BASIC MATHEMATICS for Technical Courses Second Edition CHECKED CLARENCE E. Tums, B.S., E.E. jester Institute of Technology Englewood Cliffs, N. J. PRENTICE-HALL, INC.Corrricr, 1946, 1952, Br PRENTICE-HALL, INC. Englewooa Cliffs, N. J. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeo- graph or any other means, without per- mission in writing from the publishers, First Eprrion + Qetober, 1946 :October, 1947 ‘November, 1949 First printin Second printing. ‘Third printin; Seconp Eprrion First printing January, 1952 Second printing. -Apal, 1855 Third printin; 1 Fourth printing. Fifth printing. - MBM LIBRARY Wyn 2 (Uae) g LY Ong pwr PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA TEE, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 06412PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION HIS second edition has been prepared to meet the'needs and incorpo- rate the suggestions voiced in requests of users of the original edition. The solution of simultaneous equations by determinant notation has been extended to take care of problems with more than three equations because of the frequency with which such problems appear in the engi- neering field. Synthetic division and synthetic substitution in equation solution have been included as additional helpful short cuts. Material on polar vectors has betn added to that on rectangular vectors because of the frequent use of polar vectors in electrical circuits. Many review problems have been added at the end of each chapter. Cuarence EB. TurresPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION HE material used in this book was developed at the Rochester Insti- tute of Technology and was used for several years in mimeographed form by the author in his classes at that institute. It was selected by the publisher as one of a series of textbooks designed for technical institutes and the junior college field. It should be useful also in industrial and extension schools and to those who must depend upon self-study for the continuation of their education. The book provides the mathematical training that is pertinent and essential in the study of technical subjects. It was written from the view- point that mathematics in the technical field should be a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Since the theory of mathematics is com- bined closely with its use, applications in the solution of practical problems have been given prominence. Concise analysis rather than mere substi- tution in a formula has been emphasized as the proper approach to the problem solving, and therefore students are encouraged to use diagrams, whenever possible, as an aid in the thinking process. Representative problems from the various technical fields have been selected so that a student with a particular interest in one of these fields may be given an assignment of practice problems illustrative of the use of mathematies in his chosen field. A number of problems are presented in the form of mechanical drawing, since such problems frequently occur in technical work. Assignments may be made for either long or -short courses. A larger number of problems are included than the average instructor will require unless a longer course is desired. The use of the operator j is introduced in place of the imaginary 7, which is customarily used in mathematics, to conform to engineering prac- tice, where the symbol 7 is used to represent other quantities. Vectors and components are treated at length because they are used extensively in the various engineering fields. Likewise, the solution of simultaneous equations by determinant notation is emphasized because of the value of this method in some types of engineering problems. Since many engineering problems are solved with the slide rule, the student should acquire facility in its use at the beginning of his mathe- matics course rather than later. For this reason the study of how to use a slide rule is presented in the first chapter. The explanation of the theory of the slide rule is not given until the work in logarithms has been studied. vvi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION In the opinion of the author, a knowledge of the sine law and the cosine law combined with the use of the slide rule and a table of squares and roots is adequate for the solution of the oblique triangle. Therefore, the law of tangents and the half-angle formulas are not discussed until Chapter 6 of Part II, and they may be omitted at the discretion of the instructor. Cusrence E. Torres Acknowledgments The author is indebted to Mr. John Elberfeld, Dean of Engineering at Worcester Junior College, Worcester, Massachusetts, Mr. Ralph H. Braden of the Engineering Department of Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York, and Mr. Silas M. Thronson of the Photographic Technology Department at the Rochester Institute of Technology for their valuable assistance in reviewing this volume, and also to Mr. Earle M. Morecock, Supervisor of the Electrical Department at the Rochester Institute of Technology, for his unfailing encouragement and assistance in its preparation. Acknowledgment is made also to the Chemical Rubber Publishing Company for permission to reprint the tables of natural logarithms from the Handbook: of Chemistry and Physics. Thanks are due Mr. L. E. Reynolds, instructor in mathematics at the Agricultural and Technical Institute, Alfred University, Alfred, New York, and Mr. Harry A. Panton, senior instructor in mathematics at the New York State Institute of Applied Arts and Sciences, Buffalo, New York, for their reviews and very helpful criticisms and suggestions at the time of the second edition. Mr. Dean Frederick and Mr. Kenneth French, former instructors in the Electrical Department at the Rochester Institute of Technology, and Mr. Hollis Todd, instructor in the Photographie Technology Depart- ment at the Rochester Institute of Technology, have contributed many helpful suggestions.CONTENTS Part | PAGE 1. THE SLIDE RULE Use of the slide rule, 3 Cand D scales of the sliderule,3 Multi- plication of two factors, 6 The decimal point, 6 Multiplication of three or more factors, 7 Division of two factors, 8 Problems involving both multiplication and division, 9 Squares and square roots, 10 Cubes and cube roots, 12 Other scales, 15 The CI scale, 15 The sine and tangent scales,15 The logarithm scale,16 Other sine and tangent scales, 17 Conclusion, 20 2 ARITHMETIC WITH APPLICATIONS. ...... . 25 The role of mathematics, 25 The method of solution, 25 Signif- icant figures, 26 Accuracy of results, 26 General definitions, 26 The fundamental operations, 27 Combinations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, 29 Cancellation, 30 Common fractions, 32 Least common denominator, 33 Addition and subtraction of common fractions, 34 Multiplication and divi- sion of common fractions, 35 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of common fractions in combinations, 36 Decimal fractions, 38 Addition and subtraction of decimals, 39 Multi- plication of decimals, 39 Division of decimals, 40 To change a common fraction to a decimal, 41 To change a decimal to a common fraction, 41 Checking of computations, 41 The rule of nine, 41 Percentage, 44 Averages, 47 Per cent error, 47 Inter- est, 48 Discount, 50 Ratio, 51 Proportion, 52 Powers, 53 Roots, 54 Checking square root by the residue of nines, 57 Scien- tific notation, 57 Applications of square roots, 59 Weights and measures, 60 Density and specific gravity, 65 3, THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS IN ALGEBRA. . . 70 Introduction, 70 Definitions, 72 Positive and negative numbers, 73 Addition, 74 Subtraction, 75 Signs of growping, 76 Inser- viiviii CONTENTS tion of growping signs, 76 Multiplication, 78 Exponents in multiplication, 79 Multiplication of monomials, 80 Multiplica- tion of polynomials by monomials and polynomials, 80 The binomial theorem, 81 Division, 84 Division of monomials, 84 Exponents in division, 85 Division of a polynomial by a monomial, 85 Division of a polynomial by a polynomial, 86 Synthetic division, 87 Factoring, 91 To factor a polynomial containing a common factor, 91 To factor a trinomial that is a perfect square, 91 To factor the difference of two squares,92 To factor a trinomial of the type form x? + bz +c, 93 To factor a trinomial of the type form ax* + ba +, 93 Special cases in factoring, 95 The factor theorem, 95 Fractions, 97 Operations on the numerator and denominator of fractions, 98 Reduction of fractions, 99 Addition and subtraction of fractions, 100 Afultiplication and division of fractions, 102 Exponents, 105 The zero exponent, 105 Negative exponent, 106 Fractional exponent, 106 Radicals, 106 Simplifi- cation of radicals, 107 Addition and subtraction of radicals, 108 Multiplication of radicals, 108 Division of radicals, 109 Powers and roots in radicals, 111 Rotation of numbers by multiplication by (—1), 112 Square roots of negative numbers, 114 Representa- tion of imaginary numbers, 115 Complex numbers, 117 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers, 117 Multiplication of com- plex numbers, 117 Division of complex numbers, 117 Multi- plication and division of complex numbers, 118 4, EQUATIONS AND FORMULAS. . . . . Simple equations, 126 Axioms, 127 Solution of simple equa- tions, 128 Formulas, 181 Forming and solving equations, 132 Primes and subscripts, 134 Simultaneous