Non-Linear Physics in Reinforced Concrete Buildings

NON-LINEAR PHYSICS
IN REINFORCED
CONCRETE BUILDINGS
______________________________________________
Ph.D. Genner Villarreal Castro

ANR NATIONAL AWARD 2006, 2007, 2008
Lima – Peru
2017
1
NON-LINEAR PHYSICS IN REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS
-Translated by:
 Hinostroza Yucra, Johan James
 Taype Acosta, Omar Jesús
 Moreno Vivanco, Bill Carlos
 Lucas Agreda, María del Pilar
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January, 2019
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PROLOGUE
The present investigation is oriented to solve one of the current problems of Structural
Mechanics, specifically, the problem of the calculation methodology of reinforced concrete
buildings, considering the non-linear physics.
This calculation process is used very often in practice and it is considered an open field in
seismic research, representing the present work an important contribution in the updating of
calculation methods of reinforced concrete buildings considering non-linear physics.
The present investigation consists of 2 chapters, conclusions, bibliography and index.
The first chapter gives a summary of the research carried out, where the inelastic
behavior of the material is studied, the consideration of successive earthquakes in the structural
calculation, the non-linear models and the application of the LIRA program in the non-linear
analysis by Time-Stepping Methods.
The second chapter analyzes the dynamic methods of structural evaluation, the influence
of local damage on the dynamic characteristics of reinforced concrete buildings and the non-
linear dynamic method for buildings in the face of successive earthquakes. This chapter is a
summary of the doctoral dissertation of the Ph.D. Peraskovia Ivanovna Andreyeva, because it is
very important.
In the conclusions the results and the recommendations of use and scientific application
are discussed.
The present investigation is directed to civil engineers, graduates and investigators in the
area of Structural Mechanics.
This research is dedicated to my successor, my son GENNER ALEK VILLARREAL
CRISANTO, the most sublime thing of my life that God gave me, my motor and reason, my
source of inspiration, the greatest treasure of my life, the little person that makes me feel the
happiest man on earth, my eternal love, my king, the owner of my heart, my greatest pride and
the projection of my life to the international scientific community. That means my son to me. I
love you, my son, may God bless and enlighten yours steps forever, that your father will always
watch for you to achieve success and happiness.
Ph.D. Genner Villarreal Castro

genner_vc@hotmail.com
Lima, November 2017
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INTRODUCTION
Peru is a highly seismic country and according to the world classification corresponds 9
degrees on the Modified Mercalli scale. About 31 millions peruvians live in seismic zones and
we are exposed to the constant threats of seismic occurrences. It should be noted that in
seismic investigations, we are still far from being able to solve seismic hazard, which increases
and we are exposed every day.
Current research
The constructions in seismic zones are increasing in our country. Consequently,
structural security has an important value in national development. The reduction of costs, with
the consequent safety of works in seismic zones, are the main problem of construction in our
country. The basic reason in the solution of this problem is the elaboration of seismic calculation
methodologies of buildings considering the occurrence of successive earthquakes in the same
area.
The non-linear physics is reflected in the internal forces and stress of the structure. In
general, this problem has not been investigated sufficiently and, therefore, it is a scope where
researchers can study more. The consideration of non-linear physics leads us to the precision
of the calculation scheme of the building.
The seismic calculation of buildings is complex, especially when it treats about the
damage accumulated by successive earthquakes, which changes the dynamic properties of the
structure.
For each construction there is a limit intensity of the earthquake, by which, the material
begins to work in an inelastic range and occur several stages of deformation until the structure
collapse, from a little non-linear to its collapse. That is a reason why some buildings collapse
due to the successive earthquakes, because the structural wear caused by the previous
earthquake.
Nowadays, the tendency is to model as close as possible to the real behavior, for this, the
soil-structure interaction, are considered the three-dimensional behavior, the non-linear physics,
geometric and constructive, which makes the analysis more complex.
The first earthquake is the most intense. Then, it comes successive earthquakes called
“aftershocks”. Experience indicates that the first two earthquakes are almost of the same
magnitude, but in the Seismic Design Regulations the successive earthquakes are not
considered, even worse the local damages generated by the first earthquake. For this reason,
the present investigation is current and transcendent for the modernization of the Seismic
Resistant Design Standards, considering the non-linear physics, the local damages by past
earthquakes and the methodology of calculation before successive earthquakes.
4
The advance of the dynamic methods of calculation of buildings in seismic zones, have
been studied by Ya.M. Aizenberg, A.A. Amosov, A.M. Belostotski, V.V. Bolotin, M.A. Dashevski,
G.A. Dzhinchvelashvili, B.G. Korenev, N.A. Nikolaenko, V.I. Zharnitski, K.S. Zavriev, V.B.
Zalishvili, I.L. Korchinski, A.M. Kurzanov, O.V. Mkrtychev, V.L. Mondrus, Yu.P. Nazarov, V.I.
Smirnov, A.E. Sargsian, A.G. Tiapin, E.I. Jachian, G.E. Shavlinski, Yu.T. Chernov, R. Klaf, J.
Penzien, G. Housner, A.K. Chopra, N. Newmark, G. Villarreal and others.
Objective and research problems

The objective of the present investigation is the influence of local damages on the
dynamic characteristics of reinforced concrete buildings in the face of several earthquakes.
Also, the elaboration of the calculation methodology for successive earthquakes, considering
local damages and the determination of the current state of the edification.
Based on the stated objective, the following problems were solved:
1. Analysis of dynamic methods of structural evaluation.
2. Influence of local damages of shear elements of reinforced concrete buildings in
their dynamic characteristics.
3. Elaboration of the calculation methodology of reinforced concrete buildings in the
face of successive earthquakes with local damages.
4. Determination of the current state of the construction of reinforced concrete after
severe earthquake.
Scientific contribution
The scientific contribution consists of the following statements:
1. The current state of non-linear physics in reinforced concrete buildings was
investigated.
2. The influence on reinforced concrete buildings of local damages on the free
vibration frequency for the linear state was studied.
3. A seismic calculation methodology for reinforced concrete buildings to successive
earthquakes was proposed based on the non-linear dynamic method.
4. The state of the reinforced concrete frame buildings or structural walls before
successive earthquakes was investigated considering the non-linear physics.
Argumentation and veracity of results

It is based on the application of the finite element method for the seismic calculation of
buildings, such the use of the LIRA and LS-DYNA software, which have international support in
big magnitude projects.
5
Practical value of the investigation
The practical value of the present investigation consists in the possibility of the direct
application of the methodology, elaborated for the seismic calculation of concrete frame
structures
or structural walls considering the non-linear physics.
In addition, due to the insufficient development of calculation methods in our country, this
research can serve as a practical manual for engineers and researchers in this topic.
Approval of the investigation

It was approved in the I Congreso Internacional de Ingeniería Civil (Manta-Ecuador,
2013); V Congreso Internacional de Ingeniería Civil (Tunja-Colombia, 2014); I Congreso
Internacional en Ingeniería Sísmica (San Salvador, 2016); I Ciclo de Conferencias en Ingeniería
Estructural (Ciudad de México, 2016); I Ciclo de Conferencias en Ingeniería Estructural y
Sismorresistente (Cochabamba-Bolivia, 2016) and I Ciclo de Conferencias en Ingeniería
Estructural (San Pedro Sula-Honduras, 2017).
6
CHAPTER 1
NON-LINEAR PHYSICS
1.1 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF THE MATERIAL

The elaboration of calculation methods for buildings in areas of high seismicity, in which
an optimal response of the structure is expected, can be given based on the scientific
analysis of the structural response, from the beginning of the earthquake to its limit state;
this is until the structure collapse if in case it would happen.
That meaning that for the structural calculation of buildings in seismic zones, we have to
consider reserves of their response capacity, plastic deformations, the origin of cracks and
the degradation of the resistance of materials overtime, it would ensure an optimal response
to severe earthquakes.
In this way, one of the central problems of earthquake-resistant engineering is the
development of methods for calculating buildings in seismic zones, considering inelastic
deformations, structural reinforcement, structural system variation and others.
Considering the above, modern calculation methods have to be carried out in the form of
spatial systems of non-linear deformation. The investigations carried out demonstrate the
complexity of this solution, due to the insufficient information of the seismic records, as well
as the response of the building. This difficulty has generated the development of
approximate simple methods for the calculation of buildings in seismic zones considering
the inelastic behavior of the material, having previously prepared several models (perfect
plasticity diagram, Prandtl diagram, bilinear diagram and others).
These types of calculation simplifications retain their complexity associated with the
problems of site spectra, soil-structure interaction and their solution without the use of
softwares is impossible.
1.1.1 NON-LINEAR VIBRATIONS OF BUILDINGS AS SYSTEMS WITH A DEGREE OF

