Lecture 2 Module 11 Part 66

Theory of Flight
21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 1

Theory of Flight
● Depending upon the speed of the vehicle. Flight
is divided into different regions which are
● Subsonic Flight
– From mach number zero to about 0.8
● Transonic Flight
– From Mach number 0.8 to about 1.2
● Supersonic Flight
– From Mach number greater than 1
● Hypersonic Flight
– From Mach number greater than 5
Theory of Subsonic flight

Speed of Sound
● Sound is a vibration that travels through an

elastic medium as a wave
● The speed of sound describes how far this
wave travels in a given amount of time
● Where
● T is absolute Temperature
● γ is Adiabatic index (1.4 at 293 K)
● And R is gas constant (287 j/kg K)

Speed of Sound
● At altitude of 40,000 ft ● At altitude of 30,000 ft

● T=-56.5+273=216.5 ● T=-44.4+273=228.6 K
● c=sqrt(1.4*287*216.5) ● c=303 m/s
● c=295 m/s ● At sea level
● c=1062 km/hr ● T=15+273=288 K
● c=340 m/s

Mach Number
● Mach number is the ratio of the true airspeed of

a body to the speed of the sound
● Mathematically
● Where M is mach number, TAS is true airspeed

and c is speed of sound

Mach number at Cruising altitude
● A330 at 40,000 ft ● A320 at 37,000 ft

● c=295 m/s=1062 km/ ● c=295 m/s=1062 km/
hr hr
● TAS= 871 km/hr ● TAS=829 km/h
● M=871/1062 ● M=829/1062
● M=0.82 ● M=0.78

Subsonic Flight theory
● In subsonic flight, Mach number is less than

one
● It means the vehicle is flying less than the
speed of sound
● The cruising speed of the aircraft is about 900
km/hr approx. (varies from aircraft to aircraft)

Aeroplane Aerodynamics and Flight
Controls

Flight Control Surfaces
● Depending upon the nature of control surfaces

flight controls are divided into
1.Primary Flight Controls
● Primary flight controls are required to safely control an
aircraft during flight
2.Secondary Flight Controls
● Secondary flight controls are intended to improve the
aircraft performance characteristics or to relieve
excessive control loading
(they assist primary flight control)

Wings
● Main function of wings is to produce enough

LIFT to support whole aircraft
● Flight controls on aircraft are
– Aileron
– Flaps
– Slats
– Spoilers

Tail
● Tail of a typical commercial aircraft consists of

following items
– Rudder
– Horizontal stabilizer (Elevator)
● Their arrangement can be different such as
– V-tail arrangement
– T-tail arrangement

T tail
● Advantage of T tail arrangement

– Horizontal stabilizer is on the vertical stabilizer. It
makes the arrangement more effective as it is less
effected by turbulence and has reduced drag due to
less tip vortex (also known as end plate effect)
● Disadvantage of T tail arrangement
– It make the whole structure heavier than normal

T tail arrangement

V tail arrangement

Offset Vertical Stabilizer
● A problem encountered on single-engined

propeller driven aircraft is that the propeller
causes the airflow to rotate as it travels
rearward. This strikes one side of the vertical
stabilizer more than the other, resulting in a
yawing moment
● In this case the leading edge of the stabiliser is
offset slightly, thereby causing the airflow to
pass around it in such a manner to counter the
yaw

Rolling movement
● In simple words movement of aircraft wing
about longitudinal axis is know as Roll
movement
● This movement is caused by deflection of
ailerons, which work in opposition, when the
right aileron goes up, the left aileron goes down
● High speed ailerons are located inboard of the
low speed aileron in order to prevent aileron
reversal. It is used because
– If the outer ailerons (low speed aileron) were
permitted to operate at high speed, the stress
produced at the wing tips may twist the wing

Roll

Pitching Movement
● A pitch motion is an up or down movement of

the nose of the aircraft
● The elevators work in pairs; when the right
elevator goes up, the left elevator also goes up

Pitch

Yaw Movement
● A yaw motion is a side to side movement of the

nose of the aircraft
● The yawing motion is being caused by the
deflection of the rudder of the aircraft. The
rudder is a hinged section at the rear of the
vertical stabilizer.

