. Details which are not classified in Appendix A should be treated
as Class G, or Class W for load-carrying weld metal, unless a higher classifi-
cation can be justified.
It should be noted that, in a welded joint, there are several locations
at which fatigue cracks may develop, e.g. at the weld toe in each of the two
parts joined, at the weld ends, and in the weld itself. Each location should
be classified separately.
The basic SN-curves are founded on statistical analyses of appropriate
experimental data. They consist of linear relationships between log Au and
log N. The design curve is defined as the mean minus two standard deviations
of log N and thus corresponds to 97.6% probability of survival. The SN
design curves are written:

where: N = predicted number of cycles to failure for stress range Au

log a = cut of the log N-axis by the mean SN-curve
log s = standard deviation of log N
m = negative inverse slope of the SN-curve
logZ= logs-2.10gs
Values of log a, log s, log and m applying to details in air are listed in Table
11.1.
Section 1 1.2.3

Table 11 .1 Details of basic SN-curves - Air.

N G 107 N > 107

Class log a log s log i m log; m

B 15.3697 0.1821 15.01 4.0 17.01 5.0

C 14.0342 0.2041 13.63 3.5 16.47 5.0
D 12.6007 0.2095 12.18 3.0 15.63 5.0
E 12.5169 0.2509 12.02 3.0 15.37 5.0
F 12.2370 0.2183 11.80 3.0 15.00 5.0
F2 12.0900 0.2279 11.63 3.0 14.72 5.0
G 11.7525 0.1793 11.39 3.0 14.32 5.0
W 11.5662 0.1846 11.20 3.0 14.00 5.0
T 12.6606 0.2484 12.16 3.0 15.62 5.0
A

For joints exposed to sea water and adequately cathodicly protected,

a cut-off level So is introduced at 2 lo8 cycles, Table 1 1.2 and Fig. 1 1.3.
It is assumed that stress range levels below this limit do not contribute to
fatigue damage. It should be noted that the effectiveness of cathodic protec-
tion in relation to fatigue has not been proved for structural steels with yield
strengths larger than 400 MPa.

Table 11.2 Details of basic SN-curves - Sea water and

cathodic protection.
 Section 1 1.2.4

Number o f cycles

Fig. 11.3 SN-curve D dependent on environment.

SN design curves for non-tubular and tubular joints in air and sea water
with cathodic protection are drawn in Figs. 1 1.4 and 11.5.
For unprotected joints in sea water, the basic SN-curves are reduced
by a factor of 2 on life for all joint classes, Fig. 11.3. However for steels
with yield strengths larger than 400 MPa, a penalty factor of 2 may not be
sufficient. The curves are continuous with a constant slope equal to that in
Table 1 1.1 for N < 1O7 cycles.

11.2.4 Thickness effect

The basic SN-curves-relate to 3 2 rnm wall thickness for tubular joints and to
22 mm for other joints. Since the fatigue strength of welded joints decreases
with increasing plate thickness, Eq. (1 1.2) must be corrected for thicknesses
other than 32 mm and 22 mm (Chapter 4).
Tubular joints:
l o g N = l o g ; - m . l o g ( - ) - mt .logAo
4 32
t = thickness in mm through which the potential crack will grow.
Other joints:
logN= log;-rn t
log(-)-m 10gAo
4 22
Values of t below 22 mm are not permitted in Eq. ( 11.4).
Section 1 1.2.4
Section 11.2.4
Section 11.2.5 - 11.3 - 11.4

11.2.5 Fatigue failure criteria inherent the SN-curves

It should be kept in mind that the failure criterion utilized in the SN-curves is
somewhat uncertain. Normally it is the fatigue growth through the thickness
of the considered member.

11.3 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

For calculation of the relevant stress in the material near to a change of
geometry, the nominal stress must be adjusted with a global stress concen-
tration factor (SCF), as discussed in Chapters 8 and 10. Stress concentration
factors for different types of circular and rounded rectangular holes are
shown in Fig. 11.6. This figure has been derived from information in Ref.
161. Some other geometries are dealt with in Ref. 1141. Stress concentration
factors of tubular joints are discussed in Chapter 8.

11.4 EXAMPLES OF FATIGUE DESIGN BASED ON FATIGUE

STRENGTH TESTS
In this section some examples on how to use the design codes are given.
It is also referred to the examples in Chapter 10.

EXAMPLE 1
At an early design stage simplified analyses are used to determine approximate
member dimensions. Assume an F2 detail, a life time of 20 years, a Weibull
two-parameter stress distribution and a utility factor q = 1.0. What is the
maximum allowable stress range?

Solution.
The equivalent stress range giving the same damage as the Weibull stress
distribution is, Eq. (1 0.24):

m = 3 for an F2 detail and h = 1.1 for a semi-submersible. With a wave period

of 6s, no 1O8 cycles. Values of the radical sign are tabulated in Chapter 10,
Table 10.5.
 Section 11.4

4.8

SCF

Fig. 11.6 Stress concentration factors for rounded rectangular holes.

The areas of the cut-outs are small compared with the dimen-
sions of the plate. Ref. /8/
Section 11.4

F2 curve:
log N = log Z - m log Ao
log lo8= 11.63 - 3 logAoeq
Aoeq.= 16.22

Finally :
16-22 = 141 MPa
no, = -
0.1 15
If the thickness of the plate is larger than 22 mm, the max. stress range is
reduced to :

EXAMPLE 2

F a t i g u e f a i l u r e in
weld startin
from the roo?

Fig. 11.7 Cross joint with lack of penetration.

Consider the fatigue life of the cross joint in Fig. 11.7. The joint is subjected
to lo6 stress cycles with a constant stress range Ao = 60 MPa. The effective
throat length of the weld a = 10 mm. Is the design fatigue life of the joint
accept able?

Solution.
According to Appendix A, Joint Classification Type 5.4, the joint belongs to
class W.
 Section 11.4

Symmetry of the joint and stress equilibrium in the transverse direction

yield Fig. 11.7:

Stress equilibrium in the direction of Ao yields:

and
..--
..

A ~ = - L . L = 60 30 - 63.6 MPa
fl.2 a fi.2 10

From Eq. (1 1.6):

log N = log i - m log (A)- m log Ao
4 22
and for curve W:

which gives :
N = 4.9. lo5 and
= 106/4.9 los = 2.0

i.e. the design is not acceptable.

EXAMPLE 3
Suppose that the weld in Fig. 1 1.7 is made with full penetration. Is the design
fatigue life now acceptable?

Solution.
With full penetration the weld is of type number 5.1, Class F. Eq. (1 1.3)
yields:
logN = 11.80 -3.0 log(-)30 - 3.0 log 60.0 = 6.36
4 22
which gives:

Whether the design is acceptable or not will depend on the usage factor q
required in the fatigue design code. It varies with the importance of the
member and the possibilities for inspection and repair.
Section 1 1.4

Possible misalignment due to fabrication tolerances was not considered above.

The general rule, however, is that the effect of fabrication tolerances on the
fatigue life should be included in the calculation. See Chapter 10, Example 1.

EXAMPLE 4
A steel structure in a water depth of 147 m in the North Sea shall be checked
for fatigue at a conceptual stage. The structure is assumed t o be fixed t o a
foundation at mudline level. The design life is 40 years.
The preliminary geometry of the structure based on static strength
calculation is shown in Fig. 11.8. Conductors, conductor frames and risers
are deleted. The joint and cone dimensions are as follows:
Chord : outside radius
wall thickness
gap
Brace: outside radius
wall thickness
inclination angle
Cone: outside radius, upper
outside radius, lower
wall thickness
length
Geometrical parameters:

a) The braces between levels 0 and +35 transfer the largest axial wave-
and current load forces. Due to a rather small P ratio, it shall be checked
if the fatigue joint design at +35 m is acceptable.
b) At level +35 the fluctuating stresses in the chords are also large, and
the designer wants to know if the fatigue design of the cone transition
in this region can be accepted.

Dynamic analysis.
The structure in Fig. 11.8 is rather slender and it must be checked that its
natural period is not too close to the wave period. The structure is therefore
 Section 1 1.4

xi 35000

$+

Plan .Levatton
4

140.00
C)

@-
9

@--
Kmy p I a n

Elevation a t row A,B,land2

Fig. 1 1.8 Geometry of steel structure.