FREEDOM
In 1943, A.A. Gvozdev was the first scientist to perform calculations of buildings
due to waves of explosions in very close areas, considering the plastic deformations.
The solution of this problem considering the dynamic loads was solved based on the
superposition of the external and internal energy, that is, through energy balance of
the destruction scheme. For this, Gvozdev used the simplified relation between stress
and deformation for the perfect plasticity diagram.
Subsequently, A.R. Rzhanitsin continued with the hypothesis of the perfect
plasticity diagram to solve dynamic problems of beams and slabs.
7
I.M. Rabinovich investigated systems with a degree of freedom consider impulse
loads for stresses above the proportionality limit. Stiffness of the system characterized
it through the Pradtl diagram for ideal elasto-plastic materials. For the solution of the
differential equations of the movement he used advanced mathematical methods. The
ideas of I.M. Rabinovich were continued by the investigations of S.S. Darbinian, R.K.
Kabulov and Yu.A. Koval.
In the research of V.V. Moskvitin the longitudinal vibrations of bars in the elasto-
plastic state were analyzed. In their investigations the elasto-plastic properties of the
material were formulated by the law of linear simplification. In addition, the author
obtained simple mathematical relations between stress and strain, which immediately
allow to integrate the differential equations of motion for various states of charge and
discharge.
The elasto-plastic behavior of systems with a degree of freedom considering the
forces of internal friction was investigated by I.I. Goldenblat and N.A. Nikolaenko. The
relation between force-displacement was presented through the Prandtl diagram and
simplified diagrams. As an external action for systems with a degree of freedom they
proposed the cases of sinusoidal damping, semi-sinusoidal impulses and loads that
varied by behavior of exponential damping. For systems with two degrees of freedom,
they only analyzed the case of instantaneous impulse.
The dynamic problems about the movement of elasto-plastic elements were
solved using the mathematical formulation of the theory of plasticity, investigated by
G.A. Geniev, V.A. Kotliarevski, Yu.N. Rabotni, Yu.V. Suvorova and others.
The investigations related to the seismic analysis of buildings considering the
plastic deformations were investigated by I.L.Korchinski, R. Tanabasi, D. Jauzner and
S. Jacobsen. In these investigations, they demonstrated that in the face of action of
loads, that it change along time when the material of the building works in the plastic
zone, the building can or cannot collapse, if the work of the external forces is less than
the work of the internal forces. Subsequently, these ideas were expanded by the
investigations of G. Berg, J. Blume, D. Penzien and others.
Several questions about the calculation of buildings before dynamic loads
considering the plastic deformations were investigated by Ya.M. Aizenberg, V.V.
Bolotin, I.I. Goldenblat, V.A. Bijovski, S.S. Darbinian, G.N. Kartsivadze, L.Sh. Kilimnik,
B.A. Kirikov, R. Klaf, J. Penzien, M.G. Korf, A.G. Nazarov, N.A. Nikolaenko, A.A.
Petrov, S.V. Polyakov, O.O. Andreyev, B.E. Denisov, B.A. Kirikov, G.I. Popov, N.N.
Popov, B.S. Rastorguev, A.R. Rzhanitsin, A.P. Sinitsin, N.N. Skladnev, I.S. Palian, R.
Tanabasi, A.S. Tian, S.T. Uzlov, D. Jauzner, E.E. Jachian, T.N. Chachava, J. Blume,
T. Kobori, P. Minai and others.
8
Between 1960-1980 abroad, the Ramberg-Osgood diagram (figure 1.1) was
commonly used, as well as the diagram with a transitional parabolic curve (figure 1.2).
Those diagrams were used by the scientists J. Borges, A. Ravar, G. Berg, R. Clough
and P. Jennings.
R 3
Ry X1 R 1
1
2
(X , R )
y y
(XX , RR )
2
y
2
y
Fig. 1.1 Ramberg-Osgood Diagram

( 1,R 1)
R 2
(0,R 0)
 4
3
K1 = tg
5
 K2 = tg

Fig. 1.2 Diagram with transitional parabolic curve

The analytical dependence between force and deformation by the Ramberg-
Osgood diagram is shown in formula 1.1
X  Xi R  R i  K 1

 1   R  R i  (1.1)
2X y 2R y  2R y 
 
Where:
X y , R y - characterize the limit of elastic work
, K - system parameters
X i , R i - coordinates of the initial point of the diagram in each load cycle

For the bilinear diagram with transitional parabolic curve, we can
distinguish five sections of bifurcation, which were determined by the following
relations:
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Section 1: R  K 1 (1.2)
Section 2:
R  R 0  K 2    0  (1.3)
Section 3: R  R 1  K1   1  (1.4)
R  R 1  K1 1   2   a   1 
2
Sections 4 y 5: (1.5)
Where:
1 , R 1 - coordinates of the initial point of the stretch
a - coefficient that is determined by the equations:
For the section 4:
K 2  K1 2
a (1.6)
4K 2 1   0   R 0  R 1 
For the section 5:
K 2  K1 2
a (1.7)
4K 2 1   0   R 0  R 1 
1.1.2 NON-LINEAR SYSTEMS WITH VARIOUS DEGREES OF FREEDOM

Non-linear systems with differents degrees of freedom, idealized by the Prandtl
diagram and simplified diagrams, were investigated by S.S. Darbinian, E.E. Jachian,
A.A. Borodin, D. Penzien, H. Ishizaki, N. Hatakeyama, T. Kobori, P. Minai, B. Curu, A.
Heiderbrecht, O. Buen and others.
In the research of E.E. Jachian results from analysis of elasto-plastics systems
with differents degrees of freedom by differents past accelerograms of severe
earthquakes. The author proposes to use accelerograms of the most severe
earthquakes in the study areas, due to the premise that the earthquakes will happen
again with similar characteristics.
E.E. Jachian analyzed reinforced concrete frame structures of 4 and more
stories, reaching the conclusion that the maximum displacements considering the
plastic properties of the material, are of the same order as those obtained for elastic
vibrations. The plastic deformations, manage to decrease the axial forces noticeably
and from the beginning they increase in the lower stories and then, in the upper
stories. The appearance of large displacements in certain stories, the author
concludes that it is due to the appearance of elasto-plastic resonance.
Based on differents calculations, E.E. Jachian proposes to perform the seismic
analysis considering the local damages of certain elements of the building, its plastic
deformations and other factors, which have to influence the seismicity and stability of
the building in the face of severe earthquakes.
10
The vibration of systems with several degrees of freedom and bilinear
deformation diagrams were analyzed by S.S. Darbinian. In general, the author gave
the solution for systems with two degrees of freedom before the action of
instantaneous impulses, not having considered the dissipation of the system. In the
work of K.S. Zavriev, A.G. Nazarov, Ya.M. Aizenberg, S.S. Darbinian and other
authors, they proposed a general algorithm for the solution of differential equations for
systems with several degrees of freedom. It was suggested that the opposing forces
are proportional to the speeds and displacements of the story.
A.A. Borodin studied the elasto-plastic vibrations of systems with different
degrees of freedom. The displacements of the foundation base were formulated as
simple sinusoidal equations. The author made several efforts to consider certain
characteristics for the practical calculation considering the energy reserves of the
system.
As a result of the investigation, it was concluded that the forms of deformation of
elasto-plastic systems are similar to the elastic systems. It was clarified that the
intensity of wear of the internal energy in the zones of inelastic deformation decreases,
proportionally, the increase of these zones.
D. Penzien analyzed a six stories reinforced concrete frame structure, with
different masses and heights of story, after assigned the masses in the center of mass
of each level, come to the conclusion that during the vibration their center of mass
moves parallel to the foundation base. For this analysis, he used the elasto-plastic
deformation diagram and as a real accelerogram the “El Centro” earthquake. The
vibration differential equations of the system were integrated by numerical methods.
Another of the conclusions, is that the plastic deformations generate the dissipation of
the vibration. If stiffness is decreased, expressed as the relation between the basal
shear and the weight of the building, it allows to dissipate the plastic deformations,
which decrease the energy and the displacements. This generally happens until an
optimum value equal to 0.1 for flexible buildings (T˃0.8s) or 0.2 for rigid buildings
(T˂0.8s).
B. Curu and A. Heiderbrecht investigated the parameters, which determine the
dynamic reactions of several stories reinforced concrete frame buildings in elasto-
plastic states. The stiffness ratios were chosen from the condition, that during loading,
the "force-displacement" curve has a horizontal stretch above the elastic limit of the
material. It was assumed that the plastic hinges can arise in any section when the
bending moment reaches the limit value of the moment in the plastic hinges.
11
It was concluded that the increase of the viscous damping coefficient does not
influence its parameters, the majority of energy dissipation arises in the plastic
deformation of columns and beams.
The calculation of frame steel buildings contributed in the elastic and plastic-
elastic states in the face of vertical loads and the seismic action, was investigated by
O. Buen. The author elaborated a method, oriented to the verification of the calculation
of the building considering extra moments to the permanent loads, which led him to the
later study of the structure until the conversion of the portal into an unstable kinematic
system.
D.K. Ukleba developed a methodology for calculating the plastic deformations of
buildings considering the soil-structure interaction in the face of the seismic action,
through the accelerometer of the “El Centro” earthquake, coming to the conclusion that
the plastic deformations of the building and the plastic properties of the soil are going
to influence the seismic scale.
In the Research Institute V.A. Kucherenko in Moscow, methods of calculation of
buildings in the face of the seismic action were elaborated, considering the seismic
reactions of the structural elements, that arise due to the movement of the base of
foundation, through the use of asynchronous accelerograms. It is assumed that the
structural elements have elasto-plastic properties, type bilinear diagram and was
considered the requirement of destruction, fulfilling the relation that the accumulation
of plastic deformations of the element are greater than the admissible deformation of
the same.
R.B. Dvalishvili investigated the spatial elasto-plastic deformations of buildings
in the face of seismic action through the use of accelerograms. In which, the
calculation scheme is presented and supported and its mathematical model is
elaborated considering the non-linear physics of the spatial system. Force-
displacement dependence was considered by the Prandtl diagram.
The plastic properties of the structure were considered punctual in the joints
connections of the elements. In addition, it was indicated that when the plastic state is
reached, the element achieves their initial stiffness. In this way, it is concluded that the
diagram in time of the rotations in the joints are analogous to the diagrams of their
displacements.
N.A. Nikolaenko and Yu.P. Nazarov elaborated a model of calculation
considering the spatial work of the structure in the face of the seismic action, based on
the methods of rigid body dynamics, which describes all the stages of the response of
the structure in the face of severe earthquakes, from linear behavior to collapse of the
structure, that is, the variation of the kinematic scheme of the building.
12
The deformation diagram of the connections that join rigid bodies resembles a
polynomial. For the diagram of the construction material, his behavior approached a
linear diagram in stages.
1.2 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF BUILDINGS

