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AIAA/SAE/ASME 17th
Joint Propulsion Conference
Ama ahn July 27-29, 1981/Colorado Springs, Colorado
For wrnnstion h copy N npublirh. emtact the Lrnerlcan ln$tRUts el Anronantics and Astronautics 1290 Annue ol the Amsrkar, Wow Ywk, MY 10104
ANTI-GRAVITY WITH PRESENT TECHNOLOGY:
IMPLEMENTATION AN0 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
F. E. Alzofon*
Boeing Aerospace Canpany
Seattle, Washington
1
o I t i s shown t h a t mass quantization i n the the g r a v i t a t i o n a l force. This we w i l l t r y t o
f i e l d f o l l o w s fran t h e theory. show i n t h e following. I n the developnent of the
ideas t o follow. we s h a l l not adopt t h e p o i n t of
o A theory o f a fundamental length follows view t h a t a single k i n d o f elementary p a r t i c l e i s
n a t u r a l l y fran t h e formulation. responsible f o r the force. For i f t h i s were so,
i t would then be necessary t o explain why l a r g e
o F i e l d equations are presented f o r Bose- extremes o f physical states do not r e s u l t i n a L
E i n s t e i n and Fermi-Dirac mass states, as w e l l as v a r i a t i o n o f t h e populations of t h e p a r t i c l e s i n
associated quantities. question, and a possible a l t e r a t i o n of the g r a v i -
o Since the theory i s linear, and t h e t a t i o n a l f o r c e as a consequence. A simpler model
processes described are r e a d i l y visualized, i t i s chosen below, one which r e l i e s on a property
becanes easy t o formulate experimental t e s t s of t o be found also on a c l a s s i c a l scale, i n v o l v i n g
theory and t o i n t e r p r e t these. Moreover, since gas k i n e t i c properties which are w e l l understood.
the processes discussed are agreed t o e x i s t , t h e
theory provides a u n i f i e d franework i n t o which t o I n applying the model i t i s necessary t o
fit the many diverse phenanena a s s w i a t e d w i t h show how subatanic p a r t i c l e s , whatever t h e i r
very small and very l a r g e scales o f measurement. nature and frequency o f occurrence, can a l l give
A consequence o f such a formulation i s t h a t the r i s e t o the same k i n d o f f o r c e f i e l d . The
experimentalist can expect t o be able t o p r e d i c t d e t a i l s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between elementary
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how each of the f i e l d s , which can be generated by p a r t i c l e s w i l l not be discussed; these should not
present day technology, can affect t h e other be necessary i f the force i s a r e s u l t of averag-
f i e l d s represented by t h i s theory. The proposed i n g over a f e a t u r e common t o a l l of them. The
c o n t r o l o f t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d discussed i n model i s i n the s p i r i t (and was suggested by) the
the f i r s t p a r t of the paper i s derived by such kinematic d e s c r i p t i o n o f a matter-energy f i e l d ,
considerations. developed i n Reference 1 and i n Part I 1 o f t h i s
o The d e r i v a t i o n of t h e laws o f c l a s s i c a l paper. I t deduces forces fran a known motion o r
state, r a t h e r than r e l y i n g upon a dynamic
physics and o f the quantum mechanics fran t h e description which requires d e t a i l e d knowledge of
proposed theory c o n s t i t u t e s an experimental t h e forces o f the interaction, fran which the
proof o f sane o f t h e theory. I n t h i s sense, i t i s motion o f the physical system can be deduced.
s i m i l a r t o the molecular and atanic theory of Moreover, once having described a model o f the
matter before Einstein's paper on the Brownian processes which give r i s e t o the force o f gravi-
motion (i.e., many known macroscopic properties t a t i o n , a procedure can be proposed by which t h e
of matter could be explained and u n i f i e d ) . I t i s
force may be altered, i.e. weakened o r
believed that, l i k e the atanic theory, enough new strengthened. This i s also described below.
r e s u l t s (aside fran the a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e con-
t r o l of g r a v i t a t i o n ) w i l l be deduced fran the We here depart fran Einstein's geanetrical
theory t o make i t worthwhile. I t i s i n t h i s
formulation o f t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d , which
expectation t h a t the theory i s proposed. How-
ever, the c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e nature of i n e r t i a l
does not i n d i c a t e any physical process leading t o J
t h e o r i g i n o f the f i e l d . Moreover, the model
mass, g r a v i t a t i o n a l mass, and the ether (i.e., its
adopted views matter e s s e n t i a l l y as an aspect of
existence) and t h e p r o v i s i o n of a c l e a r l y visual- a matter-energy f i e l d , a concept developed i n a
ized s t r u c t u r e t o u n i f y t h e data of modern more consistent way i n P a r t I 1 of t h i s paper.
physics i n exchange for a s i n g l e a d d i t i o n a l The l a t t e r concept i s f a m i l i a r t o physicists,
assunptim. make the theory worth consideration. although a u n i f i e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f matter-radia-
I. A Model f o r t h e Generation t i o n i s not. The remaining concepts employed are
taken fran modern v i s u a l i z a t i o n s o f physical
of t h e G r a v i t a t i o n a l Force processes.
1.0 Introduction 1.1 Kinematic Model f o r t h e G r a v i t a t i o n a l Force
The most evident property o f the gravita-
The feature postulated as b a s i c a l l y
t i o n a l force i s t h a t i t appears i n the presence responsible f o r the g r a v i t a t i o n a l force i s the
of matter (measured by i n e r t i a l mass) and not s t a b i l i t y of elementary p a r t i c l e s during the time
otherwise. It i s remarkable t h a t whatever t h e they e x i s t . This s t a b i l i t y i s expressed i n the
s t a t e of matter fran c o l d dust clouds t o very hot f a c t t h a t t h e mass m o f t h e p a r t i c l e i s constant,
stars, t h e sane law, Newton's Law of Gravita- or, t o put i t sonewhat d i f f e r e n t l y , t h a t i t s
t i o n a l Force, remains an accurate representation Conpton wavelength hlmc i s constant.
of t h e force between two masses, and t h a t t h i s i s
dependent s o l e l y on the masses and separation of
t h e t w O bodies. But the Canpton wavelength i s a measure of
the extent o f v i r t u a l processes associated w i t h a
given p a r t i c l e . *
This constancy o f behavior argues a comnon
mechanism operating t o cause t h e force, inde-
pendent o f v a r i a b i l i t y o f physical s t a t e and *As pointed out i n Reference 1, and more
temperature. Thus we seek c a n o n features of a l l e x p l i c i t l y described i n Part 11. t h e Canpton
the forms o f matter known t o e x i s t on an astro- wavelen t h i s a measure o f the p r i n c i p a l extent
nomical scale, f o r which t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l force
of an eyementary p a r t i c l e matter-energy cloud,
becanes appreciable. One such comnon f e a t u r e i s e s s e n t i a l l y a f i e l d phenanenon, r a t h e r than a
t h e experimentally v e r i f i e d observation t h a t a l l p a r t i c l e accanpanied by t h e products of v i r t u a l
matter i s confined t o elenentary p a r t i c l e s . It processes. As shown i n Reference 1 and i n Part
11, although h/mc i s a m a l l quantity, t h e
Is therefore natural t o n q u i r e i f sane property average effect of v i r t u a l processes leads t o an
of elementary p a r t i c l e s can be responsible for inverse square force law, i.e. these processes U
extend beyond the Canpton wavelength.