Section 1 1.4

modelled for a computer analysis accounting for' its stiffness and mass.
A suitable computer program such as SESAM 80 (Ref. 1191) is used. This
calculation shows that the first natural period is 2.8 s, and is so low that a
deterministic fatigue analysis is appropriate (Chapter 2). It is seen in Fig.
10.22 c that the Weibull shape parameter h is nearly constant up to a natural
period of 3 s.

Force and moment ranges.

Due to symmetry only the four wave directions in Fig. 11.9 are considered.
We shall look at direction 2 in more detail. The wave loading is calculated by
an appropriate computer program, for example SESAM 80 (Ref. 1201). The
program gives the forces on the structure according to Morison's equation
(Section 2.6). A drag coefficient CD = 0.87 is assumed, accounting among
other things for anodes for cathodic protection. Also the marine growth
on the members must be considered, and a growth thickness of 100 mm is
assumed.
To calculate the maximum force range in the lower brace (Fig. 1 1.1 O),

4 ' Joint to
analysed
be

Fig. 11.9 Wave directions to be considered. Fig. 1 1-10. Definition of forces.

474
 Section 11.4

appropriate waves are stepped through the structure as explained in Section

10.5.3. Maximum and minimum axial force in the brace occur for respectively
maximum and minimum base shear. The axial force and the moments at
the brace end are calculated for these loading conditions using a suitable
computer program (Ref. 1191).
We now assume that the calculation has been performed for the maxi-
mum wave height H = 3 1 m and for H = 7 m. Waves with heights around 7 m
are giving the largest contribution to fatigue damage as explained in Section
10.5.2. These wave heights correspond to wave periods of respectively 17.3 s
and 9.8 s (Section 2.7.4). The resulting force ranges are shown in Table 11.3.

Table 11.3 Force and moment ranges, direction 2 in Fig. 11.9.

1
Force and moment
H = 31 m, T = 17.3 s H = 7.0 m, T = 9 . 8 s
range

ANb 1.2 107 N 0.15 lo7 N

A"ipb 1.7 lo6 Nrn 0.20 lo6 Nm
aMopb 1.2 lo6 Nm 0.15 lo6 Nm
AN, 6.7 lo7 N 0.80 lo7 N
AMipc 2.9 lo6 Nm 0.30 lo6 Nm
AMV, 3.5 lo6 Nm 0.45 lo6 Nm
' The table values serve to illustrate the calculation procedure and are
not a result of a detailed computer simulation.

According to Section 2.7.4 the wave height is given as:

H = Hmu(l - - log n
1
log no
where no is the number of stress cycles in 100 years. With a wave period of
6 s, no = 5.26 10' = 1o ~. The ~ ~ of waves exceeding a wave height of
. number
7 m is:
logn = logno(l - -)H = 8.72(1 - -)7 = 6.75
Hm, 31
Calculation
- of the Weibull parameter.
The Weibull parameter h may now be determined, using Equation 10.19 in
Section 10.2.2, and the procedure outlined in Section 10.5.3.
Section 1 1.4

Aa and Aao can be calculated, using the force- and moment ranges in Table
11-3:
Cone cross section area A, r
2 n R, T = 2 n 1750 90 = 98.96 lo4 mm2

Cone cross section modulus Wc =

Resulting bending moment range AM = JAM^^^ + 2

AMopb

This is approximately the same value which may be derived from

Fig. 10.22 c for a drag dominated structure, taking into account the reduction
of h due to the position of the joint in the structure (Fig. 10.22 b).

Stress concentration factors, SCF.

The stress concentration factors are calculated, using the recommended
parametric formulas in Chapter 8, Table A4.

Chord side
Axial load :
SCF, = 1-51 .y0.67. P-0.59. T1.lO. 0.067. sin1.52e
P
.
= 1 - 5 1 23-30.67. 0.43-0.59. 0.441.10. 0.390.067. sin1-52450

= 4.60
 Section 1 1.4

In-plane bending:
.
S C F ~= 1.82 70.3 8. ~ 0 . 0 6 T0-94.
. sin0.9e
= 1-82 23.30-38 0,430.06. 0,440.94* sin0.945~
= 1.94

Out-of-plane bending :
-
SCF, = [ l .O1 - 3 . 3 6 ~ 0.641~1 rl-l8 * ~ i n l . ~ ~ f 3
= [1.01 - 3.3610.43 - 0.641~1 23.3°.95* 450
= 3.79

Brace side
Axial load :
SCF, = 0.92 .r0.16. P-0.44. T0.56. P 0.058. ,1.45*sin8
= 0.92. 23.30.16. 0.4~-0.44. 0.440.56*0.390.058. ,1.45*sin45O
= 3.68

In-plane bending:
.
S C F ~= 2-83 p-0.3 5. T0.35. sin0.58
= 2-83 .0.43-0.35* 0.440.35. sin0.545~

= 2.40

Out-of-plane bending :
SCFz = [0.76 - 1.92(P - 0.72)~] . T ~ sin2-03f3
. ~ ~

= [0.76 - 1.92(0.43 - 0.721~1 23.30eg9*0 . 4 4 O . ~ ~

sin2-0345~
-
= 3.32

The greatest SCF values are found on the chord side, therefore, further
calculations are limited to that side.

Hot spot stresses.

The cross section area and cross section modules for the braces are respec-
tively :
A b z 2 * n m r * t = 2 - n * 9 0 O 9 4 022.60
= 1o4mm2
w ~ = T * ~ ~ * ~ = T * ~102-
o o 106mm3
~ * ~ o =
Section 1 1.4

The extreme hot spot stress range Aoo can now be calculated by Equations
8.7, Section 8.3.7. We have for wave direction 2 :

Aao= SCF, mb + SCFy --.-P-

- mi b + SCF, . AMopb
Ab Wb Wb

= 244 + 32 + 4 4 = 320 MPa

Question a.
Total number of stress cycles with a period of 6 s in direction 2 in 40 years:

Accumulated damage ratio for wave direction 2 can now be calculated using
Equation 10.20, Section 10.2.2. Values of Z and m for the T-curve are found
in Table 1 1.2 and for the gamma function in Table 10.2.

A similar procedure is followed t o determine the damage ratios associated

with the other wave direction, and we get for the total damage ratio:

Since the chord thickness is much greater than 32 mm, the damage ratio
should be corrected for the thickness effect as explained in Section 10.6:

Dthickness effect included = (-) m/4 = D .(--)

90 314 = 2-17 .D
3 2. 32
Alternatively, the thickness effect can be considered by reducing the ii value
of the T-curve:
- - 32 mi4 = a . ( 3 ) 3 / 4 = 0.46 . a
athickness effect included = a (-1t 90
 Section 11.4

The allowable damage ratio q is discussed in Ref. 1211. For critical

members below water level which are regularly inspected, r) = 0.33. It can
be seen in Fig. 1 1.9 that waves of direction 3 will produce larger axial forces
in the considered brace than those of direction 2. We can therefore conclude,
without further calculation, that D > q for the brace, and that the geometry
must be modified. According to Section 8.3.4.4, the SCF's can be reduced
by
decreasing y
increasing 0

The wall thickness of the chord is already rather high, so the second
alternative may be the best choice. 0 may be increased by increasing the brace
radius over the total brace length or by inserting a cone, thus locally in-
creasing the radius.

Question b.
The maximum fluctuating stresses in the considered chord occur for wave
direction 2, for which the data in Table 11.3 apply.
The stress concentration factor at the chordlcone transition may be
calculated based on elastic shell theory, see e.g. Ref. 1221. The stress at the
transition can also be calculated by the following formula (Ref. 1131):

where: R = radius of the chord cylinder at the transition

T = chord wall thickness
Tc = cone wall thickness
- T for calculation of stresses in the chord
Te- Tc for calculation of stresses in the cone
o, = axial stress due to axial load
ub = global bending stress
a = cone angle (Fig. 1 1.lo)

We assume that the transition chord/cone is welded from both sides.