BEFORE DYNAMIC LOADS
In spite of the investigations carried out, the problem of structural calculation in the
inelastic range before dynamic loads can not be considered solved. The calculation models
described above have a general character, by which the dynamic characteristics do not
change overtime, this means that stiffness, the free vibration periods, the dissipation
properties and other characteristics are the same in the different cycles of loading.
Experimental tests carried out in Russia and other countries have shown that the
dynamic characteristics of buildings change as a result of inelastic deformations as a
consequence of cracking and internal connections.
The first to observe the variation of the periods of free vibration as a result of the
damage, were the japanese researchers F. Omori and R. Sano. They showed that, as a
result of the Tokyo earthquake (1923), buildings with considerable damage increased the
periods of vibration compared to those obtained before the earthquake.
Subsequently, the dependence of dynamic characteristics with stiffness was
investigated, with different scientists coming to analogous conclusions.
S.V. Poliakov was one of the first to investigate stiffness and deformation of buildings in
the face of high intensity horizontal loads, which generate considerable damage to the
structure.
K.S. Zavriev investigated plasticity and damage to reinforced concrete elements and
prestressed before the action of dynamic loads and their influence on the ratio of steel,
coming to the conclusion that the plastic character of the damage to the reinforced concrete
element, it depends on the assembly of the steel in the cross section
N.N. Popov and B.S. Rastorguev, investigated the inelastic behavior of reinforced and
prestressed concrete structures, under flection loads by the method of the limit states with
the help of cracking angles and limit deflections, proposing, for this case, the optimal steel
assembly.
I.L. Korchinski carried out a large number of experimental tests to study the additional
capacity of the material in simple structures before cyclic loads, coming to the conclusion
that for seismic loads, the loading speed directly influences stiffness.
G.A. Shapiro obtained results of the inelastic work of buildings before inertial loads of big
intensity, concluding that the dynamic vibrations tests allow to determine the equivalent
loads, which in some cases are greater than those obtained by the standards.
13
T. Hisada, K. Nakagawa and M. Hijara, conducted tests of reinforced concrete buildings
and determined that free vibration frequencies are reduced from 2 to 3 times for rigid
buildings and some flexible ones.
J. Akoyama, T. Endo and T. Minami investigated one story frame structure before
variable horizontal loads, analyzing the limit loads, the plasticity, the form of the damage and
the reduction of stiffness in the elasto-plastic state, obtaining a relation between the bending
moment and the slope for each critical section.
D. Blumen, A. Ravara, D. Borges, L. Esteba and M. Pristli, investigated Alaska (1964),
Lima (1966) and Caracas (1967) earthquakes, concluding that considerable damage occurs
with the reduction of structural stiffness, which increases the period of free vibration by 2 to
3 times.
S.V. Polyakov, Ya.M. Aizenberg, G.A. Shapiro, N.N. Popov, V.S. Rastorguev and M.A.
Mardzhanishvili, through experimental tests recommended to consider the flexibility of the
roof, the detailed connections, the response of the buildings and the soil-structure
interaction, to obtain the main dynamic characteristics of the structure.
According to the results of the latest research, it has been concluded that damage to the
structure not only increases the period of free vibration, but the properties of energy
dissipation.
Udvadia and M. Trifunok investigated experimentally the free and forced vibrations of a
steel frame structure to collapse, obtaining the reduction of frequencies by the loss of
connections and the increase in 2.5 times the logarithmic decrease of vibrations, due to
plastic deformations. They came to the conclusion that was due to the reduction of stiffness
of the elements by the height with the consequent increase in damage.
A. Ravara conducted experimental research on the vibrating table of multifamily housing
building in the face of dynamic loads, determining the frequency of free vibration in each
state of damage to the elements. In the elastic state a linear dependence was obtained
between the load "R" and the horizontal displacement "y". After the appearance of the
cracks, the R-y dependence becomes non-linear with a notable increase in the area of the
hysteretic curve.
G.A. Avanesov investigated the elasto-plastic response of reinforced concrete frame
buildings, determining the parameters of the limit state in the face of the seismic action,
through the diagram and law of deformation of framed structures. The deformation and
appearance of hinges was studied. To determine the variation of the dynamic characteristics
in the deformation process, tests were performed against high intensity loads, which brought
to the structure until collapse. The vibration period was increased by 3 times. The
logarithmic decrement of vibration and the coefficient of absorption of energy in the first load
cycles increased rapidly, then, its increase was reduced and when the system changed to
14
elasto-plastic state, it again increased rapidly. Finally, he concluded that for buildings
subject to severe earthquakes, it is necessary to consider non-linear and non-stationary
physics parameters in the calculation schemes.
1.3 BUILDINGS WITH VARIABLE PARAMETERS UNDER SEISMIC LOADS

The elaboration of research methodologies of the dynamic behavior of buildings in the
inelastic range with assembled or unassembled internal connections, becomes an important
topic in the structural calculation. The collapse of certain elements or connections brings to
the reduction of stiffness of the structure and consequently, the dynamic characteristics of
the building change. The experimental investigations of buildings under seismic loads
confirm the variation of the frequency of free vibration of the structure. In this way, the
behavior is non-stationary and its mathematical description is very complex, therefore,
specialized software are currently used.
N.A. Nikolaenko and A.P. Sinitsin were the first to investigate the linear oscillator with
quasi-static coefficients variable suddenly before harmonic loads. S.V. Poliakov and A.G.
Nazarov continued this research, who investigated systems with a degree of freedom under
seismic loads considering the sudden variation of stiffness, for this, they proposed the
variation of speed at the moment of abrupt change and the instantaneous reduction of
potential energy, which was transformed into kinetic energy of the movement of the system.
Ya.M. Aizenberg and S.V. Ulianov investigated non-stationary linear and non-linear
systems, analyzing non-stationary models with probabilistic and variable parameters,
obtaining a number of abrupt variations in the "load-displacement" diagram, which can be
finite or infinite.
Ya.M. Aizenberg and L.Sh. Kilimnik described the non-stationary mathematical model of
the non-linear characteristics of the "load-displacement" diagram, through the exponential
relation in the "i" cycle of the movement.
  n 
 k x
k
 