Yaw

Aircraft Stability
● An aircraft is trimmed if there are no net forces

and moments acting on it
● Static stability refers to the tendency of the
aircraft to develop forces or moments to return
to its trim condition when disturbed

Lateral Stability
● An airplane is said to possess lateral static
stability if after undergoing a disturbance that
rolls it to some bank angle, it generates forces
and moments that tend to reduce the bank
angle and restore the equilibrium flight condition
● Dihedral is often used as a means to improve
lateral stability. Sweepback is an addition to the
dihedral that increases the lift created when a
wing drops from the level position
● Static lateral stability or stability in roll indicates
an aircraft’s tendency to return to wings-level
flight

Longitudinal Stability
● Longitudinal static stability refers to the

tendency of the aircraft to return to its trim
condition after a nose up or nose down
disturbance
● If an aircraft is longitudinally stable, a small
increase in angle of attack will cause the
pitching moment on the aircraft to change so
that the angle of attack decreases and vice
versa

Directional Stability
● An airplane is said to possess static directional

stability, if it has initial tendency to comeback to
it’s equilibrium condition when subjected to
some form of yawing disturbance
● Directional control is primarily achieved by
rudder, located on the vertical tail

Primary Flight Control Surfaces
● Aileron
– Provides Rolling movement
– Provides lateral stability
● Elevator
– Provides Pitching movement
– Provides longitudinal stability
● Rudder
– Provides Yaw movement
– Provides directional stability (+longitudinal stability)

Primary control Airplane Axes of Type of Stability
Surface Movement Rotation
Aileron Roll Longitudinal Lateral
Elevator/ Pitch Lateral Longitudinal

Stabilizer
Rudder Yaw Vertical Directional

Coordinated turn
● The ailerons are usually operated in conjunction

with the rudder and/or elevator during a turn
and are rarely used on their own.
● A co-ordinated turn is one that occurs without
slip or skid. Too little bank will cause the aircraft
to skid outwards, too much bank will cause the
aircraft to slip downwards.

Roll Control - Spoilers
● Spoilers can be used to assist aileron in roll

movement
● On down going aileron the spoilers will remain
flush to the surface
● On up going aileron the spoilers will be
deployed in upward direction

Canards
● Canard is the horizontal surface placed ahead

of the wing
● In this configuration, the angle of attack of the
canard is more than the wing. Thus the canard
will stall first and hence will put the aircraft in
nose dive condition (thus recovery of aircraft)

Elevons
● When function of elevators and ailerons is

combined in one unit it is known as elevons
● They provide both pitch and roll, by moving
symmetrically in pitch or asymmetrically in roll
via a mixer unit, when the control column or
control wheel are operated on the flight deck

Ruddervators
● When function of elevators and rudder is

combined in one unit it is known as
Ruddervators
● This arrangement is also known as V tail
arrangement

HIGH LIFT DEVICES
● Wing is designed to provide optimum lift in

cruise phase of the flight
● In order to land and takeoff more efficiently
some devices are used which will produce more
lift at slow speed. These are
● leading edge devices
– slots, slats and Krueger flaps
● trailing edge devices
– plain, slotted and fowler flaps.

Flaperons
● A flaperon on an aircraft's wing is a type of

control surface that combines the functions of
both flaps and ailerons
● This is also known as
droop aileron

DRAG INDUCING DEVICES
● The primary function of these devices is to

reduce the speed of aircraft by the increase of
drag
● It includes
– Spoilers and lift dumpers
– Speed brakes
– Thrust Reversers
● in unusual circumstances,
– Lowering of the landing gear