According to Appendix A, Chapter 11, the joint belongs to class 7.6, SN-
curve E with log Z = 12.02 and m = 3. The highest stress concentration factor
is found for the transition with the lowest R:
Section 1 1.4

tga = 2100 - 17'0 = 0.167 (Fig. 11,lO) and

2100

The accumulated damage ratio D2 from waves in direction 2 can now

be calculated. We will first correct Ti for the thickness effect:

A similar procedure is followed for the other wave directions. As direc-

tion 2 is giving the largest contribution t o the fatigue damage, it can be con-
cluded that the total damage

A damage ratio of 0.33 is allowed, therefore the cone transition design

is acceptable with respect to fatigue.

Comments
- on Example 4.
The example shows how fatigue lives may be predicted at an early design
stage. It is noted that even a small check involved numerous calculations.
The calculation of fatigue lives is therefore best suited for computers using
efficient preprocessors for handling of geometrical data and postprocessors
for automatic calculation of SCF's and fatigue lives. During the last years
a large effort has been made to make efficient programs for deterministic
and stochastic fatigue analyses. At the same time the efficiency of the com-
puters has increased and the costs associated with large analyses have been
largely reduced.
In many cases it is therefore preferable to let the computer do the
work even at an early stage of the design as described in Section 10.5.3.
Never-the-less it is important that the designer understands how fatigue lives
are computed in the program. It is also important that he understands which
factors influence the fatigue life. That enables him to make the best modi-
fications to the design if the calculation results in unacceptable fatigue lives.
 Section 11.5.1 - 11.5.2

11.5 FATIGUE DESIGN REGULATIONS BASED ON CRACK GROWTH

RATE TESTS AND FRACTURE MECHANICS
11.5.1 General
In this section a review is made of the new fatigue design regulations based
on crack growth rate tests and fracture mechanics as outlined in Classification
Note no. 30.2, Det norske Veritas, Ref. 181. Normally, weld connections
contain several defects, both surface defects and internal defects. Fatigue
cracks may propagate from both types, dependent on such factors as the
size of the defect, the type of the weld connection, and the geometry of
the weld. The defect which most rapidly leads to unstable fracture, shall
be decisive.
In Section 10.3.4, Eq. (1 0.34), it was shown that the number of cycles
to failure could be expressed as:

with

when failure was defined as crack growth through the thickness. The different
parameters in Eqs. (1 1.5) and (1 1.6) are as follows:
C = crack growth coefficient, Table 11.4
m = crack growth exponent, Table 11.4
W = width of. plate
Aa = stress range
Ui = ai/W
ai = initial crack depth
F = geometry correction factor

1 1.5.2 Crack growth parameters

If documentation on relevant crack propagation parameters is lacking, the
values in Table 11.4 may be used.
If fatigue analysis based on fracture mechanics is used for design pur-
pose, the C-value given as the mean plus 2 standard deviations should be used
in order to comply with the safety of the corresponding SN-curve.
Section 1 1.5.3

Table 11.4 Crack growth parameters.

C --
[(MP,">m)m]
m Mean value Mean + 2 st.dev.
Welds in air 3.1 1.1 10-l3 3.3 -10-I
Welds subjected
to seawater 3 -5 3.4*10-l 1.6- 10-I

11.5.3 Crack growth calculation for butt welds, cruciform joints and tubular
joints
The integral I defined in Section 11.5.1 has been calculated for a buttweld,
a cruciform joint and a tubular joint assuming infinitely long cracks. The
results are shown in Figs. 11.1 1 - 11.19 (Ref. /8/). The values apply to crack
propagation from an initial crack depth, ai, to a depth af equal to the plate
thickness, i.e. a = 1. The number of stress cycles to failure follows from
Eq. (1 1.5). If the crack grows from a, to a,, the answer results when the
difference between I(a,) and I(az) is inserted as numerator in Eq. (1 1.5).
Figs. 11.1 1-1 1.19 are based on local tension stresses as defined in
Chapter 10, Section 10.2.4. If the stresses are mainly due to bending, I must
be calculated according to Eq. (1 1.6). The appropriate F function may be
derived by finite element analyses of the considered structure, see e.g. Ref.
1151 and Chapter 3 in this book.
For surface cracks the integral I is shown for two values of the crack
growth exponent m. m = 3.1 is relevant for non-corrosive environments
or corrosive environments with an effective corrosion protection system.
Without corrosion protection and especially for high values of the stress
ratio R, m = 3.5 is relevant. Residual stresses should be considered when R is
determined.
In Figs. 1 1.1 1-1 1.16 the integral is shown for two different strain
conditions marked: No restriction to bending and restriction to bending.
The former means that the plate is free to bend as the crack propagates
and the crack opens, the latter that bending is rendered impossible.
The values of the integral in Figs. 1 1.1 1-1 1.19 refer to infinitely long
cracks. For internal defects close to the surface in cruciform joints, the
number of cycles to fracture is calculated in two steps: First Fig. 11.17 is
used for growth to the surface, thereafter Fig. 11.15 or Fig. 1 1.16 until
complete fracture takes place. In the first step, equal growth at both crack
 Section 1 1.5.3

Fig. 11.1 1 Butt welds in air. Toe defects.

No restriction against bending. m = 3.1. Ref. /8/.
Section 1 1.5.3

Fig. 11.12 Butt welds in air. Toe defects.

Restriction against bending. m = 3.1. Ref. 181.
 Section 1 1.5.3

Fig. 11.13 Butt welds in seawater. Toe defects.

No restriction against bending. m = 3.5. Ref. /8/.
Section 11.5.3

Fig. 11.14 Butt welds in seawater. Toe defects.

Restriction against bending. m = 3.5. Ref. /8/.
 Section 1 1.5.3

. - . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . ..

. . . . ....
. . . . . . . .

. . ....

. . ....
. . ....

. . . . ...
. . . . . . . .
.. .. .. .
.
.. .. ..

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 .o

a/w

Fig. 11.15 Cruciform joints in air. Toe defects.

m = 3.1. Ref. /8/.
Section 1 1.5.3

Fig. 11.16 Cruciform joints in seawater. Toe defects.

m = 3.5. Ref. 181.
 Section 1 1.5.3

Fig. 1 1.1 7 Cruciform joints. Embedded defects.

m = 3.1. Ref. 181.
Section 1 1.5.3

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I 1 1 1 1 & 1 I , 1 1 1 1 1

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1 I 1 1 1 1 a - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Fig. 11.18 Tubular joints in air. Surface cracks at the weld toe.
m = 3.1. Ref. /8/.
 Section 1 1.5.3

Fig. 1 1.1 9 Tubular joints in seawater. Surface cracks at the weld toe.
m = 3.5. Ref. 181.
Section 11.6

tips is assumed. Cracks situated less than 0.15 B from the weld toe should
be treated as surface cracks and evaluated by the curves in Figs. 1 1.15 or
11.16.
Welded tubular joints may be of varied designs. Figs. 11.18 and 1 1.19
are based on upper bound values for crack growth in simple unstiffened T-,
Y- and IS-joints and are relevant for growth of surface cracks in the thickness
direction in the hot spot region. Hot spot stresses shall be used in Eq. (1 1.5).

11.6 EXAMPLES OF CRACK GROWTH CALCULATION BASED ON

CRACK GROWTH RATE TESTS AND FRACTURE MECHANICS

EXAMPLE 5

1 2 3
S h a r p under c u t

Fig. 11.20 Fatigue life as a function of undercutting.

Consider the cross-joint in Fig. 1 1.20. The throughgoing plate is subjected

to an equivalent stress range Ao = 20 MPa. A fatigue crack is assumed to
develop from an initial defect of depth ai at the weld toe. Calculate the
number of stress cycles to fracture!
 Section 11.6

Solution.
We presume a long crack and that the length of the loaded plate is large
compared with its thickness. This way, the plate is free to bend as the crack
develops and the graph in Fig. 11.15 with e/W = 0 and "no restriction to
bending" applies.

a/W = 0.1130 = 0.0033 yields:

I = 0.53
and from Eq. (1 1.5):

For different values of the initial defect ai, the curve in Fig. 11.20 results,
showing the fatigue life in relative units as function of the initial defect depth.

EXAMPLE 6

j~s-T+-
-7
A6

Fig. 11-21 Butt welded plates.