R i ( x )  R p 1  exp   k 1  (1.8)
  xp 
  
  
Where:
R p - maximum load
x p - limit displacement where the stiffness variation of the system does not occur
 k - numerical coefficient, which allows to approach the experimental dependencies

A.L. Bagmanian investigated the case of collapse of buildings and plastic deformation of
the material, coming to the conclusion that the consideration of elasto-plastic deformations
15
in systems with unassembled connections bring to the reduction of seismic loads by 1.5 to 2
times, depending on the spectrum that characterizes the internal reserve of additional
capacity of the structure during an earthquake.
R. Klaf and S. Jhonson investigated the variation of the stiffness of frame structure by
the Prandtl diagram, relating the reduction of stiffness with the increase in damage,
obtaining the hysteretic bilinear loop of systems with degraded stiffness and they concluded
that the change in stiffness occurs in the case that the previous maximum displacement is
exceeded.

 y 
K  K0   (1.9)
  máx 
Where:
K - new stiffness of the system
K 0 - previous stiffness
 y - limit elastic displacement
 máx - maximum displacement exceeding the limit elastic displacement

 - parameter assumed between 0.5 and 0.6
T. Hisada and K. Nakagawa many years experimentally investigated the main
characteristic of systems with bilinear dependence and degraded stiffness, coming to the
conclusion that the reduction of stiffness by plastic deformation, generates a reduction of
dissipated energy, obtaining formulas of calculation and an effective methodology for
assessment structural safety in buildings in seismic zones.
1.4 CONSIDERATION OF SUCCESSIVE SEISMS IN THE STRUCTURAL

CALCULATION
For each building there is a seismic force, which if it exceeds this value, the construction
material reach the inelastic range. For the following overloads, the structural elements work
in a non-linear way and until collapse go through different stages of deformation. In
consequence, the damage to the building, due to aftershocks, is the result of cumulative
damage to the structural elements due to the successive seisms of less intensity. Therefore,
for the structural calculation, the return period plays an important role. If the zone has
repetitive earthquakes in a short period, damage to less intensity earthquakes than that
corresponding to the seismic zone may appear.
Let is analyze some cases that have occurred in the world, for example, in 1940 in
Carpathians occurred a severe earthquake and in that same year there were two severe
earthquakes, whose epicenters were located in the same area. The first two earthquakes
16
did not generate collapses, but they weakened the structure and accelerated the collapse
before the severe earthquake.
In 1952, an earthquake occurred in California with less severe aftershocks, which
caused major damage or collapse due to the previous damages generated by the severe
earthquake.
In 1959, two earthquakes occurred in the Kamchatka, the first was on May 4 th of intensity
VII and the second on June 19 th of intensity IX. After the second earthquake some villages
were completely destroyed. The reason was the destructive effects occurred due to the
partial damage of the first earthquake on May 4 th.
In 1966, in Tashkent a severe earthquake occurred and then many aftershocks,
generating damage in the structures and some buildings collapsed due to the aftershocks.
In 1967, in the same area another earthquake happened again, which caused new faults
and collapsed walls, something that had not happened with the previous earthquake.
In 1976, two intense earthquakes occurred in the town of Gazli, the first on April 8 th and
the second on May 17 th. In the first earthquake 220 of the 240 existing buildings were
damaged and as a result of the second earthquake, which was the most intense, these
buildings collapsed completely.
Of all these earthquakes, we can conclude that the collapse of certain elements and the
damages generated, happen as a result of accumulated or successive damages due to
repetitive earthquakes in the same area.
Gathering this information, we noticed a necessity to consider in the calculation the
behavior of the material and structural elements before successive earthquakes, as well as
the probability of occurrence of earthquakes during the entire time of its useful life,
determining the seismic hazard in the project area. The seismic hazard is determined by the
expected earthquakes in the project area and the probability of occurrence in a given return
period.
It is recommended that in seismic zoning maps, apart from the Z seismic zone factor, it
is important to indicate the return period, because it is necessary for determine the
recurrence of destructive earthquakes in a determinate period of time and to invest in
protection systems.
Nowadays, it is important to consider in the structural calculation, the inelastic range in
the face of severe and repetitive earthquakes, with the intention of determining the reserve
of additional capacity of the structure. For this, it is necessary to elaborate a theory,
methodology and calculation algorithm.
17
1.5 NON-LINEAR MODELS
Experimental investigations have shown us that the load-displacement dependence has
a non-linear character. The non-linear work of the structure influences the reaction
parameters of the structure before severe earthquakes. To describe the non-linear
dependence, are used the Prandtl diagram, bilinear and trilinear diagram and the Ramberg-
Osgood diagram.
For construction materials, non-linear work is characterized by the fact that the loading
and unloading goes through different trajectories, also, in the face of earthquakes, there is a
change in stiffness and energy dissipation. That is a reason, to describe the characteristics
of the load-displacement diagram, is used the following relations:
1  u 2
R (u )  o2 u (1.10)
1  u 2
Where:
 o - Frequency of free vibration of the linear system
,  - non-linear parameters of experimental tests
The differential equation for non-linear elastic systems, when the loading and unloading
have the same law, will be:
 2  2 1  u
2
u   Ku  o u  u o ( t ) (1.11)
T 1  u 2
Where:
u o ( t ) - soil acceleration due to the real accelerogram of the earthquake
The integration of equation 1.11 is done by the Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg method with
automatic step selection.
The differential equation for non-linear systems, that is, when loading and unloading
have different trajectories, is:
 2  2

u   Ku  o 1  C  

u  u  1  u  u  2
  



 1   
T 
 1   u u  2
C  u
u


u o (1.12)
Where:
 - parameter that shows the start of the loading or unloading section
In Equation 1.12, the values of u  and C  are determined as follow:
u   u  1  u 1  u 2
 
 1  u  1  u 2 
2
 Where   2,4,6,....
1  u  1  u   2  2
C   0 when   0,2,4,...
C   1 when   1,3,5,...
18
From the engineering point of view, it is necessary to know the expected damages
before a severe earthquake and from that, to make a more real and safe design. Another
important factor to consider, is to analyze the behavior of a structure before a series of
different intensity earthquakes, which can generate levels of damage, this means, the
structure reach the limit state before repetitive earthquakes in a certain area.
T. Amankulov in his doctoral dissertation concluded that if we consider the inelastic
behavior of the material, the seismic force is reduced compared to the elastic system.
1.6 APPLICATION OF LIRA SOFTWARE IN THE ANALYSIS NON-LINEAR BY TIME-

STEPPING METHOD
The non-linear processor of the LIRA software is programmed to solve non-linear
physics and geometrical problems, as well as contact problems.
In the linear problems there is a direct proportionality between the loads and
displacements, as a consequence of the little deformation; as well as between stresses and
deformations, in accordance with Hooke's Law. In addition, for the linear problems, the
principle of superposition and independence of the load action can be applied.
In non-linear physics problems, there is no a linear dependence between stresses and
deformations. The structural material works by means of a law of non-linear deformation.
The deformation law can be symmetric or asymmetric with different limits of tensile and
compressive strength.
In non-linear geometric problems, there is no linear dependence between deformation
and displacements. In practice, it has an application in the case of structures with large
displacements and few deformations.
In non-linear constructive, is important to analyze the case of the change of the
calculation scheme, as the structure is deformed. This means that you can simulate the
process of structural assembly or construction in stages, which is closer to reality.
To solve such types of problems, the non-linear processor of the LIRA program
organizes its process by Time-Stepping Method, which guarantees the solution of a
linearized system of equations in each step, for the corresponding variation of the load
vector, programmed for a specific load state.
To solve the problems of non-linear constructive, the LIRA software uses the Iterative
Time-Stepping Method.
The non-linear processor allows to obtain the stress-strain state for mono-material or bi-
material structures, as is the specific case of reinforced concrete.
To solve non-linear problems, it will be necessary to indicate the number of steps and
load coefficients. The scheme can contain several load states, which can be given in the
form of a history indicating the sequence of action of the same.
19
The non-linear physics modeling of the materials is done with help of finite non-linear
physics elements, entering the information of an advanced library of deformation laws of the
materials (dependence    ). The large library of laws of deformation, practically allows to
consider any non-linear physics property of the material. This library is open and can be
entered other required non-linear properties.
The Step Processor allows us to obtain the effort-deformation state, considering the non-
linear effects, both for the mono-material structures, as for the bi-material structures. For
the latter type of structures, is allowed the entry of the characteristics of the second type of
material (structural steel), offering an extensive library of properties.
Likewise, the non-linear physics finite element library contains elements that allow us to
model on one side, the work of the rigid body and the external environment - ground in
compression with displacement by the flat deformation scheme in accordance with the
Coulomb's Law.
20
The non-linear physics linearized stiffness matrix of the system is formed based on the
integrals of variable stiffness, calculated at the points of integration of the finite element,
during the elastic calculation in the specific step. The scheme of the numerical integration in
the region of the finite element and the choice of stiffness used are determined by the type
of finite element. In order to obtain the corresponding choice of stiffness integrals, the finite
element section at the integration points is divided into a series of elementary sub-sectors.
In the centers of these subsectors, the new physico-mechanical values of the
characteristics of the material are determined, in accordance with the deformation diagram
given. In each step the linearized problem is solved forming the vectors of displacement,
internal forces and new integral of stiffness by the tangential module for the next step. The
number of steps and load coefficients is given by the user. The geometric interpretation of
the Time-Stepping Method for the case of central tensile (compression) is shown in figure
1.3
Módulo tangencial del paso “i”