2
In t h e presence of another p a r t i c l e , and subatanic noise i n References 1 and 2. we suggest
w i t h the above-menti oned non-local i r a b i l i t y of the use of pulsed dynmic nuclear orientation
both p a r t i c l e s , the mass density d i s t r i b u t i o n of applied t o paranagnetic atans i n a constant
the f i r s t p a r t i c l e i s a l t e r e d since the f i e l d s of magnetic f i e l d . The basic mechanism invoked i s
the two p a r t i c l e s overlap and they share sane of t o allow rapid (i.e., faster t h a n thermal
their masses w i t h one another. And i f this is disordering) decay i n t o a disordered s t a t e of
W so, t h e n the mass of the f i r s t particle i s t h a t part of the oriented magnetic manent of the
a l t e r e d from m t o wdm, and its Canptcm wave- paranagnetic nucleus due t o creation and
length a l s o a l t e r e d fran h/mc t o h/(m+Am)c or annihilation processes; t h i s decay i s due t o
t o approximately (h/mc)(l-Am/m). a smaller interaction w i t h the earth's virtual particle
dianeter than the i n i t i a l one. To remain s t a b l e , cloud. I t i s asserted t h a t t h i s procedure w i l l
i n t h e sense i n which we have deflned s t a b i l i t y , reduce the mean energy of t h e disordered motion
an a l t e r a t i o n i n the mass-energy d i s t r i b u t i o n of the e a r t h ' s virtual p a r t i c l e cloud i n the
must t a k e place, according t o LeChatelier's neighborhood of t h e specimen and lead t o a
Principle, which will compress the matter-energy reduction of the e a r t h ' s gravitational force on
i n t o a smaller volune with the smaller dianeter the specimen.
given above and corresponding t o the new
s t a b i l i t y configuration. The a l t e r a t i o n i s due For reasons indicated i n the f o l l a r i n g
t o the matter-energy contributed by t h e second discussion, we suggest use of a specimen c ~ q o s e d
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p a r t i c l e and r e s u l t s i n the mass-energy contri- of a very pure isotope of aluninun (e.g. A1 ) with
buted by this p a r t i c l e being drawn closer t o the iron inclusions (magnesium plus chranim inclu-
c e n t r a l location of the f i r s t particle. The sions a r e also possible candidates). Acting on
reaction t o t h i s re-distribution i s an attractive t h e speclmen. a pulsed o s c i l l a t i n g microwave
f o r c e exerted by the second p a r t i c l e on the f i e l d o r i e n t s the nuclei i n the iron inclusions
f i r s t . Conversely, by s y m e t r i c reasonfng, the by dynamic nuclear orientation. Small q u a n t i t i e s
f i r s t p a r t i c l e e x e r t s an a t t r a c t i v e force on the of chraniun included i n the aluninun will
second p a r t i c l e , again owing t o i t s own increase efficiency of the pulsed f i e l d i n pene-
s t a b i l i t y . The changes must be m a l l i n order t r a t i o n of the specimen. since its e f f e c t will be
for these considerations t o be valid. to increase t h e s k i n d e p t h f o r microwave penetra-
tion (the r e s i s t i v t t y of chraniun is greater than
I t i s asserted t h a t t h e above mechanism, t h a t of alwninun). I n addition, chromium i s a
which depends only on assunptions incorporating menber of the iron orouo and thus will aid i n the
the presently accepted view of matter and radiant nuclei orientation Of the iron inclusions
energy, and does not r e l y on a detailed descrip- (Reference 3. pp. 63-64).
t i o n of elenentary p a r t i c l e forces, is respons-
i b l e for the a t t r a c t i o n between two masses called The nuclear orientation of the iron
t h e gravitational force. Moreover, i t s a t i s f i e s inclusions will be communicated t o t h e nuclei of
t h e requirements outlined i n Section 1.0. A more the aluminum matrlx. diffusing throughout the
W
fonnal discussion of t h e origin of t h i s force has material. The Orientation of the aluninun nuclei
been given i n Reference 1. where the lnverse has a much longer l i f e t i m e w i t h respect t o
square property has been derived and the thermal decay than the o r i e n t a t i o n of the iron
a t t r a c t i v e nature of the force a150 derived on nuclei ( i n the ratio of 9 t o 1--Reference 3. p.
more formal grounds. A c l a s s i c a l ( i . e . non- 64 and p. 8 3 ) . Hence the matrix a c t s as a
quantun mechanical) model of the o r i g i n of forces reservoir of nuclei orientation, so t h a t the
of this general nature is provided i n Appendix A, induced Iran nuclei orientation generates a pump-
but i s not necessary f o r the present exposition; ing action, anplifying the e f f e c t of t h e forced
t h e l a t t e r derivation concerns two macroscopic orientations. Sane of the apparatus required i s
P a r t i c l e s suspended i n an ideal gas. The ideal shown i n Figure 1.
gas corresponds t o t h e virtual p a r t i c l e cloud
surrounding an elenentary p a r t i c l e .
MICROWAVE
Implenentation of an Anti-Gravity Device QoVRcE
2.0 Introduction
The Considerations above suggest t h a t a
process analogaus t o those which reduce gas
tenperature by allowing gas molecules t o do work
against an external agent, converting i n t e r n a l
random disordered motion i n t o an external ordered
motion, can be used t o reduce the gravitational
force between two masses. The "gas" i n t h i s case
i s the cloud of 'virtual" p a r t i c l e s surrounding
every subatonic p a r t i c l e . We discuss the physical
mechanism suggested t o produce the e f f e c t , and
estimate its maonitude belar.
1 GENERATORI
<
nuclei consists of first imposing a fixed denotes the altered value of the
magnetic field on a given specimen, causing the :!:z(;cemoment and/ccoe its original value eti12m LJ
electrons ln a glven atom to precess about the and 4 = h/Zz).
magnetic field direction. An oscillating field
at right angles to the constant field is then Analogously to the estimation of the
applied, with resonant frequency Y determined magnetic moments of proton and neutron by expres-
by the magnitude o f the fixed field % and the sions similar to that used for the electron (e.g.
relation eh/2Mp for the proton. where
7
is equal to the
mass of the proton), we estima e the effects of
virtual processes on the magnetic m e n t of a
nucleon by a relation similar to 2.2
where g is the spectroscopic splitting factor
for the e1ectron.p is the magnetic moment of
the Bohr magneton, and h is Planck's constan$
Typical orders of magnitude are g * 3 , p ~ - l O - d I -
4
l i f e t i m e o f t h e v i r t u a l states in'question are so t h a t an aDDreCiable D a r t o f i t would be
very much shorter than nuclear o r i e n t a t i o n removed i n several seconds, on t h e basis of t h i s
thermal l i f e t i m e s . A pulsed o s c i l l a t i n g f i e l d simple model.
w i l l t h e r e f o r e serve to keep t h e paramagnetic
n u c l e i oriented i n s o f a r as thermal decay i s I t would be of i n t e r e s t t o perform the
concerned and, properly timed, w i l l allow t h a t proposed experiment so t h a t the model proposed
v p a r t o f t h e magnetic manent due t o v i r t u a l can be tested and improved.
processes t o becane disordered. I n t h e relaxa-
t i o n by paramagnetic i m p u r i t i e s , t h e n u c l e i act 2.5 Vehicle Desian
as though they are coupled together (Reference 3,
p. 73). A n t i - g r a v i t y (i.e.. weakening t h e g r a v i t a -
t i o n a l f o r c e ) alone i s e v i d e n t l y not enough t o
2.4 Experiment Parameters and C m e n t s propel a vehicle. I t s p r i n c i p a l use would be t o
reduce t h e power needed t o propel t h e vehicle,
The above estimates have been i n t h e s p i r i t when near a body o f astronunical scale, such as a
o f Reference 3 (e.g. pp. 2-3 and p. 73). taken planet o r sun.