Two plates with thickness W = 25 mm are joined by an X weld, Fig. 11.21.

After fabrication, undercuts at the weld toe of 1 mm depth and a misalign-
ment between the plates of e = 2 mm are detected. The joint operates in
sea water without cathodic protection, and is exposed to cyclic loading with
No = lo6 cycles at an equivalent stress range Ao = 30 MPa. Accidental events
may produce stresses equal to the yield strength of the plate. Material proper-
ties: Re = 340 MPa, KIC = 60 MPafi.
It shall be checked if the design can be accepted under the given con-
ditions.

Solution.
It is assumed that the plates are long, so that bending stresses due to crack
opening are limited and Fig. 1 1.13 applies.
The relative misalignment e/W = 0,08. Since the nomograph in Fig.
11.13 is not drawn for this value, we calculate the local stress range at the
Section 11.6

weld toe (Chapter 10, Section 10.2.4):

Aulocal = Ao(1 + 3 e ) = 30(1 + 3 00.08)= 37.2 MPa
W

We have for the critical crack length af at fracture:

KIC = R , d n . a f * F

where F is the geometry correction factor, dependent on af (Chapter 3):

By trial and error procedure it has been found that af r 5 mm and F 1.4
satisfy the two equations:

We then read in Fig. 11.13 for 0 =30°, e/W = 0, and a/W = 1/25 ~ 0 . 0 4 :
I. = 4.2 lo-'
and for a/W = 5/25 = 0.2:
If = 6.0 lo-'

In Table 1 1.4, m = 3.5 and C = 1.6 10-I for the mean-plus-two-standard-

deviations. We then obtain for the number of stress cycles to fracture, Eq.
(1 1.5):

For a structure in sea water without cathodic protection, the codes generally
recommend a usage factor of q = 0.3 when the fatigue life calculation is based
on SN-curves. Logically, the same factor must apply in crack growth calcula-
tions. The design life of the joint is therefore:

Conclusion: The designlfabrication is not acceptable under the given condi-

 Section 11.7

tions. An increase of the design life might be obtained by grinding of the

weldlplate transition as explained in Chapter 6. With reference to the calcula-
tion, grinding leads to a reduction of the undercut depth and therefore
an increase of I. .

11.7 FATIGUE FAILURE CRITERIA IN CONNECTION WITH REPAIR

OF DEFECTS
Each crack or defect not complying with the code requirements must be
individually considered, when the question of possible repair comes up.
First, a detailed investigation of the structural strength with regard to static
and fatigue loading will have to be performed. The following items should
be considered :
Importance of structural member. Consequences associated with a
possible unstable fracture.
Uncertainties about present size of defect or crack. Reliability of in-
spection method.
Maximum static stress and stress range during fatigue cycling.
Uncertainties associated with fatigue crack growth parameters and
material toughness.
Number of cycles to next inspection or to end of life.
The importance of the member may be determined by a simple inspec-
tion of the collapse mechanism. For more complex geometries and redundant
structures it may be advisable to remove the considered element and calculate
the redistributed forces in order to get more information on the probability
of a progressive collapse. The consequences of a progressive collapse should
be evaluated with respect to:
- loss of human lives
- pollution
- cost of structure and equipment
In order to perform a most reliable crack growth analysis, it is necessary
to establish a good description o f the defect geometry. In this connection the
accessibility for inspection of the detail in question must be considered;
further the reliability and sensitivity of the inspection method are important
elements. If deterministic analyses are used in crack growth calculation,
conservative estimates of the defect size should be applied.
Section 1 1.8.1

Due considerations should be made to uncertainties in calculated

stresses. As fatigue lives are inversely proportional to the stress range raised
to a power of 3, deterministic fatigue calculations should be based on con-
servative estimates of stresses. Strain gauge equipment at the defective regions
may improve the reliability of stress estimates. When probabilistic methods
are applied, each coefficient defining the stress function should be accounted
for. Possible bias should be on the safe side. Bias is defined and discussed
in Ref. 1181.
Crack growth calculations with reference to possible repair of defects
are much influenced by the crack growth parameters m and C. There is a
great scatter in the values as can be seen by comparing the mean and the
mean-plus-two-standard-deviation values in Table 11.4. As is previously
discussed, the fracture toughness of the plate or weld material only slightly
influences the fatigue life of simple joints. For tubular connections the
situation is different, and the fracture toughness value may be important.
The number of cycles to the next inspection or to the end o f the
structure life is important. Also the reliability of the inspection must be
considered. Cost of repair is essential, and the cost effectiveness of different
repair solutions should be evaluated.
The extent and costs of analyses and investigations connected with
repair of defects should comply with the consequences of a possible failure.
When consequences are large, fracture mechanics analyses based on probabi-
listic methods may pay and prove conclusive, in addition to the deterministic
analyses described in Sections 1 1.4 and 1 1.5.

11.8 NOTES ON DAMAGES AND METHODS FOR MAKING REPAIRS

1 1.8.1 General
As a general rule, offshore platforms will require repair or maintenance during
their lifetime, due to causes such as unfavourable shapes of structural details,
inaccurate design analysis, occurrence of unforeseen load combinations,
falling objects, ship impacts, explosions, fire, misuse, corrosion and other
deterioration.
In most cases the recorded damages are of less serious character. Never-
theless, in each particular case, the following aspects will have to be reviewed:
- Cause of the damage.
- Possibility of other undetected damages on the structure due to the
same cause.
- Possible need for further inspection.
 Section 11.8.2

- Need for repair.

- Time for repair.
- Possible consequences of postponement of repair.
- Possible limitations in the operation of the platform before, during
and after the repair has been completed.
- Quality and suitability of repair methods adopted.

11.8.2 Repair and reinforcing methods

The following repair and reinforcing methods have been proposed or used
for offshore steel structures:
- Underwater wet welding.
- Dry welding in habitat.
- Clamping of prefabricated parts to the structure.
- Grouting of confining sleeves.
- Grouting between insert pipe and original member.
- Grouted body inside tubular member.
- Grouting and auxiliary welding.
- Grinding and drilling.
Underwater welding performed by divers in a wet environment has
been and is being utilized, but with all the obvious difficulties involved, the
results are not promising in structural repair. The main problems are of
metallurgical nature. Hydrogen and oxygen produced by dissociation of
water lead to increased risks for porosity and cracking as well as reduced
ductility and fracture toughness. The high cooling rate tends to raise the
hardness of the heat affected zone and to produce internal stresses.
Habitat welding is the preferred underwater welding technique for
structural welds. Besides access and space in a watertight hyperbaric environ-
ment, power for preheating, welding and drying of steel surfaces is required.
Provisions must be made for shielding gas for welding, inert gas in the habitat
and breathing gas for the welder. Non-destructive testing should be used for
checking the weld homogeneity. Habitat welding may be difficult to apply
to complex joints, and if the cracks are caused by inadequate material proper-
ties, repair is not likely to be successful. Compared to wet welding, hyper-
baric welding yields superior quality, but at a considerably higher cost.
Clamping methods may be used to replace the functions of a damaged
part by adding members adjacent to the damage. The problems are related
to the tight fit needed to transfer the forces, and that the bolts tend to
loosen. These difficulties may be overcome, but it requires rigorous checking
Section 1 1.8.2

during installation and service. Accurate alignment and rigging generally call
for a considerable amount of expensive underwater operation.
Repair - and reinforcement methods based on grouting technique
appear promising, mainly because a moderate amount of underwater work
is needed and because cracks and unfavourable residual stresses are not intro-
duced in the structure. The application of grouted confining sleeves around
defective joints, as shown for a T-connection in Fig. 11 2 2 , is however not
without practical problems, such as the varying and complicated geometry
of the joints, and the rather difficult task of securing tightness of the assembly
during grouting.

Fig. 11.22 Grouting of defective T-connection.

Grouting between an insert pipe and the original member is shown in

Fig. 11.23. It is a possible way of reinforcing a leg, but placing an insert
pipe inside a brace is complicated. Full internal grouting is an alternative
method in this case.

'Gr o u l Seal '

Fig. 11.23 Grouting between insert pipe and original member.