i
i
Fig. 1.3 Geometric interpretation of the Time-Stepping Method
The step processor allows to combine linear and non-linear elements of the structural
system. In addition, it allows to calculate by superelement schemes, as long as the non-
linear elements exist only in the main scheme.
In each step the stress-strain state is analyzed. In the point of the results of calculation
"State of the materials" the information is given about the advance or obtaining of the limits
states, appearance of the hinges or state of destruction.
For the finite element of bars, is analyzed the stress-deformation state of the cross
sections of the bar at the points of its division is analyzed. The stress-strain state in the flat
and volumetric finite elements, is analyzed the central point of the element.
The library of non-linear physics finite elements allows the analysis of structures,
consisting of different finite elements, considering the non-linear physics of the material.
21
PROBLEM 1.1 For the frame structure shown in figure 1.4, whose cross sections are those
shown in figure 1.5 a) for columns, and figure 1.5 b) for beams; subject to the load states of
figure 1.6. Consider E c  3.10 6 T / m 2 for the entire structure and the distances for the 2nd
load state of 0.5m until the start of the trapezoidal load and 3.5m until the end of the action
of the same. Perform the calculation of non-linear physics, due to:
- Show the procedure of inclusion of the parameters, which characterize the non-linear
behavior of the reinforced concrete in the charging loading.
- Demonstrate the step process technique of solving the problem.
a)
Z
60
4m
40
b)
20
6m
40
X
4m 3m 10 20 10
Fig. 1.4 Scheme of the flat framed structure Fig. 1.5 Cross sections in cm
22
1er Estado de carga 2do Estado de carga
Z g3=3T/m Z
g =1,5T/m
2
g =4,67T/m
4
g1=2T/m g5=2T/m
X X
3er Estado de carga

Z
P2 =1,5T P4 =1,125T
P1 =1T P3 =0,75T
Fig. 1.6 Load states: 1st state of charge (dead load), 2 nd state of charge (live load), 3 rd
state of charge (wind load)
SOLUTION:
We model the structure by the different load states and record the problem with the name
NL Physics.
CALCULATION PARAMETERS FOR NON-LINEAR PHYSICS
We click on and analyze the case of the columns, clicking on the type of section and
then on , to change its characteristics through NONLINEAR PARAMETERS (figure
1.7) and then on MATERIAL PARAMETERS (figure 1.8), entering the properties non-linear
of the main material, in this case the concrete, as is the case of the law of non-linear
deformation, class and type of concrete, drawing it through DRAW.
23
Fig. 1.7 Input of non-linear parameters
Now, we must enter the information of the non-linear physics characteristics of the steel, by
clicking on REINFORCEMENT and entering the law of non-linear deformation and then the
characteristics of the material, such as its modulus of elasticity and stress in tensile and
compression (figure 1.9), clicking on OK and returning to the previous window (figure 1.7)
24
Fig. 1.8 Characteristics of concrete
Fig. 1.9 Characteristics of steel
25
Subsequently, we enter the parameters of the steel, by clicking on ,
appearing the window of the "non-linear physics characteristics of the bars" (figure 1.10),
choosing the reinforcement by points (POINT REINFORCEMENT) and as a type of division
of the cross section (TYPE OF CROSS-SECTION DIVISION) and entering the following
characteristics (areas of cross section and coordinates y, z):
Steel Nº 1: Fa = 2,22cm2; y = 17cm; z = 3cm
2
Steel Nº 2: Fa = 2,22cm ; y = 17cm; z = 57cm
2
Steel Nº 3: Fa = 2,01cm ; y = -17cm; z = 3cm
Steel Nº 4: Fa = 2,01cm2; y = -17cm; z = 57cm
2
In each case, you can draw with DRAW and go to the next bar, remaining as shown in
Figure 1.10, then click OK and again OK.
Fig. 1.10 Characteristics of each steel bar in columns
In an analogous way, we proceed to analyze the beams, doing the same for concrete and
steel (Figures 1.8 and 1.9). For the case of reinforcement steel bars we enter the following
information:
26
Steel Nº 1: Fa = 1,36cm2; y = -7cm; z = 3cm
2
Steel Nº 2: Fa = 1,36cm ; y = 7cm; z = 3cm
2
Fig. 1.11 Characteristics of each steel bar in beams
Now, we select all the elements of the framed structure through the icon , analogous to
the previous problems and change the type of finite elements by clicking on and select
the finite element "FE TYPE 210 - NONLINEAR PHYSICS ARBITRARY 3D BAR",
accepting it with .
NON-LINEAR LOAD MODELING
To perform the modeling of the 1st load status, click on LOADS → MODEL NONLINEAR
LOADINGS, entering the following information:
Number of the state of charge – 1
Calculation method - Simple step (STEP) 1
Obtaining of results - Displacement and forces after each step
Number of steps – 7
27
Characteristics of loads by Time-Stepping Method – 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1
Finally, we accept and go to the next state of charges.
For the 2nd state of charges we enter the following information:
Number of the state of charge – 2
Consideration of the previous history (ACCOUNT OF PREVIOUS LOADINGS)
Calculation method - Simple step (STEP) 1
Obtaining of results - Displacement and forces after each step
Number of steps – 10
Characteristics of charges by Time-Stepping Method – 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1
0,1 0,1
Once again we accept and go to the 3rd state of charges, for which we enter the same
information as for the 2nd state of charges.
All the information is shown in figure 1.12, thus leaving the problem ready to run through
the program.
Fig. 1.12 Non-linear modeling of charges
Now, we analyze the results, which are shown in figures 1.13 to 1.15, with their values
being a bit high, because the 3 combined load states act, and both the concrete and the
steel work until the breaking process.
28
Fig. 1.13 Axial or normal force N for the 1 st load state by non-linear physics analysis
29
Fig. 1.14 Shear force V for the 1 st load state by the non-linear physics analysis
30
Fig. 1.15 Bending moment M for the 1 st charge state by the non-linear physics analysis
Now, we analyze the sequence of faults in the structure, due to the sequence of charges.
As you can see in Figure 1.16, the structure subjected to the 1 st state of charge,
corresponding to the 5th step, where there is flection, but there are no structural failures.
Figure 1.17 shows the 7 th step, corresponding to the 2 nd state of loads, where one can see
the faults in one of the beams of the 1st story, but it still does not reach collapse.
Figure 1.18 corresponds to the 9th step of the 3rd load state, where it can noted that the
beam that failed in figure 1.17 already collapsed and the central column and the other
beams began to fail.
31
Fig. 1.16 5th step of the 1st state of charges
Fig. 1.17 7th step of 2nd charge status
32
Fig. 1.18 9th step of the 3rd state of charge
If you want to analyze the state of the material in percent of destruction by steps, you must
close the problem and click on , selecting the state of the material, previously choosing
the type of analysis, which in this case is STEP-TYPE, the name of the file and , then
select the type of file required for the state of the material, which has the extension (* _13.*)
and the destruction percentages will appear automatically in each step and in each element
that is failing.
33
CHAPTER 2
CALCULATION OF BUILDINGS BEFORE SUCCESSIVE SEISMS
CONSIDERING LOCAL DAMAGES
2.1 DYNAMIC METHODS OF STRUCTURAL EVALUATION