more t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p r i n c i p l e s proposed than
as accurate representations of physical quanti- Within a p l a n e t ' s atmosphere, there are many
t i e s , since the basic parameters do not appear t o possible methods o f p r o p e l l i n g a vehicle, based
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5
Because o f the harmful e f f e c t o f microwave That E i n s t e i n recognizes the weakness of a
r a d i a t i o n on the crew. the micrwave generator t h e a y designed p r i m a r i l y for mathfmatical
w i l l be shielded f r a n the crew's quarters; i t s s i m p l i c i t y , as indicated above, i s f u r t h e r
l o g i c a l placfment would be i n the lower p a r t of enphasized by h i s remark t h a t "Pure l o g i c a l
the sphere. t h i n k i n g can give us no knowledge whatsoever o f
the world o f experience; a l l knowledge about W
The'design suggested makes t h i s k i n d of r e a l t y begins w i t h experlence and terminates i n
vehicle a good choice f o r a s h u t t l e vehicle it.''i The relevance o f the special theory of
between planet surface and a space ship i n o r b i t r e l a t i v i t y t o experiment, f o r exanple. arose out
about t h e planet, since i t can not o n l y maneuver o f E i n s t e i n ' s recognition o f the empirical f a c t
w i t h i n the atmosphere o f the planet, but also o f the constancy o f the speed o f l i g h t and h i s
leave i t s surface t o go i n t o a conventionally assertion of the nature o f d i s t a n t clock synchro-
chosen o r b i t . For the l a t t e r prrpose, as well as nization, a feature o f the use o f l i g h t signals
t a k i n g o f f t o explore interplanetary space, the (i.e. a f i e l d ) t o e s t a b l i s h a coordinate system.
suggested design i s useful, since no large take- H i s l a t e r work was more mathematically oriented.
off acceleration i s required. Once i n space,
small rocket or gas jets o f f e r a convenient means It was the questioning, by an empiricist, o f
of maneuvering. Since large mounts of p r o p e l l - the geanetrization o f space-time i n the general
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7
Each crystal lattice plane adds another phase fluctuation processes giving rise to the new
shift of the same amount so that when the plane metric and leading to the additional degrees of
wave emerges from the crystal, the total phase freedom. The splitting of the coordinates used
shift is proportional to the thickness of the into an average and a fluctuation contribution is
crystal, call it a. The number of such phase in consonance with a theorem proved by A.
shifts is approximated by ald, where d is the Einstein to hold in an approximate manner.' More-
separation of the lattice planes. Therefore the over, this concept corresponds to the manner in
total phase shift is approximately a 6 /d. which the results of observations of fields.
using filters, are analyzed. The latter remark
Since the thickness of the crystal and the i s especially relevant to the logical consistency
time interval of passage are known, however, it of the splitting of the coordinates into an
i s convenient to interpret the phase shift as a average part and a fluctuating part, as success-
change of phase velocity and to introduce an fully carried out for molecular forces in a well-
index of refraction as a measure of this altera- known and analogous nalysis of the Brownian
tion. motion by Langevin.
In the present theory, we shall introduce 5.0 Physical Backaround
phase shifts to indicate processes occurring in
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the radiation signal propagating in a vacuum, It was first recognized, in connection with
with the difference that the average value of the the analysis of the spectral energy distribution
phase shifts i s zero for the electromagnetic of the radiation emitted by a blackbody, that the
field on a macroscopic scale. This condition emission and absorption of the radiation occurred
describes the Maxwell electromagnetic field and i n an uncontrollable manner if the scale f
will not necessarily be valid for other fields. energy transfer were sufficiently small .Ip More-
It is imaginable, for example, that all the phase over, the balance of energy in a blackbody cavity
shifts for the monochromatic waves comprising a was later shown to be closely related to the spon-
wave packet will be equal, as in the classical taneous emission of radiation (crea on of photons),
dispersion theory. In such case, the entire wave again an uncontrollable phenomenon.r4 Further,
packet will be shifted i n location from what events which occurred outside the control of the
would be expected on the basis of the electro- experimenter were eventually shown to be inserted
magnetic theory alone. Corresponding to the into the whole domain of atomic phenomena; this
possibility of this kind of event and a similar observation became a universal law of ature as
translation i n the time scale, we interpret the the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. 19
phase shift as a translation in space and time
coordinates, rather than as an alteration in the More recently, it has been demonstrated that
phase velocity. Thus i s preserved the observa- it is necessary to include the spontaneous
tion of the constant speed of light; moreover, creation and annihilation of particles i n the
like the dispersion theory, there i s the con- description of nature. For example, notable
venience of using a wave motion characteristic of success has been achieved with explanation of the
a vacuum. Lamb-Retherford line shift i n the hydrogen
spectrum by means of virtual radiative processes
4.3 Field Theory and Filter in the presence of a larired vacuum. The
predlgtions of theoryP8 and the experi ntal
But the introduction of the notion of noisy data differ by no more than 0.5 MHz,T$ an agree-
signals from comnunication theory is not enough ment so accurate that it has been remarked that the
for an adequate correspondence with reality. polarization of the vacuum, as a consequence of
For, along with the admission of noise as well as an electron-positron fie , i s a "well-
signal as fundamental phenomena i n establishing a est ab1 ished phenmenon."lg Further verification
metric of space-time, i s the essential concept of
filters used by both generator and receiver of a
given signal. In a more general sense, every
experiment i s a filter: a series of operations
-
of the reality of the polarization o f the vacuum,
even if the energy avail ble from the radiant
quanta be less than 2mec9 (ne mass of the
electron and c=speed of light), follows from the
i n which desired effects are to be admitted to fine structure of the positroniu ground state
observation, if they exist, and undesired effects and level shifts of mesic atoms. T4
shut out of observation. But undesired effects,
i.e. noise, are never completely eliminated; llEarlier it had been s wn that the infra-
hence noise, it is proposed, nust be taken into red and the ultra-violetP8 catastrophes in the
account i n a fundamental way in establishing a theory of the scattering of an electron by a
metric of space-time. Moreover, this concept central force field, could be removed by account-
corresponds in a more realistic manner to how ing for virtual processes. The latter was
measurements of signals are made, as well as, considered to be in the nature of a formal diffi-
more generally, how physical systems interact culty, rather than a reflection of reality.
through fields.
Further, the interaction of nucleo is
Relevant to the filter concept. the manner conveniently imagined, at least i n party$, as due
in which the expanded type of motion of the to the creation, followed by the annihilation of
unified field i s introduced in Reference 1 particles (mesons). The magnetic moments of
characterizes the field i n a kinematic manner, as neutron and proton20, as well as the quadrupole
distinguished from a dynamical model, i.e. an moment of the deuteron, are imagined to exist as
assumption i s made about the nwtion of the field a consequence of virtual charge creation.
rather than about the forces responsible for the
a
. ...
9
define t h e s i g n a l i n a more elementary manner; i t present model, unless a p r o b a b i l i t y be associated
i s t h e determinant of the space-time m e t r i c and w i t h t h e occurrence o f the event. It i s agreed
i t s behavior cannot be described i n terms o f t h a t t h i s p r o b a b i l i t y i s n e g l i g i b l e on the
itself. t e r r e s t r i a l scale o f measurenent. Moreover, i t
i s inherent i n t h e manner of t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n
5.2 Dimensionality of Space-time and t h a t the new degrees of f r e e d m be associated
Spontaneous Processes with s t a t i s t i c a l distributions descriptive o f
the processes which g i v e r i s e t o than. Hence the
A t the basis o f a l l physical theory i s t h e observable q u a n t i t i e s t o be discussed w i l l be of
r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t no t h e o r e t i c a l construct can be the nature o f expectation values which depend on
introduced unless i t d c r i p t i v e o f some s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s . A l i k e remark applies
physical measurement. 13* $3 I n particular, the
whole imagined s t r u c t u r e of space-time i s based
t o the magnitudes o f the new degrees o f f r e e d m
themselves.