equations, 1838 Elimi- nation by addition or subtraction, 139 Elimination by substitution, 141 Elimination by comparison, 141 Elimination by multiplica- tion or division, 142 Simultaneous equations with more than two un- knowns, 142 Kirchhoff’s laws, 144 Determinants, 149 Determi- nants of the second order, 149 Determinants of the third order, 151 Solution of third order determinants by minors, 154 Properties and transformation of determinants, 157 Solution of determinants of the fourth and higher orders, 160 Quadratic equations, 164 Solution of a quadratic by factoring, 165 Solution of a quadratic by completing the square, 165 The quadratic formula, 166 Nature of the roots of a quadratic, 168 Solution of simultaneous quadratic equations, 168 Solution of higher order equations by syn- thelic substitution, 170 Equations with radicals, 175 Ratio and Proportion, 176 Variation, 178 PAGE 126CONTENTS ix PAGE 5. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION. ........ + 189 The graph, 189 Rectangular codrdinates, 190 Functions and graphs of equations, 192 Roots, 196 Equation of the straight line, 197 Determination of equation from experimental data, 201 Graphical solution of simultaneous equations, 204 6. LOGARITHMS. . . 2... 1 1 eee ee ee ee 208 Definition, 208 Base of logarithms, 209 Common logarithms, 209 Negative characteristics, 212 Different ways of writing the characteristic, 213 Interpolation, 215 To find the number cor- responding to a given logarithm, 216 Properties of logarithms, 217 Multiplication by the use of logarithms, 218 Division by the use of logarithms, 219 Multiplication and division by the use of loga- rithms, 219 Raising to a power by the use of logarithms, 221 Extracting a root by logarithms, 222 Combination problems, 223 Cologarithms, 223 Natural logarithms, 224 Exponential equations, 227 The slide rule, 228 Graph of y = log x,230 Log- arithmic graphs, 231 Part I! 1, ANGLES AND FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES. . . . . . . 248 Angles, 243 Measurement of angles, 244 The trigonometric ratios or functions, 250 Functions of complementary angles, 253 Functions of 45°, 255 Functions of 30° and 60°, 255 Functions as lines, 257 Variation in the values of the trigonometric functions, 259 Relations between the functions, 260 Tables of functions, 262 Interpolation, 264 \2 THE RIGHT TRIANGLE . Be ee ee ee we 269 The solution of the right triangle, 269 The right-triangle formula, 273 Accuracy of results, 275 Vectors and components, 275 Vectors in complex notation, 279 Polar vector notation, 281 Angles of elevation and depression, 284 Angle of inclination of a line, 285 Bearing of a line, 286 Angle subtended by a line, 286 The solution of the oblique triangle by right-triangle methods, 287 Applied problems, 289 ,x CONTENTS PAGE SYFUNCTIONS OF ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE. . . . 296 Functions of angles in second quadrant, 296 Functions of angles in third and fourth quadrants, 298 Functions of negative angles, 301 Functions of angles differing by 90°, 302 Functions as lines, 303 Variation in the functions, 306 Given one function of an an- gle to find the other functions, 307 Graphs of the functions, 308 Periodicity of the functions, 308 Inverse functions, 311 Graphs of the inverse functions, 312 Definitions of simple trigonometric equations and identities, 313 Solution of trigonometric identities, 814 Solution of trigonometric equations, 315 A FUNCTIONS OF TWO ANGLES ........ . . 820 Functions of the sum of two angles, 320 Functions of the difference of two angles, 324 Applied problems, 326 Functions of twice an angle, 328 Functions of half an angle, 328 Sums and differences of functions, 329 5, THE SINE AND COSINE LAWS WITH APPLICATIONS . 334 The sine law, 334 The ambiguous case, 337 Extending the sine law, 341 The cosine law, 342 Extending the law of cosines, 344 Area of a triangle, 346 6. ADDITIONAL TRIGONOMETRIC PRINCIPLES AND AP- PLICATIONS . . 2... we. 856 The law of tangents, 356 The cotangent law, 358 The half- angle formulas, 361 A check on the angles, 365 Area of a triangle, 367 Sector and segment areas of acircle,369 Equations and identities, 370 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES. . . . 2... . 0... ~. «(897 TABLES. 