Experimental dynamic research in Russia began in the mid-twentieth century at the
Research Institute V.A. Kucherenko. The determination of the dynamic characteristics and
stiffness of buildings during an earthquake were investigated by A.A. Amosov, I.L.
Korchinski, G.A. Shapiro, M.A. Dashevski, G.E. Shavlinski and A.E. Sargsian.
Part of the results of these investigations were presented at the World Seismic
Engineering Congresses. The main topic of these investigations is the determination of the
dynamic parameters and their comparison with the results of calculation using last
generation softwares. Definitely, the vertiginous development of the structural calculation
softwares has allowed to approach the calculation schemes with the real construction. In
parallel, progress has been developed the experimental technique for the reduction of work,
by changing the methodology of magnoelectric light rays of the oscillograph and
magnetograph by personal computers with softwares of process registration, execution and
analysis of experimental results.
Last 25 years ago, the development of electronic and computational technology has
allowed big changes in the recording of different types of vibration. The speedometers and
accelerographs have high sensitivity, allowing greater precision in measurements. These
devices can be analog and numeric. For the measurement of vibration parameters, it is
based on displacement and acceleration measurements. Accelerometers of different types
and dimensions with different frequency ranges are used to measure acceleration.
Last 20 years ago, in different Russian Research Institutes have been intensively
investigated the dynamic methods of building behavior in the face of successive seisms.
The main reason for these methods is the determination of the dynamic characteristics,
assessing their conservation status, determining the constructive defects, degree of
vulnerability to recurring seisms. The methods are differentiated by the way of approaching
the problem, by the types of measurement instruments, the softwares for obtaining the
results of the experiments and the foundation of the conclusions based on the results
obtained.
A.F. Emanov theoretically based the coherent waves in the determination of the dynamic
characteristics for different types of buildings, having three patents that certify the reliability
of the method.
34
In this direction the assessment of the state of the constructions by theirs dynamic
characteristics is applied the method elaborated by the Center of Investigation of Extreme
Situations of Moscow, which elaborates, controls, regulates and makes the diagnosis of the
technical state of the buildings. In this Research Center have been developed and
modernized the packages such as "Cuerda" and "Flecha", which have a wide application,
made up of state-of-the-art devices and technology, for the determination of the main
dynamic characteristics and their corresponding stiffness and stability analysis.
The structural diagnostic package called "Cuerda" was developed by researchers from
the Moscow Extreme Situations Research Center, S.P. Sushev, V.I. Larionov, V.N. Sotin
and N.N. Jlapov, for the determination of damage before an earthquake. This package is
formed by three devices, in which there are three thin flat bars, which respond to the
direction of the vibration of the device and consequently of the building. The weight of the
package "Cuerda" is 0,150kg and measures the frequencies in a range of 0,1 – 150Hz. On
the package "Cuerda" is mounted a radio transmitter that directs the signals to a base
station, which can be located up to a distance of 1km. The signals in the base are
processed with help of a transformer and transmitted to the portable computer, which has a
special software for the analysis of results and determination of stability, seismicity and
physical damage of the building. The devices measure the environmental vibration and
frequency of free vibration of the building, which can be visualized in the computer. If the
building moves as a block, this indicates its structural stability during an earthquake. If parts
of the building move in different ways, this indicates that there is damage to the building.
After this, with help of basic instrumental methods we can determine the vulnerability of the
building.
The "Flecha" package is designed for the determination of the technical state of the
building, determination of the danger of collapse and the possibility of evacuation of people
in areas of risk before imminent collapse.
In this way, in recent years a series of investigations have appeared related to the
determination of the dynamic characteristics of buildings in the event of an earthquake and
the assessment of their structural safety as a time limit of service.
Under the direction of D.Sc., Prof. G.E. Shavlinski was developed a calculation
methodology for in-situ dynamic measurements, through the following devices:
 Modernization of a single-component speedometer called SM-3, often in the range of
0,5 – 100Hz. The principle of the action of the device is based on electromagnetic
induction.
 Guralp brand has a three-component analog speedometer called SMG-6TD, often in
the 0,033 – 100Hz range. The principle of the action of the device is the location of
three sensors that measure the vibration in the three orthogonal directions.
35
 Eentec brand has a three-component seismometer called SP400, often in the range
0,067 – 100Hz. The principle of the work of the electromolecular seismic signals is
based on the external mechanical signal that generates the work of the fluid, which in
turn is converted into an electrical impulse with the help of the electrode system.
For the validation of these devices several measurements were made in an 18-stories
building of the National University of Civil Engineering of Moscow, a Russian aviation
building, as well as in the atomic power stations of Rostov and Balakovsk, whose results by
the three devices were very similar, being the most practical, functional and reliable
seismometer SP400 (figure 2.1).
Fig. 2.1 Seismometer SP400 by Eentec brand
2.2 INFLUENCE OF LOCAL DAMAGES ON THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS
As a first calculation model, we analyzed a five floors reinforced concrete frame building
with dimensions in plan of 30m x 18m, with span of 6m in both directions. The height of the
building is 16,5m, with the typical story height of 3,3m. The columns are 0,4m x 0,4m, the
beams are 0,35m x 0,45m and 0,18m the solid slab. The scheme of the building modeled in
the LIRA software is shown in figure 2.2
36
Fig. 2.2 Frame building modeled with the LIRA software
The building was calculated without damage and then, considering the different variants
of local damage of the first floor columns. The local damage scenarios are shown in figure
2.3
Fig. 2.3 Variants of local damage
Table 2.1 shows the results of the first three frequencies of free vibration without
considering and considering the local damages, as well as its percentage variation.
37
Table 2.1
Mode 1 2 3
Initial scheme 0,920Hz 0,938Hz 1,028Hz
Corner column destruction 0,906Hz 0,930Hz 1,018Hz
Percentage variation (%) 1,52% 0,85% 0,97%
Destruction of eccentric column 0,911Hz 0,932Hz 1,024Hz
Central column destruction 0,914Hz 0,932Hz 1,027Hz
Stiffness reduction of 1/3 of corner 0,920Hz 0,938Hz 1,028Hz
column at height 1.1m from base
30% stiffness reduction of corner column 0,919Hz 0,937Hz 1,026Hz
From the results obtained, we can indicate that the most critical case is when the corner
column collapses.
To verify the calculation, the same building was modeled with the LS-DYNA software, as
shown in figure 2.4, with a special interest in the comparative analysis, shown in table 2.2,
whose results give reliability to the calculation.
Fig. 2.4 Frame building modeled with the LS-DYNA software
38
Table 2.2
Frequency of free vibration (Hz) Percentage
Mode LS-DYNA LIRA variation (%)
1 0,928 0,920 0,86%
2 0,946 0,938 0,85%
3 1,035 1,028 0,68%
As a second calculation model, we analyzed a five stories building with structural walls of
0,20m in both directions, with dimensions of 30m x 18m, beams are 0,35m x 0,45m, and
0,18m story slab. The scheme of the building modeled with the LIRA software is shown in
figure 2.5
Fig. 2.5 Building with shear walls modeled with the LIRA software
The building was calculated without damage and then, considering the different variants
of local damage to the walls of the first story. The local damage situations are shown on the
next page in figure 2.6.
Table 2.3 shows the results of the first three frequencies of free vibration without
considering and considering the local damages, as well as their percentage variation.
Table 2.3
Mode 1 2 3
Initial scheme 3,209Hz 3,627Hz 4,222Hz
Destruction of the wall in the axis 6A-B 3,200Hz 3,476Hz 4,222Hz
39
Destruction of the wall in the axis 4A-B 3,047Hz 3,245Hz 3,511Hz
Destruction of 0,6m (1/5 of 3m) of the 3,209Hz 3,580Hz 4,222Hz
wall on the 6A-B axis for the entire height
Destruction of 2,4m (2/5 of 6m) of the 3,205Hz 3,545Hz 4,222Hz
wall on the 4A-B axis for the entire height
Reduction of wall stiffness 6A-B by 30% 3,207Hz 3,606Hz 4,222Hz
Reduction of wall stiffness 4A-B by 30% 3,208Hz 3,605Hz 4,222Hz
From the results obtained, we can indicate that the most critical case is when the wall
collapses on axis 4A-B.
Fig. 2.6 Variants of local damage
To verify the calculation realized, the same building was modeled with the LS-DYNA
software, as shown in figure 2.7, with special interest in the comparative analysis, shown in
table 2.4, whose results give reliability to the calculation.
40
Fig. 2.7 Building with shear walls modeled with the LS-DYNA software
Table 2.4
Frequency of free vibration (Hz) Percentage
Mode LS-DYNA LIRA variation (%)
1 3,182 3,209 0,84%
2 3,572 3,627 1,52%
3 4,244 4,222 0,52%
2.3 NON-LINEAR DYNAMIC METHOD FOR BUILDINGS BEFORE SUCCESSIVE