 Section 11.8.2

The combination of grouted sleeve with welded sealing proves a less

attractive method because it involves most of the disadvantages of both
methods.
Grinding and drilling are two methods that can be used to stop a
crack from propagating. Grinding smoothens the sharp ends of a crack,
thereby reducing the stress concentration factor. A hole drilled at each end
of the crack has a similar effect. Cold working of the inside surface of the
hole by drawing through it a slightly overdimensioned bar or wire, produces
an additional reduction of the local tensile stresses.

EXAMPLE 7 - Jacket repair of cracked tubular joint at 20 m depth.

During the annual NDT-survey, a 900 mm long crack was detected in a
tubular joint by magnetic particle inspection. The crack was located in the
fusion line between weld and leg. It was decided to repair by dry welding.
A habitat was made to fit around the node. The water inside the
habitat was displaced by compressed air which allowed the diver to carry
out the welding under dry conditions. Before the welding took place, all
cracks and crack indications were removed by grinding and gouging. Magnetic
particle testing was then applied to ensure that no cracks were left.
After preheating to 100°C by electric heating elements, the welding
was completed manually with gas shield and flux cored wire. Visual - and
magnetic particle inspection followed.

EXAMPLE 8 - Repair of crack in jacket leg at 15 m depth.

A doubler plate had been welded to a jacket leg during installation for fasten-
ing one of the temporary float chambers. The weld between the plate and the
leg had cracked, and the crack had propagated into the leg, and through the
wall for a length of about 4 m. The leg had been grouted on the inside.
When the crack was discovered, the doubler plate was removed and holes
were drilled at all crack ends to prevent further propagation.
A habitat for dry rewelding of the cracked area was fitted around the
leg. The cracks were ground out and bevelled, the grout underneath removed
and magnetic particle inspection was applied to the area to ascertain that all
cracks had been completely removed. The leg was then preheated for 15
hours to remove moisture from the underlying grout.
After completed repair, the welds were inspected visually, with ultra-
sonics and magnetic particles.
Chapter 1 1 . References

REFERENCES

1. Gurney,T.R.:
Fatigue of Welded Structures. Cambridge University Press, Second edition, 1979.
2. Gurney, T.R.:
Fatigue Design Rules for Welded Steel Joints, The Welding Institute Research Bulletin.
Volume 17, Number 5, May 1976.
3. Regulations for the structural design of fixed structures on the Norwegian Continental
Shelf, Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 1977.

4. Offshore installations: Guidance on Design and Construction, Department of Energy,

1977. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London.

5. Rules for the Design, Construction and Installation of Offshore Structures, Det norske
Veritas, 1977.
6. BS 5400 Part 10, 1980. Code of Practice for Fatigue. Steel, Concrete and Composite
Bridges. British Standard Institution.
7. Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction. New Fatigue Design
Guidance for Steel Welded Joints in Offshore Structures. Recommendations of the
Department of Energy "Guidance Notes" Revision Drafting Panel. August 1983,
Issue N.

8. Classification Note No. 30.2. Fatigue Strength Analysis for Mobile Offshore Units.
Det norske Veritas, 1984.

9. NS 3472 Design rules for steel structures, 1984. Norges Standardiseringsforbund.

10. AWS (1972) Structural Welding Code. American Welding Society.

11. AWS D l .1 (1980) Structural Welding Code. American Welding Society.

12. AWS D l .1 (1983) Structural Welding Code. American Welding Society.
13. API RP 2A Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms. Thirteenth Edition, January 1982. American Petroleum Institute.

14. Peterson, R.E.:

Stress Concentration Factors. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1974.
15. Aarnodt, B.:
Application of the Finite Element Method to Problems in Linear and Nonlinear
Fracture Mechanics. Thesis. Division of Structural Mechanics. NTH, The University
of Trondheim, 1973.
16. Publication Document 6493: 1980. Guidance on Some Methods for the Derivation of
Acceptance J evels for Defects in Fusion Welded Joints. British Standard Institution.
 Chapter 1 1 . References
17. Hellan,K.:
Introduction to Fracture Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984.
18. Fjeld, S.:
Reliability of Offshore Structures, OTC paper 3027, 1977.
19. SESAM' 80. SESTRA. Super Element Structural Analysis. User's manual. Computas
Report No. 82-6102,1983.
20. SESAM' 80. WAJAC. Wave and current loads on Fixed Rigid Frame Structures.
User's manual. Computas Report No. 82-6108,1983.
21. Oljedirektoratetsforskrift for baerende konstruksjoner. Utkast nr. 12. Oljedirektoratet.
Stavanger. 1984.
22. Tirnoshenko, S.P. and Woinowsky - Krieger, S.:
Theory of Plates and Shells. McGraw-Hill. 1959.
rn
0
N
Appendix A. Joint Classification (Gurney, T.R.: Fatigue of Welded Structures, Cambridge University Press, 1979).
Type 1. Material free from welding
Notes on potential modes of failure
In plain steel, fatigue cracks initiate at the
surface, usually either at surface
irregularities or at corners of the cross-
Type number, description and
notes on mode of failure
1.1 Plain steel
(a) With all surfaces machined and
polished, and of uniform o r uniformly vary-
ing cross-section.
(b) In the as-rolled condition, o r with
cleaned surfaces but with no flame-cut
edges o r re-entrant corners
(c) A s (b) but with any flame-cut edges
subsequently ground o r machined t o
remove all visible sign of the drag lines
(d) As (b) but with the edges machine
flame-cut by a controlled procedure t o
ensure that the cut surface is free from
cracks
*
Cd
%3
g
section. In welded construction, fatigue In steel with rivet or bolt holes o r other 9
failure will rarely occur in a region of plain stress concentrations arising from the
material since the fatigue strength of the shape of the member, failure will usually
welded joints will usually be much lower. initiate at the stress concentration.
Class Explanatory comments Examples, including failure modes
A
B Beware of using class B for a
member which may acquire stress
concentrations during its life, e.g. as
a result of rust pitting. In such an
event class C would be more approp-
riate
B Any re-entrant corners in flame-cut
edges should have a radius greater
than the plate thickness
C Note, however, that the presence of
a re-entrant corner implies the exis-
tence of a stress concentration so
that the design stress should be taken
as the net stress multiplied by the
relevant stress concentration factor
 Type 2. Continuous welds essentially parallel to the direction of applied stress
Notes o n potential modes of failure
With the excess weld metal dressed flush,
fatigue cracks would be expected to initiate
at weld defect locations. In the as-welded
condition, cracks might initiate at
stopstart positions or, if these are not
present, at weld surface ripples.
General comments
1. Backing strips. If backing strips are used
in making these joints: (a) they must be
continuous, and (b) if they are attached by
welding those welds must also comply with
the relevant class requirements (note par-
ticularly that tack welds, unless subse-
quently ground out or covered by a con-
tinuous weld, would reduce the joint to
class F, see joint type 6.5.
2 . Edge distance. An edge distance cri-
terion exists to limit the possibility of local
stress concentrations occurring at
unwelded edges as a result, for example, of
undercut, weld spatter, or accidental over-
weave in manual fillet welding (see also
notes on joint type 4). Although an edge
distance can be specified only for the
'width' direction of an element, it is equally
important to ensure that n o accidental
undercutting occurs on the unwelded cor-
ners of, for example, cover plates or box
girder flanges. If it does occur it should
subsequently be ground smooth.

2.1 Full or partial penetration butt welds,

or fillet welds
Parent or weld metal in members, without
attachments, built up of plates or sections,
and joined by continuous welds.

(a) Full penetration butt welds with the
weld overfill dressed flush with the surface
and finish-machined in the direction of
stress, and with the weld proved free from
significant defects by non-destructive
examination.
B The significance of defects should be
determined with the aid of specialist
advice andlor by the use of fracture
mechanics analysis. The NDT tech-
nique must be selected with a view to
ensuring the detection of such
significant defects.