on t h e oeneration and measurement o f l i a h t
signals: This i s a recognition that, u i t i m a t e l y , On t h e other hand, a s t a t i s t i c a l model i s o f
one can reduce physical measurements t o i n t e r - value if the spontaneous processes introduced
actions between e l e c t r m a g n e t i c f i e l d s and above are unresolved and therefore lead t o an
matter, and no f u r t h e r . And, although the average e f f e c t . I f t h e spontaneous processes are
success o f t h e special theory has d m n s t r a t e d resolved, then there has been obtained a causal
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h/wc' -
o r f o a time i n t e r v a l o f t h e order o f
sec ( h Planck's constant),
cannot preserve i t s o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e owing t o
5.3 Spontaneous Processes and t h e Space-time
Metric
t h e creation and a n n i h i l a t i o n o f elfmentary
p a r t i c l e s during the course o f i t s motion. The a x i m s o f t h e special theory (93 r e l a -
t i v i t y ) are now assumed t o be i n force. Thus,
On t h e other hand, there i s no mention of t h e r e l a t i o n between observations performed by
spontaneous c r e a t i o n processes i n the model experimenters r e l a t i v e t o rectangular Cartesian
adopted f o r t h e establishment o f the Minkowski coordinate systems S:(x,y,z) and S':(x',y',z'),
metric. And, although t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of the i n r e l a t i v e motion w i t h constant speed v along a
event may be very small, there e x i s t s t h e possi- conmon a x i s ( t h e x and x' axes), are e s s e n t i a l l y
b i l i t y o f spontaneous generation o f a signal o f sunmarized by the r e l a t i o n s between the coordi-
the type agreed upon i n advance. And i f t h i s be nates x,y,z,t and x',y',z',t'
so, then one must also admit the existence o f an I
I
u n c o n t r o l l a b l e means of generating a l i g h t signal
independently of the experfmenter ' s in lt ia t Ion x'y (x-gct) 1
o f t h e signal. The existence o f two such inde-
pendent means o f signal generation requires t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n of degrees o f freedom f o r t h e space-
t i m e continuum a d d i t i o n a l t o t h e f o u r o f t h e
Einstein-Minkowski gemetry*, since a signal
cannot be described i n terms o f i t s e l f - i t deter-
mines the space-time metric.
Moreover, i t i s emphasized t h a t space-time i s
On a t e r r e s t r i a l scale such events have not assumed t o be homogeneous, as presymed i n the
special theory.
been observed, b u t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of observing a
given signal. spontaneously generated, w l l l For t h e purpose o f extending the special
increase as t h e number o f observable spontaneous
events increases. The a i m here i s not t h e e s t i - theory t o account f o r the uhenmena considered
mation of t h i s p r o b a b i l i t y , but r a t h e r t h e j u s t i - above; other assumptions w i l l be added t o those
f i c a t i o n f o r imagining such an event. I t i s well of the special theory:
known, f o r example, t h a t a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n
Postulate I. The character o f t h e space
e x i s t s i n t h e detectlon of radar signals when the
noise l e v e l i s comparable t o o r greater than t h e determined by spontaneously generated l i g h t
s i g n a l level. s i g n a l s i s i d e n t i c a l i n s t r u c t u r e t o and inde-
pendent o f the space-time continuum determined by
The spontaneous event imagined i s meaning- l i g h t signals generated by t h e experimenter.
less, frm t h e standpoint of i n t e r p r e t i n g the
A consequence o f Postulate I i s t h a t p o i n t
events of a spontaneous o r i g i n are r e l a t e d by
*It i s o f i n t e r e s t t o compare t h i s remark w i t h A. transformation equations of the same s t r u c t u r e as
E i n s t e i n ' s ooinion
~ ~~~ o f t.h e. v a l i d i t v o..f f i e l d
~~~.~~~
t h e Einstein-Lorentz equations 5.1.
theories whlkh i n c r e e t h e dimensionality o f t h e
space-time c o n t i n u u 3 . But, according t o Einstein, a coordinate
system i s derived frm an assemblage of oper-
ations performed with l i g h t sources and clocks a t
10
r e s t w i t h respect t o an observer.23 Whether t h e then. one can imaaine t h i s alreadv done. Such
s i g n a l s are emitted by design or spontaneously refinement, f o r eiample. was t h e case i n t h e
can make no r e a l difference i n t h i s d e f i n i t i o n . development of atomic physics.
Hence, for the sake of consistency, i t i s
required t h a t t h e Cartesian coordinate systems However, the separation indicated above i s
SO:(XO,Y .TO) and SA:(xb,~b,z6). n o t always possible i n experiment. Instead one
W descriptgve of spontaneous l i g h t signals must frequently reckon with a space-time universe
measured by observers a t r e s t w i t h respect t o i n which both types of events cannot necessarily
coordinate systems S and S ' . are themselves be separated from one another, and correspond-
r i g i d l y f i x e d i n t h e systems S and S ' . For ingly, a space-time continuum i n which t h e space-
s i m p l i c i t y , i t i s assumed t h a t the axes o f the 5 t i m e coordinates o f the two kinds do not trans-
and So and the S ' and Sd systems are p a r a l l e l and form independently of one another. Considera-
have t h e same senses. Hence i t f o l l o w s t h a t t i o n s of symnetry imply t h a t t h e transformation
equations corresponding t o (5.1) and (5.2) must
be of the form
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11
where r0 = (xo, yo. zO), and the s p b o l
indicates t h a t an average over spontaneous
< >, Postulate 111. The m e t r i c of the space-time
continuum generated by both experimenter-
processes has been calculated. I n effect, (5.5) i n i t i a t e d l i g h t signals and spontaneously
defines t h e vacuum state. i n i t i a t e d l i g h t signals i s given by
I t w i l l be seen t h a t Postulate I 1 i s n o t Sa- S=+ GL (5.9) v
independent o f subsequent postulates r e l a t i v e t o ptczt'+ra*-ca&z
the equations of motion o f the matter-radiation
field.
where Vaz=r:+$+$j s'd=C"tS
A consequence o f Postulate I 1 i s the a
recovery of t h e Einstein-Lorentz transformation and s,+ I-@c't.
=
(5.1) from ( 5 . 4 ) . upon averaging over zero
variables.
5.4 The M e t r i c
I n analogy w i t h the m e t r i c introduced by
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Minkowski,
,aa
= xz+3=+ ( w p dr2=dx2 *tdz2, dxo2 + dyo 2 t dzo,
2
( 5.6) -
ds = dr2 c 2 d z and ds dp.L&t$The synbols
= p=-c=bX s, s , and S w i l l always r e f e r t o tne i n t e r v a l
b e t d e n two point events o f which one l i e s a t the
o r i g i n of space-time; the d i f f e r e n t i a l s appear-
i n g i n (5.10) refer t o neighboring events.
(where s denotes the space-time i n t e r v a l between
an event a t the o r i g i n of the four demensional The metrics (5.9) and (5.10) are i n v a r i a n t
space a d he ev n t a t t h e point (x,y,z.ct), under the transformations (5.1) and (5.2). More-
while rq=xky2+z$), and w i t h consideration of the over, the i m p l i c a t i o n of having separated the
meaning of equations (5.4). one expects the ordinary frm the zero coordinates i s t h a t one
m e t r i c of space-time, including the e f f e c t s of therebyassunes a causal description o f nature t o
t h e spontaneous processes t o be be possible.
For the purpose o f analyzing v i r t u a l
processes i n t o t h e i r conponents, the n e t r i c s
Now i t i s c l e a r that, although postulate I 1 (5.9) and (5.10) w i l l be assuned v a l i d for the
ensures the reinstatenent o f the transformation renainder o f t h i s work. However, the i n t e r p r e t a -
equations o f the special theory, such i s not t i o n o f the combined space as generated by a L,
possible f o r the m e t r i c (5.2). One obtains, t r a n s l a t i o n of the Einstein-Minkowski continuum
w i l l be employed repeatedly f o r the purpose o f
bridging the gap between the special theory and
the one presently proposed.*
Thus, the equation o f the i i g h t signal
proposed by Einstein
Thus. as i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of randan processes, rL- ex t = O
the behavior o f space-time w i t h r e s p c t t o (5.11)
e f f e c t s described by quadratic expressions i s
r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t , on the average, f r o n the or &=- caAtz= o
effects described by l i n e a r expressions. When i t
i s r e f l e c t e d t h a t the equations o f motion of a i s now replaced by
f i e l d are dependent on t h e structure o f space- p 2- C=P+ rez-c~~z=O
time as determined by a quadratic expression. i t
i s evident t h a t (5.8) implies equations of motion
different frm those c u r r e n t l y employed. More
w i l l be pointed o u t i n t h i s connection i n the
following sections o f t h i s paper.