SEISMS
Synthetic accelerograms can be applied to the calculation of buildings in seismic zones,
which can be obtained by applying the theory of casual processes. A.A. Reshetov
investigated about the methodology of the eventual seismic action application of various
methods, such as the modified method of canonical decomposition.
The classic method of canonical decomposition for the modeling of events processes
with the properties of the correlation to be expressed through the series indicated in formula
2.1

y( t )   u k  k ( t ) (2.1)
k 1
Where:
u k - casual value or decomposition coefficient
41
 k - deterministic function
For this, the coefficient u k must be uncorrelated, in other words, the correlation
coefficient must be zero.
M(u k u L )  0 , cuando k  L (2.2)
Then, you will have:
M(u k )  0 (2.3)
M( y(t ))  0
If instead of using system of functions, the system of functions of the integral 2.4 is
taken, is guaranteed the correlation of the coefficients u k
TM
K
0
y ( t 1 , t 2 ) k ( t 2 )dt 2   k  k ( t 1 ) (2.4)
Where:
K y ( t 1 , t 2 ) - determined correlation function
TM - modeling interval of the eventual process

 k - values of equation 2.4
 k ( t ) - functions of equation 2.4
The canonical decomposition for stationary processes can be expressed in the Fourier
series 2.5
 
2 2 
y( t )    u k cos kt   k sen kt  (2.5)
k 0  T T 
Where:
0  t  TM , T  TM
T - period of the eventual process
u k ,  k - non-correlated event coefficients

M(u k )  M( k )  0 , M(u k  k )  0 , M(u k u L )  0 , M( k  L )  0 when k  L
The period T must be much longer than the correlation interval of the eventual process
 k , in other words, T  k


1 S y (0)
T 0
 
2
o K y ( ) d  (2.6)
2T
 2 
S y  k
2

 2   T 
T 0
k 
2
K y () cos d 
 (2.7)
 
T 2T
42
Where:
k  1,2,3,...
S y () - spectral density of process modeling y( t )
In the canonical decomposition method of the eventual process it is determined in a
discontinuous time interval. In some cases it is enough to determine the time process. To
determine an effective algorithm of stationary process mode for computer calculation, the
modified method of canonical decomposition is applied, which is based on the change of the
discontinuous series to a complex discrete series and the use of fast transformation
algorithm of Fourier.
We express the series 2.5 in the following way:
  2 
y( t )  c k exp  i kt  (2.8)
k     
T
Where:
c k - Fourier complex coefficient, expressed through the coefficients u k ,  k in the following
way:
1 1
ck  u k  ki (2.9)
2 2
The function of the eventual correlation process 2.8 will be:
  2 
K y (t)   ~ 2
k exp  i kt  (2.10)
k    T 
Where:

~ 2 - dispersion of the eventual magnitude expressing the Fourier coefficient of the series
k
2.10
Considering T  k it will be:
2

 2 
T 0
k 
~ 2
K ( t ) exp  i 
y  T kt  (2.11)
  
The transformation of equation 2.8 to a discrete Fourier function is expressed in
equation 2.12
N 1
 2 
y(n )   c(k ) exp  i kn  (2.12)
k 0  N 
Where:
N - number of time values
In this way, the eventual correlation function will be:
43
~ 2 exp  i 2 kn 
N 1
K y (n )    k (2.13)
k 0  N 
The spectral density of the process and the dispersion will be:
N 1
 2 
S y (k )   K y (n ) exp   i kn  (2.14)
n 0  N 
S y (k )
 2k  2 (2.15)
N
When the coefficients are generate u k ,  k as non-correlated eventual values of Gauss
with dispersion  2k , the function is constructed c(k ) by the formula 2.9 and through a fast
and inverse Fourier transformation is generated the eventual stationary process y(n ) .
In the modified method of canonical decomposition, are generated eventual elements
with dispersion, which determine the spectral density and then, by these elements, the
eventual stationary process is synthesized. In this way, this methodology is much faster and
more effective than the classical method of canonical decomposition.
Now, we analyze the five story frame building with the LS-DYNA software, subjected to
successive seisms. The choice of the type and dimensions of the finite element, as well as
the integration interval depends on the accuracy and time of the calculation. For this case,
the optimum dimension of the finite element was 0,3m and for the behavior of the material
was assumed a bilinear diagram with admissible plastic deformation  adm  0,003 .
Rc
c1 c0  c2
Fig. 2.8 Bilinear diagram of concrete
As a seismic action, were applied synthetic accelerograms of three components with a

dominant frequency that varies in the interval from 1Hz to 3Hz, which were modeled with
help of the modified method of canonical decomposition. The accelerograms correspond to
earthquakes of magnitude 6 to 9 on the MSK scale. The calculation was realized with help
44
of the LS-DYNA software for the non-linear dynamic analysis, this is considering the non-
linear physics, non-linear geometric and non-linear constructive.
Fig. 2.9 Accelerogram with components X, Y, Z for an earthquake of magnitude 8 in MSK