(b) Butt or fillet welds with the welds
made by an automatic submerged or open
arc process and with no stop-start positions
within the length.
(c) As (b) but with the weld containing
stopstart positions within the length. This
tn
0 class includes welds made manually.
W 3
C If an accidental stopstart occurs in a
region where class C is required
remedlal action should be taken so
that the finished weld has a similar -
surface and root profile to that
intended. *
'a
D For situation at the ends of flange
cover plates see joint type 6.4.
3E
X
u
P Type 3. Transverse butt welds (i.e. essentially perpendicular to the direction of applied stress)
Notes on potential modes of failure
With the weld ends machined flush with
the plate edges, fatigue cracks in the as-
welded condition normally initiate at the
weld toe, so that the fatigue strength
depends largely upon the shape of the weld
overfill. If this is dressed flush the stress
concentration caused by it is removed and
failure is then associated with weld defects.
In welds made on a permanent backing
strip, fatigue cracks initiate at the weld
metallstrip junction, and in partial penetra-
tion welds (which should not be used under
Type number, description and
notes on mode offailure
3.1. Parent metal adjacent to, o r weld
metal in, full penetration butt joints
welded from both sides between plates of
equal width and thickness or where differ-
ences in width and thickness are machined
to a smooth transition not steeper than 1 in
4.
fatigue conditions), at the weld root.
Unless made on a permanent backing (type
3.3) welds made entirely from one side are
not classified for fatigue purposes, since
adequate control cannot be exercised over
the profile of the root bead which is where
fatigue cracks would be likely to initiate.
Design stresses
In the design of butt welds of types 3.1 or
3.2 which are not aligned the stresses must
include the effect of any eccentricity. An
Class Explanatory comments
Note that this includes butt welds
which do not completely traverse the
member, such as circular welds used
for inserting infilling plates into tem-
porary holes.
a
approximate method of allowing for eccen- ??
tricity in the thickness direction is to multi- X
ply the nominal stress by (1 + 3elt), where
e is the distance between centres of thick-
>
ness of the two abutting members (if one of
the members is tapered, the centre of the
untapered thickness must be used); and t is
the thickness of the thinner member. With
connections which are supported laterally,
e.g. flanges of a beam which are supported
by the web, eccentricity may be neglected.
Examples, including failure modes
(a) With the weld overfill dressed flush
with the surface and with the weld proved
free from significant defects by non-
destructive examination.
(b) With the welds made in the shop,
either manually o r by an automatic process
other than submerged arc, provided all
runs are made in the flat position.
(c) Welds made other than in (a) or (b).
C The significance of defects should be
determined with the aid of specialist
advice and/or by the use of fracture
mechanics analysis. The non-
destructive testing technique must be
selected with a view to ensuring the
detection of such significant defects.
D In general welds made positionally,
or on site, o r by the submerged arc
process tend to have a poor rein-
forcement shape, from the point of
view of fatigue strength. Hence such
welds are downgraded from D to E.
E In both (b) and (c) the corners of
the cross-section of the stressed ele-
ment at the weld toes should be
dressed to a smooth profile.
Note that step changes in thickness
are, in general, not permitted under
fatigue conditions, but that where
the thickness of the thicker member
is not greater than 1.15 x the thick-
ness of the. thinner member, the
change can be accommodated in the
weld profile without any machining.
Step changes in width lead to large
reductions in strength (see joint type
3.3).
Continued.
7jpe nrtmber, descrlprion and
. ~ rr~odeof failure
r ~ o t eon Class E~ylannroryc o n ~ m e r ~ t s Examples, including failure modes 2>
a
5
3.2. Parent metal adjacent to, or weld E Note that ~t the b a c k ~ n gstrlp is flllet
-- ;- I - E
metal in, full penetration butt joints made welded or tack welded t o the
*
X
on a permanent backing strip between
plates ot equdl width and thlckneqs or wlth
d~tferences In wldth and th~ckness
machlned to a smooth transition not
steeper than 1 in 4

3.3. Parent metal adjacent to, or weld

metal in, full penetration butt-welded
F?
member the joint could be reduced
to class G (joint type 4 2)

Step changes in width can often be

a v o ~ d e dby the use of shaped transi-
0 No t a c k we!ds

joints made from both sides between plates
of unequal width, with the weld ends
ground to a radius not less than 1.25 x the
thickness r .
tion plates, arranged so as to enable
butt welds to be made between
plates of equal width.
ru'ote that for this detail the stress
concentration has been taken into
account in the joint classification.

Type 4. Welded attachments on the surface or edge of a stressed member

Nores on [rotenrial modes of failure
When the weld is parallel to the direction
of the applied stress fatigue cracks nor-
mally initiate at the weld ends, but when it
is transverse to the direction of stressing
they usually initiate at the weld toe; for
attachments involving a single as opposed
to a double weld, cracks may also initiate at
the weld root. The cracks then propagate
into the stressed member. When the welds
are on or adjacent t o the edge of t h e
stressed member the stress concentration is
increased and the fatigue strength is
reduced; this is the reason for specifying an
'edge distance' in some of these joints (see
also note o n edge distance in joint type 2)
Type number, description and
notes on mode of failure
4.1. Parent metal (of the stressed
member) adjacent to toes or ends of
bevel-butt or fillet-welded attachments,
regardless of the orientation of the weld to
the direction of applied stress, and whether
or not the welds are continuous round the
attachment.
(a) With attachment length (parallel to the
direction of the applied stress) < 150 mm
and with edge distance LlOmm.
(b) With attachment length (parallel to
the direction of the applied stress)
> 150 mm and with edge distance a 10 mm.
4.2. Parent metal (of the stressed
member) at the toes or the ends of butt- or
fillet-welded attachments on or within
10 mm of the edges or corners of a stressed
member, and regardless of the shape of the
attachment.
Class Explanatory comments Examples, including failure modes
Butt-welded joints should be made
with an additional reinforcing fillet
so as to provide a toe profile similar
to that which would exist in a fillet-
welded joint.
F The decrease in fatigue strength with
increasing attachment length is
because more load is transferred into distance
the longer gusset, giving an increase
in stress concentration.
F2
G Note that the classification applies to
all sizes of attachment. It would
therefore include, for example, the
junction of two flanges at right
angles. In such situations a low
fatigue classification can often be
avoided by the use of a transition
plate (see also joint type 3.3).
Continued. *
Sc
0
00 Type number, description and
notes on mode of failure Class Explanatory comments Examples, including failure modes

4.3. Parent metal (of the stressed
member) at the toe of a butt weld connect-
ing the stressed member to another
member slotted through it.
(a) With the length of the slotted-through
member parallel to the direction of the
applied stress ~ 1 5 mm
0 and with edge
distance 310 mm.
Note that this classification does not
apply to fillet-welded joints (see joint
type 5.lb). However it does apply to
loading in either direction (L o r T in the
sketch).
F

(b) With the length of the slotted-through F2

member parallel to the direction of the
applied stress >I50 mm and with edge
distance 210 mm.

(c) With edge distance < I 0 mm. G

Type 5. Load-carrying fillet and T butt welds

Notes on potential modes of failure
Failure in cruciform o r T joints with full
penetration welds will normally initiate at
the weld toe, but in joints made with
load-carrying fillet or partial penetration
butt welds cracking may initiate either at
the weld toe and propagate into the plate
or at the weld root and propagate through
the weld. In welds parallel to the direction
of the applied stress, however, weld failure
is uncommon; cracks normally initiate at
the weld end and propagate into the plate
perpendicular t o the direction of applied
stress. The stress concentration is
increased, and the fatigue strength is there-
fore reduced, if the weld end is located on
or adjacent to the edge of a stressed
member rather than on its surface.
 Type number, description and
notes on mode of failure Class Explanatory comments Examples, including failure modes
-

5.1. Parent metal adjacent to cruciforrn Member Y can be regarded as one

joints o r T joints (member marked X in with a non-load-carrying weld (see
sketches). joint type 4.1). Note that in this
instance the edge distance limitation
applies.

(a) Joint made with full penetration welds F

and with any undercutting a t the corners of
the member dressed out by local grinding.

