CE211: Circuits & Electronics

Lecture: 7, 8, 9, 10
1. Series & Parallel Resistor
Combinations
2. Nodal Analysis
 Series & Parallel Resistors
• For N number of resistors in series, the equivalent
series resistance is

• For N number of resistors in parallel, the equivalent

parallel resistance is

• Most of the times we will have scenarios that contain

both series and parallel resistors in combination
– The techniques to solve such a case will be shown in next
example
 Example 2.20, Pg: 51
• Find the equivalent resistance RAB between
terminals A-B
 E2.14, Pg: 52
• Find the equivalent resistance RAB between
terminals A-B
 Problem Solving Strategy
• For calculating the equivalent resistance between two
terminals
– The analysis should be started at the end opposite to the
terminals
– Two or more resistors are combined together in a steady
process from left to right or right to left depending upon the
terminals
• This reduces the number of resistors in the network as the analysis
continue towards the terminals which ultimately results in a single
equivalent resistance replacing every other resistor in the network
– Resistors are in series if they are connected end to end with one
common node and carry the same current
– Resistors are in parallel if
• They are connected to two same nodes
• Have same voltage across their terminals
 Tolerance & Power Rating
• Tolerance
– How much the measured value is different from the actual value
• Tolerance values for resistors are typically 5% and 10%

• Power Rating
– The maximum power a device (e.g; resistor) can withstand
• Greater current means greater heat
– This can result in melting the component and thus creating a short circuit
which might lead into greater currents in the circuit
• This is why resistors are given power ratings
• This is the maximum power that the resistor can withstand before
melting down
– Hence always choose resistors with power rating greater than
the power being used in the circuit so that the resistor does not
get destroyed by excessive heat
 Example 2.22, Pg: 55
• Find the range for both current and power
dissipation in the resistor if R = 2.7kΩ with a
tolerance of 10%
 Circuits With Series & Parallel
Combination of Resistors
• The fundamental concepts learned so far will
now be applied to more complex circuits
 Example 2.24, Pg: 56
• Find all the currents and voltages in the
following ladder network
– Ladder network is an electrical circuit made up of
repeating units of resitors
 Example 2.25, Pg: 58
• Find the source voltage Vo if I4 = ½ mA
 E2.17, Pg: 59
• Find Vo in the following network
 E2.19, Pg: 60
• Find the source current Is in the following
network
 Wye-Delta Transformations
• Also known as Star-Delta or Y-∆ transformation
• Sometimes the resistors might be connected
together in such a fashion that no where in the
circuit a resistor is in series or in parallel with
another resistor
– Such a problem can not be tackled directly using
circuit analysis techniques learned so far
– In such a case we replace portion of circuit with an
equivalent circuit
– This conversion is called wye-to-delta or delta-to-wye
transformation
• The network in fig (1) contains two delta
combinations connected back to back
• By reducing one of the deltas, we can reduce
the circuit in to a much simpler form
– The resistors in fig (a) form a delta
– The resistors in fig (b) form a Y or a Star
 Delta to Star or Wye Conversion
• The resistance between any two terminals in delta connection
would be equal to the total resistance connected between the
corresponding terminals in a Star or Y connection

Delta Star

• Solving the above three

equations
Y or Star-to-Delta Transformation
 Balanced Case
• If in Y-network
– Ra = Rb = Rc

• And in Delta-network
– R1 = R2 = R3
 Example 2.26, Pg: 63
• Find the source current Is
 E2.24, Pg: 63
• Determine the total resistance RT in the
following circuit
 Circuits With Dependant Sources
• Controlled or dependant sources are used to
model physical devices such as
– pnp or npn transistors
– Field effect transistors
– Operational amplifiers etc
• These are typical examples of digital devices
– Digital devices are used to construct RAMs, ROMS,
microprocessors etc
• The remaining of this chapter will focus on
solving one loop and one node circuits containing
dependant sources
 Problem Solving Strategy
Step1
– When writing the KVL and/or KCL equations for the
network, treat the dependent source as though it
were an independent source.
Step 2
– Write the equation that specifies the relationship of
the dependent source to the controlling parameter.
Step 3
– Solve the equations for the unknowns. Be sure that
the number of linearly independent equations
matches the number of unknowns
 Example 2.27, Pg: 64
• Find Vo in the following one loop circuit
 Example 2.28, Pg: 65
• The following circuit contains a current
controlled-current source. Find the voltage Vo
 E2.27, Pg: 67
• Find Vo
 E2.29, Pg: 68
• Find VA
 E2.28, Pg: 68
• Find Vo
 Example 2.30, Pg: 66
• An equivalent circuit for a FET common-source amplifier or BJT common-
emitter amplifier can be modeled by the circuit shown in Fig-a. We wish to
determine an expression for the gain of the amplifier, which is the ratio of
the output voltage vo(t) to the input voltage vi(t)

• R1 = 100 Ω , R2 = 100 K Ω, gm = 0.04 S, R3 = 50 K Ω, R4 = R5 = 10 K Ω

Chapter 3: Nodal & Loop
AnalysisTechniques
 Nodal Analysis
• The variables selected in the circuit are node
voltages
• Node voltages are defined w.r.t to a common
point in the circuit
• All voltages are defined w.r.t a reference node
• Quite often largest number of branches are
connected to this node and is called ground
– it is said to be at ground-zero potential
• The selected variables (voltages) will be positive
w.r.t to the reference node
Selected varaiables (nodes)

Ground /Reference node (Zero Potential)

• In the figure all voltages are defined w.r.t to the bottom
reference (ground) node
• Reference node is shown by the ground symbol
• Vs, Va, Vb, Vc are measured w.r.t bottom node
• The voltage across an element between two nodes is equal to
the difference between the voltages at those two nodes

– e.g; V3 = Va – Vb = 3
2
Or we can also use KVL →

The voltage at reference

(ground) node is zero
 I = ∆V/R
• Thus, as a general rule if we know the node
voltages in a circuit, we can calculate the current
throught any resistive element using Ohm’s law
as:
vm  v N
i
RN
• In nodal analysis, KCL is employed such that
– Variables in the equations are the unknown
voltages

• In an N-node circuit
– One node is selected as reference node
– Voltages at non-reference nodes are measured
w.r.t this reference node.
– N-1 linearly independent KCL equations are
required to determine the N-1 unknown node
voltages.
– It is always important to specify a reference
 • Voltage of 12 V at node-A means nothing unless we specify 12 V w.r.t
some node

• Voltage at node-1 w.r.t reference node-3 is V1 = 4V

• Voltage at node-2 w.r.t reference node-3 is V2 = -2V
– Voltage at node-1 w.r.t node-2 = ?
– Voltage at node-2 w.r.t node-1 = ?

• Current flows from node of higher potential to node of lower potential

Left to right current flow

Top to bottom current flow Bottom to top current flow

 Circuits Containing Only independent
Current Sources
• The network shown below contains 3 nodes
– Hence we need N – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2 linearly
independent KCL equations to determine N – 1 = 2
unknown node voltages
• Selecting the bottom node as reference node
the voltages at non-reference nodes are
labeled as v1 and v2
• Assuming the currents flowing away from the
non-reference nodes to be positive
– Applying KCL at node 1

• Ohm’s law → i = v/R = Gv

• And reference node is at zero potential

– Applying KCL at node 2

• Hence, the two equations for the unknown node
voltages are,

• The result is two simultaneous equations in

unknowns v1 and v2
• Any circuit analysis technique can be used for
solving these equations
– Gaussian Elimination
– Matrices
– MATLAB
• Note that nodal analysis employs KCL in
conjunction with Ohm’s law