For convenience. i t w i l l be assuned t h a t the
quadratic form (5.7) be replaced by one *It i s noted t t the o r i g i n a l discussion of the
equivalent t o i t under averaging i n a vacuum:* special theor$g does n o t employ the Minkowski
metric, although E i n s t e i n was well aware of the
invariance of the quadratic form. E i n s t e i n gave
*This assunption r e f l e c t s the o r i e n t a t i o n a more physically oriented j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the
described i n Section 3.0. The s p l i t t i n g of the transfornation (5.1). The reasoning enployed by
coordinates i n t o mean and f l u c t u a t i n g contribu- Einstein need be altered i n no d e t a i l by a
t i o n s has been c a r r i e d out t o establish the t r a n s l a t i o n of coordinates, provided t h a t the
connection between preceding theories and the mean e f f e c t o f the t r a n s l a t i o n be n e g l i g i b l e when
present one. I n a l a t e r section on the r e l a t i o n averaged over events which occur f a r more r a p i d l y
of t h i s theory t o the quantun mechanics, i t w i l l than those e n t a i l e d by any measurement he
be convenient t o avoid t h i s separation of described.
.
v a r i ab1es
The difference i n t h e expressions (5.11) and be negative). Further, a p p l i c a t i o n of a scat-
(5.12) follows fran the f a c t that, a f t e r a t e r i n g nodel such as proposed, i n which the ener-
t r a n s l a t i o n (5.4). one has averaged over a gies I n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n vary continuously, i s not
quadratic form which has reference t o events i n consonance w i t h t h e physical basis of the
occurring on t h e surface o f a sphere, and t h i s i s quantum theory, where i t has been shown t h a t no
a more r e s t r i c t i v e statement than one concerning energy l e s s than a quantum can be exchanged be-
L/ l i g h t propagation i n a l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e tween a material system and t h e electromagnetic
d i r e c t i o n of r e l a t i v e motion of t h e coordinate f i e l d . However, it i s emphasized t h a t t h e basis
systems 5 and S'. Moreover. i t i s remarked t h a t of t h e proposed theory i s c l a s s i c a l i n character
(5.12) has reference t o t h e propagation o f a and w i l l y i e l d the same r e s u l t s as the quantum
l i g h t s i g n a l accompanied by p a r t i c l e s , w h i l e mechanics. These questions w i l l be taken up
(5.11) contains no such reference. That these below.
p a r t i c l e s are " v i r t u a l " w i l l be seen below t o be
sumnarized by Postulate 111. Moreover, t h e concept of a r a d i a t i o n f i e l d
accapanied by m a t e r i a l bodies and t r a v e l i n g w i t h
5.5 Use of t h e Dispersion Model t h e speed c appears t o be i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h
t h e basic tenets of the special theory. Accord-
Relative t o t h e l a s t remark o f t h e Drecedina
paragraph, we p o i n t out t h e nature o f t h e mea-
- i n g t o t h e special theory, no m a t e r i a l body can
t r a v e l with t h e speed of l i g h t , which i s a l i m i t -
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13
5.6 P a r t i c l e Mechanics and the Metric by a translation,
*= ? r ( ~ ,t
) -
i d e n t i f i a b l e p o i n t o f the f i e l d i s given by
i&ctr),t,-tlt) (5.16)
Hence one recovers Einstein's r e l a t i o n between
energy and manenturn whenever creation processes
do not p l a y a dominant role, and w i t h i t the
Newtonian p a r t i c l e mechanics f o r low v e l o c i t i e s .
It w i l l be shown i n what sense E i n s t e i n ' s r e l a -
and l e t there be defined the momenta t i o n f o r p # 0 holds i n the present formalism.
Thus, the t o t a l energy o f a p a r t i c l e a t r e s t , as LJ
m,d?/dr
P measured by pro esses i n i t i a t e d by the observer,
EdG
= g c &/&
-
p, = m,dFf /AT
m,c d 6 /AT i (5.17)
14
6.0 Notation
and energies
$=
6 - mdd$/h-)
fi.(dVkl
(6.1) f o r e i g h t dimensions.
I n t h e present paper. i t w i l l be shown how
much of the c l a s s i c a l concept of t h e p o i n t mass
E = m. cz (dt/dd (6.3) can be preserved. The equations o f motion of t h e
f i e l d w i l l be postulated and some of t h e i r con-
.g = m. CL (he/&) (6.4) sequences w i l l be discussed. h n g these are t o
be mentioned a quantization o f mass and a model
where * i s a proper time i n t e r v a l measured by f o r nuclear forces.
means of l i g h t s i g n a l s i n i t i a t e d b y t h e observer.
The momenta and eneraies are r e l a t e d by the m a - 6.1 Model f o r t h e flatter-Radiation P o t e n t i a l s
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d r a t i c expression
(6.5) On a scale of observation near the t e r r e s -
t r i a l , as pointed o u t above, one may consider
obtained by imposing the condition t h a t an iden- v i r t u a l processes t o be described by a trans-
t i f i a b l e p o i n t feature o f t h e f i e l d has been l a t i o n o f t h e Einstein-flinkowski space-time. The
l a t t e r t r a n s l a t i o n has been l i n k e d t o the i n e r -
t i a l properties of matter. Thus, one may expect
t o gain i n s i g h t i n t o t h e nature o f the matter-
where r a d i a t i o n p o t e n t i a l s by c a r r y i n g out a t r a n s l -
a t i o n of t h e arguments of t h e Maxwell theory.
d g= d r i c V t %+ A*.'- ( 6.7
For s i m p l i c i t y , l e t there be considered a
I n the following discussion, contravariant s t a t i c f i e l d i n a vacuum, and the Coulomb poten-
q u a n t i t i e s w i l l be w r i t t e n w i t h a superscript, t i a l V(r) due t o some charge d i s t r i b u t i o n . Then,
w h i l e convariantly transforming q u a n t i t i e s w i l l according t o t h e propoled prescrfpfion, V(?) i s
be w r i t t e n w i t h a subscript. Greek Indices w i l l t o be replaced by V(?-ro), where(r>.= 0.
vary from one t o eight, w h i l e L a t i n indices w i l l
vary from one t o four. The appearance o f 0 as Expanding V(?-$") i n a power series i n ?-.
e i t h e r a superscript or a subscript refers t o the
v coordinates generated by spontaneous l i g h t s i g -
x 4 .*:
nals. I t i s agreed t h a t
=xS,i<t-e
and since t h e covariant m e t r i c tensor
WXS; %=X bEX,a ,. .. and averaging over virtual-drocesses, one finds
g r v * $," E t h e Kronecker delta, i t follows
t h a t contravariant and covariant rep esentations
c incide.l Hgnce one may w r i t e x , ax I.... and
x8 = x =xo-xl, etc. IEi$tjveitors w 11 be
denote8 by (xf )-(I . j,I .$,..., xi), four-
vectors b y 4 -
vectors by x ) ) x x ,x ,x ), and three-
ih,x2.x3). Abbreviations s i m i l a r
And, assuming the average values o f the zero
variables t o be equal (a s y n n e t r i c a l d i s t r i b u -
t i o n ) , one f i n d s
15
The approach o u t l i n e d above leads essent- which describe t h e r a d i a t i o n -
i a l l y t o p e r t u r b a t i o n corrections, which are un- matter f i e l d and respectively transform as
l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n a u n i f i e d f i e l d theory. The
next section w i l l introduce p o t e n t i a l s for the
complete u n i f i e d f i e l d .
(i?,et;r.,dJ.
a,
not d b y ( ; a t times one denotes
an?ds by 4*,&$ and q.