(b) Joint made with partial penetration o r F2 In this type of joint, failure is likely
fillet welds with any undercutting at the to occur in the weld throat unless the
corners of the member dressed out by local weld is made sufficiently large (see
grinding. joint type 5.4). -/71
P
'a
z
3
wl
E
X
0
\O Continued. P
Appendix A
Type 6. Details in welded girders
Notes on potential modes of failure
Fatigue cracks generally initiate at weld
toes and are especially associated with
local stress concentrations at weld ends,
short lengths of return welds, and changes
of weld direction. Concentrations are
enhanced when these features occur at o r
near an edge o f a part (see notes on joint
type 4).
General comment
Most of the joints in this section are also
shown, in a more general form, in joint
type 4; they are included here for conveni-
ence as being the joints which occur most
frequently in welded girders.

Type number, description and

notes on mode of failure

6.1. Parent metal at the toe of a weld

connecting a stiffener, diaphragm, etc. t o a
girder flange.
(a) Edge distance 3 l O m m (see joint type
4.2).
(b) Edge d~stance< 10 mm.
Class Explan arory comments

G
Edge distance refers t o distance trom
a free, i.e. unwelded, edge. In this
example, therefore, it is not relevant
as far as the (welded) edge of the
web plate is concerned. For reason
for edge distance see note on joint
type 2.
( ~3
Examples, including failure modes

- G
-z-
Edge d~stance
/- --
--(
4
)'
Y'

6.2. Parent metal at the end of a weld E This classification Includes all
connecting a st~ffener,diaphragm, etc. t o a attachments to girder webs.
girder web in a region of combined bend-
ing and shear.