Spoilers and Lift Dumpers
● These are located on the mid chord position on
the upper surface of the wing
● They are Hydraulically operated
● They produce a large amount of turbulence and
drag when deployed, resulting in a reduction of
lift
● Lift dumpers are spoiler panels incorporated
solely to dump lift. They are normally deployed
after landing, destroying the lift of the wing and
producing high drag, to assist in stopping the
aircraft efficiently and thereby allowing the
wheel brakes to be operated more effectively
Function of spoilers
● Primary function of spoiler is roll control of

aircraft
● Secondary function of spoiler is slow down the
aircraft (speed breaks) in cruise or decent at
much steeper rate without accelerating. For this
purpose they can be applied symmetrically or in
part-deployed position

Speed brakes
● Inflight use of spoilers is also known as speed

brakes. (used for devices which produces drag
without any change of trim)
● They can be used on two different locations
1.On Fuselage
2.On Wings

Speed brakes
● On fuselage a clamshell-type doors are used

which open up to produce drag
● The advantage is that no vibration or rumble is
felt in the cabin
● They can be operated at any speed and lift is
unaffected
● When wing mounted speed brakes are used
vibration or rumble is felt in cabin

AIRFLOW CONTROL DEVICES
● These devices are

– Wing fences
– Saw Tooth Leading Edges
– Winglets

Wing Fences
● These are installed on the aircraft with the

sweep back wings
● The airflow on the wing is divided into two
components
– one moving across the wing chord parallel to the
airflow (chordwise component)
– the other flowing spanwise towards the wing tip
(spanwise component)

Airflow on sweptback wing

Wing Fences

Wing Fences
● The fences are fitted about mid-span, on the

leading edge of the wing and extending
rearwards
● They are designed to control the spanwise flow
of the boundary layer air over the top of the
wing
● They straighten the airflow over the ailerons,
improving their effectiveness and straighten the
air nearer the wing tip, resulting in less 'spillage'
of air from beneath the wing to the top, thereby
producing less drag
Saw Tooth Leading Edges
● Used in military aircraft mostly

● The saw tooth or notch is simply a small
increase in wing chord on the outer portion of
the wing
● It form an invisible 'wall' of high velocity air,
which flows over the wing and straightens the
spanwise flow
● It functions in much the same way as the wing
fence but removes the extra drag and weight
penalty

Saw Tooth Leading Edges

Winglets
● The outboard part of the wing are upswept to

an extreme dihedral angle
● They add weight to the aircraft as well as
increase the plastic drag
● The benefit is the reduction of the induced drag
at wing tip which results in fuel saving
● Reduction in drag increase L/D ratio (efficiency
of aircraft)

A320 (Neo/Classic) winglets

BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL
● The boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent
to the aerofoil surface (Between metal and air)
● Velocity of air is zero on the surface and
increases to free stream velocity at outer
extreme of boundary layer
● Flow transition is from laminar to turbulent from
surface to extreme (Transition point)
● Control of boundary layer is done by
– Vortex Generators
– Stall Wedges
– Leading edge Devices

Boundary layer

Vortex generator
● They are small plates or wedges projecting up
from the surface of airfoil
● Vortex generator produced vortices from their
tip. It mix the high energy free stream air into
the boundary layer
● Vortex generator increase the separation point
(along the length of the chord) of the flow. Thus
flow gets attached to surface for longer and
obtain the better efficiency
● They save boundary layer drag
● They weaken shock wave at high speed and
reduce shock drag
Vortex generator

Stall wedges
● Stall Wedges are small, wedge-shaped strips

mounted on the leading edge of the wings at
about one third span
● They are designed to disrupt the boundary layer
airflow, at large angles of attack approaching
the stall, thus ensuring the airflow breaks away,
(stalls), at the root end of the wing first

Stall Wedges

Leading edge devices
● Leading edge devices prevent laminar flow

separation at the low speed
● These include
– Leading edge droop flap
– Kreuger flaps

Leading edge devices

MASS BALANCE
● Movement of control surface will put the load on

the hinge of the control surface
● When CG of the control surface is behind the
hinge then at high speed Flutter can be felt
● In order to reduce this load the CG of the
control surface is move forward (towards hinge)
by adding mass in front of the hinge surface.
Thus reducing the load on control surface