scale
The different variants under seismic loads was analyzed and with the results obtained in
the analysis was assessed the seismicity of the building in the face of successive seisms.
The results of the investigation for earthquakes with different magnitudes and different
dominant frequencies, is shown in table 2.5.
45
Table 2.5
Variant Magnitude Dominant frequency ¿ Did the building
collapse?
1 9 3Hz in X and Y; 4Hz in Z Yes
2 8+8 3Hz in X and Y; 4Hz in Z No
3 8+8+8 3Hz in X and Y; 4Hz in Z Yes
4 8+8+7 3Hz in X and Y; 4Hz in Z No
5 8+8+8 2Hz in X and Y; 3,5Hz in Z Yes
6 8 1,5Hz in X and Y; 2Hz in Z Yes
7 7 1,5Hz in X and Y; 2Hz in Z No
8 7+7 1,5Hz in X and Y; 2Hz in Z Yes
9 7+6 1,5Hz in X and Y; 2Hz in Z No
10 8 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z Yes
12 6 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z No
From the results obtained, we can indicate that the most unfavorable variant is when the
accelerogram has a dominant frequency of 1Hz. If the dominant frequency is 3Hz, the
building does not collapse before two successive earthquakes of magnitude 8 and then an
earthquake of magnitude 7. If the dominant frequency is 1,5Hz the building supports
successive seisms of magnitudes 7 and 6.
Figure 2.10 shows the building when it start to collapse in the face of successive
earthquakes of magnitude 7, with dominant frequency 1,5Hz in X and Y; 2Hz in Z (variant 8
of table 2.5)
Fig. 2.10 Plastic deformations at the beginning of the collapse (t = 13,8s)
46
Figure 2.11 shows the variation of the plastic deformations  i for a column before three
successive earthquakes (variant 3 of table 2.5)
Fig. 2.11 Variation of plastic deformations overtime
In Figure 2.12 it is shown a nine story building with structural walls, which has as free
vibration frequencies 1,240 Hz for the first mode; 1,349Hz for the second mode and
1,701Hz for the third mode.
Fig. 2.12 Building calculation model with 9-story structural walls
47
Different variants of the seismic action were analyzed and with the results obtained in
the analysis was assessed the seismicity of the building in the face of successive
earthquakes. The results of the investigation for earthquakes with different magnitudes and
different dominant frequencies, are shown in table 2.6
Table 2.6
Variant Magnitude Dominant Frequency ¿Did the building
collapse?
1 8+8+8 3Hz in X and Y; 4Hz in Z No
2 8+8+8 2Hz in X and Y; 2,5Hz in Z Yes
3 8+8+7 2Hz in X and Y; 2,5Hz in Z No
5 7 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z No
6 7+7 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z Yes
7 7+6 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z No
Of the results obtained, we can indicate that in spite of have three successive
earthquakes of magnitude 8 with dominant frequency of 3Hz, the building does not collapse.
On the other hand, for the same case, but with a dominant frequency of 2Hz, the structure
collapses. However, for the same case, if the third successive earthquake is of magnitude 7,
with dominant frequency 2Hz, collapse does not occur.
In figure 2.13, the different moments of destruction of shear elements are shown, for two
successive earthquakes of magnitude 7, with dominant frequency of 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz
in Z.
48
Fig. 2.13 Isolines of the moment of destruction of the wall by plastic deformation (t = 7,1s)
Figure 2.14 shows the variation of the plastic deformations  i for a column in the face of
two successive earthquakes (variant 6 of table 2.6)
Fig. 2.14 Variation of plastic deformations overtime
49
CONCLUSIONS
1. A seismic calculation methodology for buildings was developed considering the non-linear
physics of the material and the local damages in theirs elements in the face of successive
earthquakes.
2. For the 5-story reinforced concrete frame building, of the 5 variants of local damage
(destruction of the corner column, destruction of the eccentric column, destruction of the
central column, reduction of stiffness of 1/3 of the corner column at height 1,1m from the
base and 30% stiffness reduction of the corner column), the most critical case is when the
corner column collapses.
3. For the 5-story reinforced concrete frame building, the maximum percentage deviation of
free vibration frequency results between LS-DYNA and LIRA softwares is minimal, the
difference is only 0.86%.
4. For the 5-story reinforced concrete frame building, for the time-history analysis, we can
indicate that the most unfavorable variant is when the accelerogram has a dominant
frequency of 1Hz. If the dominant frequency is 3 Hz, the building does not collapse in the
face of two successive earthquakes of magnitude 8 and then an earthquake of magnitude
7. If the dominant frequency is 1,5 Hz, the building supports successive earthquakes of
magnitudes 7 and 6.
5. For the 5-story reinforced concrete building with structural walls, of the 6 variants of local
damage (destruction of the wall on the 6A-B axis, destruction of the wall on the 4A-B axis,
destruction of 0,6m (1 / 5 of 3m) of the wall on the axis 6A-B for the entire height,
destruction of 2,4m (2/5 of 6m) of the wall on the axis 4A-B for the entire height, reduction
of wall stiffness 6A- B by 30% and wall stiffness reduction 4A-B by 30%), the most critical
case is when the wall collapses on axis 4A-B.
6. For the 5-story reinforced concrete building with structural walls, the maximum percentage
deviation of free vibration frequency results between LS-DYNA and LIRA softwares is
minimal, the difference is only 1,52%.
7. For the building of 9 floors of concrete reinforced with structural walls, for the analysis time-
history, we can indicate that in spite of be submitted three successive earthquakes of
magnitude 8 with dominant frequency of 3Hz, the building does not collapse. On the other
hand, if the dominant frequency is 2Hz, the structure collapses. For the same previous
case, if the third successive earthquake is of magnitude 7, with dominant frequency of 2Hz,
the building does not collapse.
8. Based on LS-DYNA and LIRA softwares, a form of modeling reinforced concrete buildings
was elaborated, considering the non-linear physics and the local damages in theirs
elements in the face of before successive earthquakes.
50
9. The use and application of the methodology proposed in the present investigation is
recommended, because it is the one that best fits Peruvian seismic conditions, for the case
of seismic design of buildings considering non-linear physics.
10. The effect of non-linear physics in the seismic analysis of reinforced concrete buildings is
notorious, and Peruvian Standard E030-2017 should be improved, including the
requirement of this type of analysis, which perfectly describes the real behavior of the
building in the face of earthquakes.
51
FUTURE RESEARCH LINES
1. Apply different variants in local damage methodology for other types of structural systems.
2. Perform a comparative analysis of experimental measurements in situ after severe
earthquake with the results of numerical calculation.
3. Incorporate the soil-structure interaction considering a non-linear behavior of the foundation
soil and their effect on the non-linear physics of reinforced concrete buildings.
4. Add geometric non-linear to the calculation of high buildings of reinforced concrete,
considering their non-linear physics.
5. Incorporate seismic protection systems and their effect on the non-linear physics of
reinforced concrete buildings.
52
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56
INDEX
PROLOGUE…………………………………………………………..………….………………….…. 03
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………..………….…………………….…. 04
CAPHTER 1. NON-LINEAR PHYSICS

1.1. Inelastic behavior of the material ………………………………………………………………. 07
1.1.1. Non-linear vibrations of buildings as systems with a degree of freedom…..…….… 07
1.1.2. Non-linear systems with various degrees of freedom…..………..……………..……. 10
1.2. Experimental study of the inelastic behavior of buildings before dynamic loads
…….………………………………………..….…………………………………………………. 13
1.3. Buildings with variable parameters under seismic loads…………………..…...………….... 15
1.4. Consideration of successive seism in the structural calculation……………………..…...… 16
1.5. Non-linear models………….……………..…………………………………………………...… 18
1.6. Application of LIRA software in the analysis non-linear by Time-Stepping
Method..……………………………………………………………………………………………….... 19
CHAPTER 2. CALCULATION OF BUILDINGS BEFORE SUCCESSIVE SEISMS

CONSIDERING LOCAL DAMAGES
2.1. Dynamic methods of structural evaluation.…..……………….……....………....................... 34
2.2. Influence of local damages on the dynamic characteristics of reinforced concrete buildings
………………….………………………………….….……………………..…………………..… 36
2.3. Non-linear dynamic method for buildings before successive seisms
………………………………………………………………………..….………………………….…... 41
CONCLUSIONS…………………….…...………………………………………....……………......... 50
FUTURE RESEARCH LINES…………………………………………………….……………......... 52
BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………....…………………………………………….................…. 53
57

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NON-LINEAR PHYSICS

Ph.D. Genner Villarreal Castro

Ph.D. Genner Villarreal Castro

Lima, November 2017

Objective and research problems

Argumentation and veracity of results

Approval of the investigation

1.1 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF THE MATERIAL

1.1.1 NON-LINEAR VIBRATIONS OF BUILDINGS AS SYSTEMS WITH A DEGREE OF

Fig. 1.1 Ramberg-Osgood Diagram

Fig. 1.2 Diagram with transitional parabolic curve

X i , R i - coordinates of the initial point of the diagram in each load cycle

1.1.2 NON-LINEAR SYSTEMS WITH VARIOUS DEGREES OF FREEDOM

1.2 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF BUILDINGS

1.3 BUILDINGS WITH VARIABLE PARAMETERS UNDER SEISMIC LOADS

 k - numerical coefficient, which allows to approach the experimental dependencies

 y - limit elastic displacement

 máx - maximum displacement exceeding the limit elastic displacement

1.4 CONSIDERATION OF SUCCESSIVE SEISMS IN THE STRUCTURAL

1.6 APPLICATION OF LIRA SOFTWARE IN THE ANALYSIS NON-LINEAR BY TIME-

Módulo tangencial del paso “i”

Fig. 1.3 Geometric interpretation of the Time-Stepping Method

3er Estado de carga

Fig. 1.9 Characteristics of steel

Fig. 1.10 Characteristics of each steel bar in columns

Fig. 1.11 Characteristics of each steel bar in beams

Fig. 1.12 Non-linear modeling of charges

Fig. 1.17 7th step of 2nd charge status

2.1 DYNAMIC METHODS OF STRUCTURAL EVALUATION

Fig. 2.1 Seismometer SP400 by Eentec brand

2.2 INFLUENCE OF LOCAL DAMAGES ON THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

Fig. 2.3 Variants of local damage

Fig. 2.4 Frame building modeled with the LS-DYNA software

Fig. 2.6 Variants of local damage

2.3 NON-LINEAR DYNAMIC METHOD FOR BUILDINGS BEFORE SUCCESSIVE

TM - modeling interval of the eventual process

u k ,  k - non-correlated event coefficients

 k , in other words, T  k

In this way, the eventual correlation function will be:

As a seismic action, were applied synthetic accelerograms of three components with a

Fig. 2.9 Accelerogram with components X, Y, Z for an earthquake of magnitude 8 in MSK

Fig. 2.10 Plastic deformations at the beginning of the collapse (t = 13,8s)

Fig. 2.11 Variation of plastic deformations overtime

Fig. 2.12 Building calculation model with 9-story structural walls

Fig. 2.14 Variation of plastic deformations overtime

1. Айзенберг Я.М., Килимник Л.Ш. О критериях оптимального проектирования и

CAPHTER 1. NON-LINEAR PHYSICS

CHAPTER 2. CALCULATION OF BUILDINGS BEFORE SUCCESSIVE SEISMS

FUTURE RESEARCH LINES…………………………………………………….……………......... 52

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