&,
The e i g h t p o t e n t i a l w i 1 be de-
respecti-
0,
vnly. I t i s noted that&) t r a n s f o m as
6.2 The F i e l d P o t e n t i a l s (r.t). W'
Noting t h a t t h e scalar product Postulate V i s n o t independent o f t h e suc-
ceeding Postulate V I r e l a t i v e t o the equations o f
(6.14) motion; i n any case, i t i s c l e a r t h a t one should
obtain, f o r example,
i s i n v a r i a n t under the group of r o t a t i o n s where V(r,t) denotes a s o l u t i o n o f Maxwell's
eauat ion.
I-
stant. No quantum e f f e c t s are thereby i n t r o -
duced. F-*V
16
6.3 The R e l a t i o n o f t h e Matter-Radiation If, i n (6.23)@be independent o f t h e time
F i e l d t o Classical F i e l d s and Elementary t. one obtains
P a r t i c l e Force F i e l d s
A<(a,Z=O (6.24)
I n t h e present r e h i o n . s m e consequences o f
t h e equations of m o t i h (6.20) w i l l be presented. Laplace's equation f o r a source-free f i e l d . On
These w i l l be d i r e c t e i toward e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e other hand. t h e Green's f u n c t i o n f o r an in-
r e l a t i o n s between t h e formalism of t h e proposed f i n i t e region i n {FLf space,
theory and preceding f i e l d theories, along w i t h (6.25)
suitable interpretation. Or
(r f 0 ) . i s a s o l u t i o n o f (6.24) and represents
Invokinu t h e electromaanetic f i e l d condit- t h e f i e l d o f a p o i n t source a t t h e o r i g i n . The
ions (5.25),-the form of th; elementary s o l u t i o n s Green's function (6.25) i s l i k e w i s e a s o l u t i o n
(6.17). and t h e agreement (6.19). t h e equations f o r Poisson's equation f o r a f i e l d due t o a
o f motion f o r t h e e l e c t r m a g n e t i c f i e l d are source d e n s i t y which varies as a d e l t a function,
6(r).
(A- fg-)$-o (6.21) With t h e l a t t e r remarks i n mind th%Green's
functions t o r i n f i n i t e regions In f,t;ro.to~
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&
On t h e other hand, i t has een pointed out
t h a t an unweighted average o f over v i r t u a l
processes should lead t o t h e p o t e n t i a l s of t h e
If, f o r convenience. the f u n c t i o n o f (6.28)
be continued a n a l y t i c a l l y t o d m a i n -*des*
electranagnetic f i e l d I n observer space. The and Fourier analyzed i n t, one obtains a trans-
average e f f e c t of t h e ro.tomotion should r e s u l t form which v a r i e s e s s e n t i a l l y as
i n t h e electranagnetic f i e l d described by (6.21).
Such i s indeed t h e casb.
&Wr
e
Averaging both s i es of (6.20) over
to, invoking Green's theorem over a y h e r e o f
?o and -
r (6.29)
unboundedly large d i m e t e r 2so i n ro.to , which i s a s o l u t i o n of
space, and presuming t h e derivative\ o f b t e n d
t o zero as so increases without bound, one ob- (6.30)
tains
)=I
-
electromagnetic f i e l d propagated i n a 'vacuum, a t
l e a s t f o r )I 1,2,3,4. The meaning of <$k f o r
5,.. .,8 e v i d e n t l y r e s t s on an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
-here can be no o b j e c t i o n t o t h i s continuation
on physical grounds, since t h e choice of o r i g i n
o f t h e forces implied by t h e f .t motion. The f o r t h e t v a r i a t i o n i s a r b i t r a r y . Greater SW-
l a t t e r p o l n t w i l l be undertake8 $ 1 ~ . metry i n t h e s t r u c t u r e of f?,t] and i o , t i \
spaces i s thus obtained.
Thus, one obtains t h e e l e c t r m a g n e t i c
f i e l d , propagated w i t h i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c speed.
e i t h e r as a phase c o n d i t i o n or as a r e s u l t a n t o f
averaging over v i r t u a l processes. The l a t t e r
view-point i s discussed i n Section 6.4.
17
where & is the transform of p. Expression
(6.29) is a Green's function f o r (6.30) and implies
Hence, for a p a r t i c l e nearly a t r e s t , (6.20)
represents the f i e l d due t o a point source a t the
o r i g i n with o s c i l l a t i n g strength. I t i s noted (6.33)
t h a t exp (irnfc) r s proportional t o t h e charac-
t e r i s t i c function 28 of the causal d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
and t h a t an average over the frequency w i t h t h i s
a s weight function leads t o t h e Green's function ( &may now be replaced b y & k , i n (12.331,
(6.28). Moreover, s e t t i n g w =O t o obtain a and equations (12.33) are ob3grved t o correspond
s t a t i c f i e l d , one obtains (6.24) from (6.30) and, t o the Proca wave equations. Thus, (6.20)
correspondingly, (6225) fran (6.29). In addi- represents the motion of a family of mass s t a t e s
tion. averaging 11s Over t h e time with a ca.usa1 of intrinsic inte spjgadmay be temaa
d i s t r i b u t i o n , one obtains l f r . as before. Bose-Einstein (BE? f i e l d .
The r e s u l t s of t h e latter paragraph serve t o Repeating the argument whch led t o (6.23).
demonstrate gain the equivalence of a phase con- one f i n d s t h a t the Green's function of (6.33) f o r
d i t i o n and an average, a s well a s the symnetry of an i n f i n i t e r e g i m is proportional t o (Jn( x so)
behavior of functions defined i n observer space i s a Bessel function of order n )
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and i n i n e r t i a l space.
(6.34)
The foregoing remarks serve t o define a
heirarchy of Green's functions defined on regions I
of progressively smaller dimensionality. Each For an unweighted average over t. and considera-
function appears as a point source and can be t i o n s similar t o those leading t o (6.23). one
interpreted a s a r e s u l t a n t of and due t o pro- must o b t a l 8 the Green's function (Yukawa
cesses over which an unweighted average has been potential )
calculated. The sources discussed have had re-
ference to generation of an electranagnetic eFXr/r (6.35)
f i e l d ; one can proceed somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y t o
extend the meaning of the singular solution (rt0). The potential (6.35) is a solution of
\-.--,.
ffi~?fi\
(A-rL)&=O . (6.36)
Thus, f o r a p a r t i c l e of mass m a t rest,
equation (5.24) and relations (6.203 imply obtained by averaging (6.33) over t, and the
(A. - 1 =-4 (6.31)
foregoing conclusion, r e l a t i v e t o the average of
(6.34). follows f r a n the uniqueness of t h i s solu-
tion.
( x = nbcfh), w i t h elementary solution, i n polar
coordinates*
J
Fourier analysis of the Green's function f o r
(6.33) i n the time and subsequently s e t t i n g rr) =O
eixsee* =* ( 12.32)
must lead again t o t h e Yukawa potential.
The conclusion proposed as a consequence of
the above considerations i s t h a t the i n i t i a l
Green's function (6.26) represents a potential
s u i t a b l e t o describe a f i e l d a r i s i n g from super-
*The point (x, ) - ( f , t ) i s represen d i n polar
coordinates by (s,a,,# .q ), where $8 position of a l l mass s t a t e s , d < w 4 . O , without
weighting any s t a t e i n preference t o another.
XISs i n a si* f w r q Each state, if stattc, has spatlal range of t h e
yssinu sipSfn7 order of I/%.