Continued. *
'dl
+ 9
w Type number, description and
notes on mode of failure
6.3. Parent metal adjacent t o welded shear
connectors.
(a) Edge distance 210 mm.
(b) Edge distance <10 mm (see type 4.2).
6.4. Parent metal at the e n d of a partial
length welded cover plate, regardless of
whether the plate has square o r tapered
ends a n d whether o r not there are welds
across the ends.
6.5. Parent metal adjacent t o the ends of
discontinuous welds, e.g. intermittent
web-to-flange welds, o r tack welds unless
subsequently buried in continuous runs.
As above, but adjacent to cope holes.
'a
Class Explanatory comments Examples, including failure modes 2
EL
F
G This class includes cover plates
which are wider than the flange.
-e-- Edge distance
However, such a detail is not
recommended because it will almost
inevitably result in undercutting of
the flange edge where the transverse
weld crosses it, as well as involving a
longitudinal weld terminating on the
flange edge a n d causing a high stress
concentration.
E This also includes tack welds which
are not subsequently buried in a con-
tinuous weld. This may be particu-
larly relevant in tack-welded backing
strips.
F Note that the existence of the cope
hole is allowed for in the joint classi-
fication; it should not be regarded as
an additional stress concentration as
far as the web-to-flange welds are
concerned.
 SUBJECT INDEX
acrylic model 333
added mass 50
added mass coefficient 63
added mass force 63
"Alexander L. Kielland" 25,27
allowable cumulative damage format 440
allowable stress format 438
API 460
API X SN-curve 340
applying improvement methods 283
articulated tower 5
assessment of defects 252
autocorrelation function 44
AWS improved profile weld 270
basic crack shape factor 109
Basquin curve 193
beachmarks 169
block loading 197
brittle fracture 372
brittle fracture design 395
BS 5400 SN-curves 285
burr grinding 264, 279
calcareous deposit 293
cast steel node 359
casting defects 24 1
cathodic polarization 293
cathodic polarization level 304
cathodic protection 29 1,293,306
cathodic protection, effects on
crack growth 300
fatigue life 304
SN data 294
Charpy toughness 374
classification of defects 237
classification of SN data 225
cleavage instability 373
clipping level 199
closed form fatigue equation 409
Cnoidal wave theory 55
COD 375
compact tension test 377
complex joint 353
constant amplitude fatigue life 125, 136
constant amplitude loading 423
constant amplitude SN testing 176
definition of terms 177
failure criteria 185
fatigue limit 186
notched specimens 197
real structures vs test specimens 187
relation to crack growth testing 176
structural components 185
types of loading 178
types of tests 182
welded joints 183
conversion table 142
corrosion effects on
crack growth 300
fatigue life 304
SN data 294
corrosion fatigue 292
corrosion fatigue mechanisms 293
corrosion pits 24 1,293
corrosion protection measures 296
crack growth 161
crack growth calculation 424,482,492
crack growth coefficient 1 15, 1 17,481
crack growth exponent 1 15,117,48 1
crack growth in tubular joints 173
crack growth integrals 425,455,483-491
crack growth rate 115
crack growth rate curves 162,174, 175
crack growth rate relations 114
crack growth regions 164, 165
crack initiation 124,212
crack modes 95
crack propagation 124
crack propagation prediction 135,422,454
crack shape 122
crack shape factor 108, 122
crack tip stress field 95
crest factor 199
critical defect size 384, 39 1
critical value of K 1 15
cross sectional ovalization 336
CTOD 375
CTOD design curve 386,395,453
CTOD testing 380
cumulative damage 208
cumulative damage hypothesis 434
cumulative damage ratio 438
cumulative probability function 43,46
cycle counting 199
cyclic strain 174, 176, 189, 191,192
damage 17
damage calculation 45 1,478
damage ratio 409,4 13
damping 50,5 1
defect severity 254
defects 237
deformation load 4 1
DEn T SN-curve 340
Department of Energy 440,460
design chart 443
design criteria 2 14
design format 437
design guide-lines 308
design precautions 32
dime test 271
dimensionless CTOD 386
disc grinding 264,279
drag coefficient 63
drag force 63,83
ductile collapse 10
dynamic amplification 50
dynamic analysis 48, 50,472
eddy current inspection 248
effects of geometry on fatigue 2 15
elastic stress concentration factor 97, 194
elastic superposition principle 105
elastic-plastic behaviour 373
elastic-plastic fracture mechanics 94
elliptical crack 155
endurance limit 260
energy spectrum 44
engineering crack growth curve 166
engineering strain 190
engineering stress 190
environmental corrosion factors 296
environmental load 4 1
equivalent stress range 210,413,454
equivalent stress range approach 128
error function 46
examples :
crack growth integration 135, 137,423,
426,454,492,493
critical defect size 383,384,391
CTOD calculation 3 8 1
damage ratio calculation 4 15,418,451,480
dynamic stress analysis 472
equivalent stress range calculation 4 15,
448,468
examples cont. :
fatigue life calculation 408,448,470,
471,472
hot spot stress 477
long-term stress range distribution 80,87
maximum allowable crack size 387,388,
396,453
maximum allowable stress range 439,
444,468
probability of failure 435
short term stress range distribution 84
SN-curve selection 419,449
stress concentration factor 476
stress intensity factor 133, 134,379
stress relief treatment 448
vortex induced oscillations 74
Weibull parameter 475
Weibull stress range distribution 468
weld repair 499
exceedance spectrum 200
expected value 43
fabrication defects 238
fabrication precautions 34
fabrication tolerances 433
failure criteria 185,344,433,495
failure modes 37 1
failure region 132
fatigue building codes 459
American Petroleum Institute 440
American Welding Society 440,460
BS 5400 459
Department of Energy 440,460
Det norske Veritas 440,460
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate 440,
460
NS 3472 460
fatigue capacity 174
fatigue crack growth parameter 167
fatigue crack growth threshold 167
fatigue damage 4 19
fatigue design calculation 468
fatigue design check 14
fatigue design regulations 462,481
fatigue ductility coefficient 193
fatigue evaluation 346
fatigue failure 10,24
fatigue failure characteristics 168
fatigue failure criteria 185,495
fatigue initiation 160
fatigue life prediction 124,406
fatigue limit 186,29 1
fatigue limit region 132
fatigue load spectra 207
fatigue mechanisms 159
fatigue notch factor 196
fatigue of welded joints 157,2 12
fatigue strength coefficient 193
fatigue strength exponent 193
fatigue strength improvement methods 262,
283
comparison of methods 278
cost of methods 282
grinding techniques 264
hammer peening 273
improved profde 270
inspection 285
plasma dressing 269
shot peening 275
special electrodes 27 1
TIG dressing 266
weld toe remelting 266
fatigue testing 167,174,185,339
finte element analysis 326
finite life region 132
finite thickness factor 108, 109
finite width factor 108,109
fitness-for-purpose approach 252
fracture mechanics 9 1, 382
fracture mechanics calculation of
SN-curves 130
fracture toughness 382,396
effects of metallurgy 399
effects of strain rate 398
effects of temperature 397
effects of thickness 396
fracture toughness testing 376
free corrosion 306
frequency effect 299,302
front face factor 108, 109
Froude-Krylov force 63
Fuchs' theory 66
gamma function 17,410,415,438
gap parameter 352
gaussian distribution 244
gaussian process 45
geometry function 425
geometric parameters 3 18,350
Gerber relation 181
Gibstein7sformulas 334,370
global stress 320,4 17
Goodman relation 181
gravity platform 4
Green's function 105, 146, 150, 153
grinding techniques 264
grout reinforced tubular joints 356
grouting 498
guyed tower 5
Haigh diagram 179, 180
hammer peening 273,280
harmonic component 47
heavy duty tubular joints 349
high-cycle fatigue 15, 130,2 14
histogram 244
hot spot 321
hot spot instrumentation 33 1
hot spot location 323
hot spot stress 171,321,323,417,477
hydrodynamic damping 5 1
hydrodynamic forces 63
hydrodynamic response
deterministic calculation 69
spectral calculation 70
hydrogen crack 240,262
hydrogen embrittlement 293
hydrogen sulphide concentration 303
improved profile electrode 271
improved profile weld 270,280
improvement methods 259
improvement methods comparison 278
incomplete penetration 238
inertia coefficient 64
inertia force 64,82,83
influence function method 105
initial crack depth 424
in-service defects 241
inspection reliability 249
intermediate fatigue region 132
internal defects 245
irregular loading 197
irregular waves 55
irregularity factor 198
jacket 4,22,28
jack-up 4,24
J-integral375
joint classification 42 1,463,502-5 12
joint design 345
joint fabrication 345
JONSWAP spectrum 56
K,, testing 377
KQ 378
Keulegan-Carpenter number 64
Klesnil-Lukas equation 304
Kuang's formulas 333,366,367
lack of fusion 238,262
lack of penetration 262
lamellar tearing 240
large-scale fatigue testing 185
level crossing counting 201
linear elastic fracture mechanics 94
linear system 47
linear wave theory 53,82
liquid penetrant inspection 247
live load 4 1
load calculation 428
loading buoy 448
loading variables 299
loads 39
local nominal stress 2 18
local stress 4 17,422
local stress range 421
log N distribution 435
long range stresses 188
long-term stress range distribution 78,412
deterministic analysis 78,80
simplified analysis 87
stochastic analysis 84
long-term wave statistics 59
low-cycle fatigue 15, 2 14
magnetic particle inspection 247
marine environment 29 1
maximum allowable defect size 388
maximum allowable stress range 439
maximum stress intensity factor 423
maximum stress range 4 15
McCamy theory 66
mean crossing 198
mean stress 177
Miner summation 208
Miner-Palmgren formula 406
misalignment of joining plates 2 18,242,
419
monotonic loading 179
monotonic stress and strain 189
Morison's equation 63,82,429
narrow band loading 198
natural frequency 52
non-destructive inspection 247
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate 460
occurrence spectrum 199
overlappingjoints 350,35 1
oxygen concentration 303
parametric stress concentration formula 333
Paris' equation 116
Paris-Erdogan crack growth law 164
peak counting 202
permanent load 4 1
Peterson's formula 196
phase angle 50
photo elasticity 333
Pierson-Moskowitz wave spectrum 56,85
plasma dressing 269,280
plastic zone size 98
PMBSHELL 328
post weld heat treatment 447
pre-engineering design check 443
probability density distribution 43,45,
244
probability of failure 434
progressive failure 18
properties of welded joints 157
prototype testing 174
radiographic inspection 248
rainflow counting 204
random loading 197
range counting 203
"Ranger I" 25
Rayleigh distribution 46, 58,86
regular wave approach 7 1
regular waves 53
reinforced tubular joints 3 56
reinforcement angle 243
reinforcing methods 497
reliability index 435
repair methods 496
residual stresses 188,223
response process 47
Reynolds number 64
Rice distribution 46
root-mean-cube stress range 129, 198
root-mean-square stress range 129, 198
R6 failure assessment diagram 389
sea water corrosion 293
seastate 59
"Sedco 135" 24
semi-submersible 1, 19,24
sensitivity analysis 427
short range stresses 188
shot peening 275,280
significant wave height 56,59
simple tubular joints 3 18
single-degree-of-freedom 48
size effect 187,220,408,443,451,465
slag inclusions 238
slamming 73
Smedley's formulas 334, 368,369
Smith diagram 182
SN weld classes 502-5 12
SN-curve selection 4 19,449
SN-curves 17, 130,174,339,407,421,
43 1
SN data 464
SN data for welded joints 224,502-5 12
SN design curves 227,460,466,467
consistency of data 228
residual stresses 229
selection of data 227
slope of curves 23 1
statistical analysis 227
stress range philosophy 230
soil damping 5 1
solidification cracks 240
solitary wave theory 55
spectral density 44
spectral moment 58
spectral width 45
spectrum loading 197
stability parameter 74
static failure region 132
stiffened plate 172
stiffened tubular joint 355
stochastic loading 197
Stoke's wave theory 55
strain concentration factor 324,333
strain gage instrumentation 332
strain gage measurement 330
stream function wave theory 5 5
stress amplitude 177
stress calculation 429
stress concentration 16, 1 17
stress concentration factor 120,215,321,
469
stress concentration factor calculation 476
stress concentration formulas 364
Gibstein 370
Kuang 366,367
Wordsworth/Smedley 368,369
stress corrosion cracks 242
stress distribution 335
stress gradient correction factor 108, 1 13,
120
stress intensity correction factor 383,422 thickness effect 187,220,408,443,451,
stress intensity factor 94,96 465
boundary problems 102 threshold region 132
compendium of 144-1 56 threshold value 115, 162
compounding technique 104 TIC dressing 266,280
compressive stresses 102 time history simulation 72
equivalence of 100 toe grinding 264
hybrid method 108 toughness parameter 374
influence function 104 transfer function 47,85
superposition of 99 tripod platform 5
stress intensity factor range 115,422 true strain 190
stress intensity of welded joints 117 true stress 190
stress interaction 2 11 tubular brace 171
stress peak 197 tubular joints 7,172,313,315
stress range 177, 197,407 cast steel 359
stress range exceedance function 410 complex 353
stress range intensity factor 115,422 crack growth 342
stress range philosophy 230 definitions 3 18
stress range probability distribution 409 design and fabrication 345
stress ratio 115, 177,299,301 fatigue evaluation 346
stress relieving consideration 447 fracture mechanics analysis 349
stress reversal 197 geometrical parameters 318,337,350
stress spectral moment 86 load cases 319,347
stress valley 197 overlapping 350
striations 169 repair 348
Strouhal number 73 simple 3 18
structural damping 5 1 SN-curves 339
structural geometry 2 15 stress analysis 326
structural mass 50 stress concentration factor 321,333,338
structural redundancy 188 stress concentration formulas 364
structural stress concentration 2 16 types 3 15
subsurface pressure 54 TUJAP 329
surface profile 54
surface roughness 64 Ultimate strength design check 13
Soderberg relation 181 ultrasonic inspection 249
uncertainty analysis 427
T curve 467 undercut 240,262
template platform 4 unstable fracture 10,372,382
tension leg platform 22 usage factor 443
variable amplitude fatigue life 127
variable amplitude loading 17, 196,302,
425
variance 45
Veritas Rules 440,460
VERITAS X SN-curve 340
vortex shedding 73

water particle acceleration 54

water particle velocity 54
wave exceedance diagram 62
wave force calculation 474
wave kinematics 54
wave length 54
wave spectrum 56
waves 53
Weibull distribution 59,87, 207,410,438
Weibull parameter 208,413,415,430,444
Weibull parameter calculation 475
Weibull parameter consideration 445
weld defect distribution 247
weld defects 213
weld geometry 2 1 , 217
weld notch effect 321
weld quality 244
weld toe remelting 266
welded joints 8
Wordsworth's formulas 334,368,369

Zero crossing wave period 46,56,59

zero order moment 4 5,58