2... ee ee ee B98 INDEX. ww ee ee ee 485Pickett and Eckel Slide Rule No. 1000,Chapter 1 THE SLIDE RULE 1. Use of the slide rule. The slide rule is an instrument designed to save time and labor in nearly all mathematical calculations encountered in everyday experiences. It is particularly valuable to the technical man because his work is based on mathematics. Briefly, it is an instrument to aid in performing the various fundamental operations of multiplication, division, squaring, cubing, and extracting square roots and cube roots in much less time and with much less effort than it can be done by ordinary methods. There are many types of slide rules, but there are certain characteristics common to all of them that must be studied because they form the basis on which the operation of the rule is founded. Further, it is essential to learn to read the rule correctly before attempting to solve problems. 2. C and D scales of the slide rule. There are four scales, A, B, C, and D, common to all slide rules, but we shall consider only the C and D scales at the moment, since they are used for the more simple operations of multiplication and division. . It will be noted that the C and D scales are exactly alike; that is, each scale is numbered from 1 (called the left index) on the extreme left through the numbers (in large type) 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, successively, to 1 (called the right index) on the extreme right, with the spaces between the figures decreasing steadily toward the right. The figure 1 on the left may stand for any number in which 1 is the only figure, other than zero. Thus, it may stand for 1, 10, 100, 1,000; or for 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, and so on. If this 1 on the left stands for unity, then the 1 on the right will be 10; but if the 1 on the left is 10, then the 1 on the right is 100, and if the 1 on the left is 100, then the 1 on the right is 1,000, and so on. Fig. 1-1 illustrates these main divisions on the C and D scales. 1 2 3 4 5 67891 UT i —L_1 1 1 tos Fig. 1-1. It is evident, then, that the main division numbering will depend upon what is chosen for the left index. Thus, if this index is unity, then the numbering reads 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, and 10. But if this left index is 10, then the numbering is 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100. Again, if the index is 0.1, then the numbering will be 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, and 1.0. 34 THE SLIDE RULE Now consider the space between the left index and the large figure 2. It will be noted that this space is divided off into 10 smaller spaces that decrease steadily toward the right and that the division points between these spaces are numbered from 1 to 9, inclusive, with smaller type. These spaces are called secondary divisions and are illustrated in Fig. 1-2. 11234567892 ~ 3 4 5 Lape ppp rrp trite Fig. 1-2. It is plain that the significance of the numbers for these secondary divisions will depend also upon what is chosen for the left index. Thus, if the left index is 1 or unity, then this numbering will be read 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.8, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, and 2. But if the left index is 10, then these numbers will be read 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20. ‘The spaces between 2 and 3, 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 5 and 6, 6 and 7, 7 and 8, 8 and 9, 9 and 1, are also divided off into the same secondary divisions as the space between 1 and 2, although the smaller-type figures are not included. Therefore, we may now say that the rule is divided into 10 main divisions and each main division is divided into 10 secondary divisions. Again, looking at the secondary divisions in the main division between 1 and 2, it will be seen that each secondary division is divided into 10 parts or subdivisions, thus giving a value of unity or 1 to each of these sub- divisions. However, as the main divisions progress toward the right of the tule, they become increasingly smaller, and it is not possible to divide all their secondary divisions into 10 parts as was done with those in the main ion between 1 and 2. Therefore, it will be noted that the secondary ions between 2 and 3 and between 3 and 4 are divided into 5 sub- divisions each, thus giving a double value or a value of 2 to each of these subdivisions; and for the remainder of the scale the secondary divisions are divided into 2 subdivisions each, thus giving a value of 5 to each sub- division. Now to locate a 3-digit number on the C or D scale, the following pro- cedure is necessary: First. Read the first significant figure, which is the first numeral that is not zero. If this figure is 1, then the number lies between the main 11234567892 23 3 4 5 Lipp tee tp Fig. 1-3, ‘isions 1 and 2; if the figure is 2, then the number lies between the main divisions 2 and 3; and soon. ‘Thus, on the skeleton scale shown in Fig. 1-3 the number 157 will be found between the main divisions 1 and 2, since its first significant figure is 1.