$=s r i n d 60s f B u t w i t h reference t o (12.321, a plane wave
;&is cosq advancing along the i c t o axis has an approximate
representation el X 4 . A superposition of such
I f , f o r example. 5. f a - w i t h O<O-<+"J, then exponentials suffices t o represent any reason-
Of&-, 01 6lc, and O S ~ Z r i;f s be r e a l , sim- able type of packet advancing i n the i c t o direc-
i l a r consi cfe r a t i o n s foljflw. The Laplacian equa- tion. And of such packets, one may assert
t i o n (6.9) then becomes
2 + sA882 ++ dd&. +&SL
18
or. f o r a s i n g l e mass state, X= m.c& Ift h e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s such as t o favor a.single
(SL>2 s% (v+)= (6.39)
mass state, one obtains t h e Yukawa p o t e n t i a l .
(6.42)
where (-1, and other f a c t o r s have been deleted. w i t h k z + a 2 = 0, so t h a t t h e elementary s o t u t i o n
assumes the form
*The estimate given In (6.37) may be improved by r;cR.r: e-x'%CoS*
averaging over a. but cannot a l t e r t h e e s s e n t i a l e (6.43)
*A b r i e f statement of t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s introduced
L
d by t h i s necessity, and a proposed method f
avoiding then, i s given by K e n - i t i G06.3 P
and any s o l u t i o n of (6.41) can be w r i t t e n as a force tends t o oppose l a r g e accelerations o f t h e
superposition of functions ( 6.43). molecules. Thus, forces a) and b ) are opposed t o
one anot r i n a dynamic equilibrium, on t h e
But t h e functions (6.43) imply a r e l a t i o n of average.bP Hence t h e net displacement of t h e
observer space to i n e r t i a l space. Averaging over Brownian p a r t i c l e i s zero.
roand to does not destroy t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
t h e dependence k = + i X : 9,ppic field is a A f u r t h e r model'' eliminates t h e viscous J.
superposition o f st&s e i n observer force previously assumed to hold, on t h e average,
space, and states e""@% i n e r t i a l space; and considers o n l y r a n d m c o l l i s i o n s of molecules
hence o f mass s t a t e s s p e c i f i e d by X . w i t h the Brownian p a r t i c l e . It i s s i g n i f i c a n t
t h a t one obtains i d e n t i c a l r e s u l t s f o r both the
Thus one can imagine a Coulunb s t a t i c f i e l d , proposed models, averaqe.
or a mass s t a t i c f i e l d (e.g. a p a r t i c l e a t r e s t ) ,
t o be a r e s u l t a n t of a time varying i n e r t i a l Yet i t i s recognized by both models t h a t
f i e l d responsible f o r propagation o f t h e s t a t i c only one mechanism i s i n operation: n o l e c u l a r
f i e l d . Just as t h e time dependent electromag- c o l l i s i o n s . The viscous force. a macroscopic
n e t i c f i e l d i s conceived t o be a special, l i m i t - e f f e c t , i s elevated t o the standing o f a f o r c e
i n g f o r 2 o f matter, propagated w i t h maximum speed a c t i n g i n the same i n t e r v a l o f time as the much
20
or ds2 -dsg (6.45) For b r e v i t y , l e t U denote a p o t e n t i a l of t h e
or PG - -P%0 (6.46)
spontaneous c r e a t i o n f i e l d , p e r t a i n i n g t o a mass
a t r e s t and l o c a l i z e d i n a r e g i o n about t h e o r i -
g i n of i n e r t i a l space of r a d i u s r = a. It w i l l
be assumed t h a t W depends on ro a?one; t h e mean-
W (ps ads/dT , PSo modso/dr ). Hence, i n g of t h e r e s t r i c t e d dependence will be d i s -
increase o f a sauared sDace-time i n t e r v - cussed i n p a r t B o f this section.
a l s2 occurs ' a t t h e expense o f t h e i n t e r v a l
then si
sg. A t e r n a t i ely. if52 (or dsz) be space-like,
( o r d s i ) must be time-like. Hence t h e
squared magnitudes of pS and PSO are always
Then (6.31)
&,+r"V==4
'.<a (6.47)
opposite i n sign; these r e l a t i o n s are independent 4W==O, (6.48)
of averaging.
which may be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form (2-0. 1,
With reference t o t h e discussion of Appendix
C, i t i s asserted t h a t t h e vacuum c o n d i t i o n
imposes a c o n s t r a i n t on t h e creation processes,
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21
B. Dynamic Viewpoint The formalism i s shown t o be equivalent t o
c l a s s i c a l quantum mechanics and the vacuum condi-
I t has been shown t h a t i n t e r r u p t i o n of the t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o Dirac's hole theory.
observer-generated electromagnetic f i e l d gives
r i s e t o the observed i n e r t i a l character of mat-
t e r . But the converse i s perforce true: the
The theory i s shown t o encanpass gravita-
t i o n a l effects and r e l a t e s p a r t of the d i p o l e
vr'
process may be viewed as i n t e r r u p t i o n of the magnetic f i e l d s of c e l e s t i a l bodies t o t h e i r
spontaneously generated f i e l d , again g i v i n g r i s e angular mments.
t o the i n e r t i a l property. Moreover, the l a t t e r
i n t e r r u p t i o n i s observer-generated, and if a s i n - 7.1 Tensor Formulation: Source-
g l e mass s t a t e thereby i s induced, then there i s Free F i e l d
implied a constraint on the i n e r t i a l f i e l d ,
generated by the i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the observer. I t i s convenient t o formulate t h e equations
The c o n s t r a i n t must be such t h a t one mass s t a t e o f motion and q u a n t i t i e s derived f r a n the eight-
i s produced as a r e s u l t of the interaction; t h i s p o t e n t i a l s as tensor r e l a t i o n s . I n the present
may be described as a process leading t o selec- section, t h i s w i l l be done for the free f i e l d ,
t i o n o f the states W o) such that x2=kg - and i n the f o l l o w i n g sections the formalism w i l l
( w o / c ) 2 = ( r n o c / S ; ) ~ ' c o n s t a n t . Other mass be extended t o the forced f i e l d . The physical
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22
which i s seen t o correspond t o t h e vacuum condi- Hence, corresponding t o t h e energy denstty o f t h e
t i o n (5.5), b u t i s not equivalent t o it. special theory, one has
9.One now f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t s t h e v a r i a t i o n of
by the guage condition
Postulate VI1
jL a p = o (7.5) w h i l e t h e current d e n s i t i e s are
as a consequence of (7.7). ac
- q < p ; ?di'= 0. (7.18)
It i s evident t h a t (TN) i s n o t equal S i m i l a r l y . bypassing the meaning o f t h e operation
t o the corresponding tensor o f The special the-
ory, except as a f i r s t approxfmation I n terms o f
v i r t u a l processes. T h i s has been c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
A?,
for t h e mment. ifone averages (7.9) over
@ space, with s u i t a b l e r e s t r i c t i o n o f the
dices, one f i n d s (note t h a t
Of t h e foregoing theory, t h e behavior o f quad-
r a t i c expressions being markedly d i s s i m i l a r . on
(jh > 8 k- 1.2.3)
0.
t h e average, from t h a t of l i n e a r expressions. s*'d:>+ Ad<f*>"o
c 86 (7.19)
S i m i l a r l y . by analogy, one defines the
eight-current d e n s i t y i n observer space by
where
Then
< r e f e r s t o the indicated average.
4
,&=l,2,S fce#>d?
1
(7.20)
G+)<&si#y) f" BpiG (7.10) i s a constant i n t h e time coordinate to.
fig &++'P42,3 Thus, although t h e current and denslty are
n o t equivalent t o t h e i r correspondents of t h e
and i n i n e r t i a l space by special theory, t h e t r averages s a t i s f y a conser-
@rh ,k= 1 ~ 3 v a t i o n law i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f t h e special
theory. The significance o f t h e l n t e g r a l s (7.18)
and (7.20). as w e l l as t h e meaning o f t h e average
over r, t space, w i l l be undertaken i n
Section 7.2.
Although t h e f i e l d Is unforced, there e x i s t
matter states i n the f t e l d . These do not p l a y
t h e r o l e of sources, b u t are an t n e v t t a b l e conse-
23
quence o f creation processes. Moreover, i f no while t h e current density i s
e l e c t r i c charges o r currents e x i s t i n average
space, so t h a t
The conservation of densitv and c u r r e n t i s
assured by (7.17) t o t h e &e approximation.