MASS BALANCE

Aerodynamic balance
● Aerodynamic Force acting on the control
surface is at its center of pressure which is aft
of the hinge line so it will create a moment
about the hinge called hinge moment which
increases with speed
● Aerodynamic balance is a means of reducing
the hinge movement and thereby the physical
effort needed to control an aircraft
● Aerodynamic balance is done by
– Horn Balance
– Inset Hinge
– Balance Panels
Horn Balance

Inset Hinge

Balance Panels

TRIM TABS
● Trim tabs are small surfaces connected to the

trailing edge of a larger control surface on an
aircraft, used to control the trim of the controls
● TRIM TABS are follows
– Fixed Trim Tabs
– Controllable Trim Tabs
● Servo Tabs
● Balance Tabs
● Anti-Balance Tabs
● Spring Tabs

Fixed Trim Tabs
● A simple section of sheet metal attached to the

trailing edge of a control surface
● It is adjusted on the ground by simply bending it
up or down, to a position resulting in zero
control forces during cruise
● Alternatively, the tab is connected to the primary
control by a ground-adjustable connecting rod
● Finding the correct position for both types is by
trial and error

Fixed Trim Tabs

Controllable Trim Tabs
● A controllable trim tab is adjusted from the flight
deck, with its position being transmitted back to
a flight deck indicator showing trim units, left
and right of neutral
● Flight deck controls are trim-wheel, lever,
switch, etc

Servo Tabs
● They act as a form of ‘power booster’, since
pilot effort is only required to deflect the
relatively small area of the servo tab into the air
stream
● Servo tabs move in the opposite direction of the
control surface
● Movement of the flight deck control input moves
the tab up or down and the aerodynamic force
created on the tab, moves the primary control,
until the aerodynamic load on the control
surface balances that on the tab. Moving the
tab down will cause the primary control to move
up and vice-versa.
Servo Tabs

Balance Tabs
● Balance tabs are connected by an adjustable

rod to the flight control and is so arranged, that
it tends to maintain the tab at the same relative
angle to the flight control
● Tab moves in the opposite direction to the
control surface and assists its movement

Anti-Balance Tabs
● Operate in a similar way aerodynamically as
balance tabs but with a reverse effect
● Moves in same direction as primary control
service thus they add load to flight control and
provide feel to prevent over-stressing of panels
● it is commonly used on aircraft where the
controls are too light or the aircraft requires
additional stability in that axis of movement.

Spring Tabs
● At high speeds in order to deflect the aircraft

control surface from the neutral position
becomes difficult due to aerodynamic load
● Spring tabs provides additional assistance at
high speeds

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Theory of Flight

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 1

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 3

● Sound is a vibration that travels through an

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 4

● At altitude of 40,000 ft ● At altitude of 30,000 ft

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 6

● Mach number is the ratio of the true airspeed of

● Where M is mach number, TAS is true airspeed

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 7

● A330 at 40,000 ft ● A320 at 37,000 ft

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 8

● In subsonic flight, Mach number is less than

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 9

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 10

● Depending upon the nature of control surfaces

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 11

● Main function of wings is to produce enough

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 12

● Tail of a typical commercial aircraft consists of

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 13

● Advantage of T tail arrangement

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 14

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 15

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 16

● A problem encountered on single-engined

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 17

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 20

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 21

● A pitch motion is an up or down movement of

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 22

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 23

● A yaw motion is a side to side movement of the

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 24

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 25

● An aircraft is trimmed if there are no net forces

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 26

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 28

● Longitudinal static stability refers to the

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 29

● An airplane is said to possess static directional

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 30

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 31

Aileron Roll Longitudinal Lateral

Elevator/ Pitch Lateral Longitudinal

Rudder Yaw Vertical Directional

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 32

● The ailerons are usually operated in conjunction

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 33

● Spoilers can be used to assist aileron in roll

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 34

● Canard is the horizontal surface placed ahead

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 35

● When function of elevators and ailerons is

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 37

● When function of elevators and rudder is

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 39

● Wing is designed to provide optimum lift in

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 40

● A flaperon on an aircraft's wing is a type of

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 42

● The primary function of these devices is to

21/01/19 Aircraft systems -Aerospace 1 44