Paul1 34 has shown t h a t a current and density
defined by (7.24) and (7.25). w i t h a law o f mo-
there i s no guarantee t h a t <x > o or {
f o r example, w i l l l i k e w i s e va ish. The aOt? gr i s $ t i o n (7.22 cannot lead t o a conservation law
(7.17) if h be r e a l . I t i s therefore of i n t e r -
c l e a r l y due t o the quadratic character of the e s t t o repeat t h e above discussion a l l o w i n g t h e
currents and densities. The cross terms do not potent ia1s t o be canplex. re-defining
represent i n t e r a c t i o n s between f i e l d s i n the observable q u a n t i t i e s t o ensure t h e i r r e a l i t y .
usual formal meaning o f t h e term, b u t s i g n i f y t h e
e s s e n t i a l u n i t y o f matter and r a d i a n t energy. Thus, l e t ?be a complex function s a t i s f y -
i n g equations ( .33) and l e t * denote i t s ccin-
The generalized Coulanb p o t e n t i a l (6.26) i n d i -
cates t h a t there e x i s t n o n - z a currents and den- plex conjugate. As before. de i n e 4-
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s i t i e s i n t h e f i e l d , even i f % ( < t) = 0;
moreover, t h i s can only occur because t h e
p o t e n t i a l depends on SO.
7.2 The Formalism and Quantm Mechanics a-&'~p<a.;:~ (7.27)
I t i s the purpose of t h i s section t o estab-
l i s h an equivalence between t h e present formalism and note t h a t &y+=+Q*y-d&*
and t h a t of classical, n o n - r e l a t i v i s t i c quantun w i t h (1/2) ( *) representing a
mechanics. Further i n s i g h t i n t o t h e nature of measured f i e k t r e & ? ?
the currents and d e n s i t i e s defined above, as well
as sane i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e vacuun condition, Similarly, define
w i l l then follow.
To obtain t h e i n d i c a t e d approximation, one
3v-&@ 5.%+$:$ + *4PJ(7.2B)
assumes so t h a t
i) *t varies e s s e n t i a l l y as in .p%
t h e time
( t h e r e may renain a canparatively
weak dependence on t);
and
(a
hence d 1 < a>,
ii) a auge such t h a t
t i v e l y v.#p, t ) - O
4>0 = 0, and
= O(2-1.2.3) or, alterna-
*a
i i i ) t h e d i r e c t i o n of @(r,t)varies slowly
+.. -
i comparison w i t h t h e r a t e o f v a r i a t i o n of
i&,t)\ =a.
With r e s t r i c t i o n s 1) t o i i i ) i t w i l l be
shown t h a t can be i d e n t i f i e d , e s s e n t i a l l y , as
with
>. -0 (7.31)
I t follows that, w i t h approximations e s s e n t i a l l y
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n o f the c l a s s i c a l quantun those of 1) t o iii)o f t h i s section
mechanics, The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n can be made c m -
p l e t e by a l t e r i n g t h e formalism sanwhat t o
include canplex f i e l d potentials.
Imposing t h e non-re1 a t i v i s t i c c o n d i t i o n
E/moc2 << 1, one obtains ( 4 e>,=
n
qr &-kk) and
24
cerned wlth t h e motion o f a Fermi-Oirac p a r t l c l e Although the BE f l e l d 1s n o t subject t o t h e
( t h e electron). On t h e other hand, t h e approxi- excluslon p r i n c l p l e , s l m l l a r I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
matlon Invoked l n both cases renders t h e motlon apply t o it.
lndependent of spin; hence the relevance o f the
analysis. The synmetry I n t h e f*, tj and {j", t o 3
L
The analysls above, coupled w i t h (7.18).
permits one t o i n t e r p r e t <p> 0 as a p r o b a b f l i t y
ti
spaces, and t h p e x l s t e n c e of a p r o b a b l l ty
d e n s i t y f o r {r, space now j u s t i f i e s t h e
averages o v e r ? an t mentloned e a r l i e r (Sections
denslty. a f t e r s u i t a b l e normallzatton. More- @and Z l ) . Except perhaps f o r t h e vacuum condl-
over, t h e synmetry ls behavlor o f observer and tlon, the correspondence i n behavlor of t h e two
i n e r t l a l spaces, as nvldenced I n (7.20), permits spaces Is complete t o t h l s extent. But t h l s
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f <foj with a probablllty c o n d i t i o n 1s more a r e f l e c t t o n o f a l i m i t e d type
d e n s l t y f n i n e r t l a l space. of experiment than a t r u e p l c t u r e o f t h e f l e l d
structures i n t h e two spaces.
But t h e l a t t e r l d e n t l f l c a t i o n lmplles a
r e s t r i c t l o n on t h e v a r i a t l o n o f P n i n a vacuum, 7.3 The Uniffed F f e l d and Quantum Mechanics
for one must now w r i t e a -
The s i g n l f l c a n c e o f the foregoing theory f o r
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C,**l==fa(~W-~*r*J (7.35)
There are t w o features of physlcal observa-
t i o n a t t h e basis o f t h e quantum mechanics. They
are:
a) t h e de B m g l i e hypothesis recognizing
o r t h e equivalent statanent the wave character of matter; and
b) t h e i n d l v l s i b i l i t y and u n c o n t r o l l a b i l -
i t y of transfer o f a quantum o f energy between
p h y s i c a l systems.
where f o ) f i s t h e Fourler transform o f A theory seeklng t o supplant t h e quantum
P o f n x and to? mechanlcs must account f o r these features.
Condition (7.36) i s thus an a l t e r n a t l v e The foregofng discussicm has been based on a
statement o f t h e vacuum conditlon. and as such wave model o f the matter s t a t e and embodles the
expresses t h e f a c t t h a t equal s t a t i s t i c a l weights de B r o g l i e hypothesis; It does not. however,
L. are assigned t o creatfon a d a n n f h i l a t i o n o f both exclude t h e p a r t i c l e aspect of matter.
p a r t l c l e and a n t l - p a r t f c l e . It Is c l e a r t h a t
(k 0, 0 ) and r e f e r t o t h e same mass For definiteness, l e t us consider the case
St%e d - It Is therefore where observations do n o t resolve v l r t u a l
suggested t h a t ( 7 6) represents t h e condltlon
t h a t an electron and a p o s l t r o n be created
Drocesses: t h l s i.~s t h e atomic
~ ~ ..~ l e v e l o
~~~~ -.f nhcprva- __
t l o n . This i s expressed i n t h e present theory by
together near a heavy nucleus through the agency t h e assumption t h a t the coordinates measured are
of a gama ray, and hence agreement w l t h r e a l i t y x-XO, y-yo, 2-z0. and t - t o , denoted by X, Y. Z
I n t h l s case. I t 1s t r u e t h a t t h e c r e a t l a n does
n o t occur f n a vacuum, b u t i t i s t h e closest
and T. respectfve1.v. The COrresDondlnQ m e t r l c is -
appmximatlon t o such a condftion observed I n 4s'- d%'+ d Y ' + d i ~ ' - e . d ~ ~ ( 7 . 3 7 )
t h i s connection and t o t h i s extent v e r l f l e s
(7.36). w l t h energy E and manentum P defined i n t h e usual
Manner.' I n a d d i t l o n one m a y d e f i n e t h e a c t i o n
Moreover, c o n d i t i o n (7.36) and i t s meaning
w i l l be proposed as replacement of O l r a c ' s h o l e
model o f electron-posltron c r e a t l m , and fs
worthy of note here I n reference t o BE f i e l d s .
Thus, Olrac's assertfon t h a t negative energy
-
varlable f o r a p a r t i c l e i n a p e r i o d i c o r b i t , by
J {PAL?
where Q'q-90 and P=p-po are generalized coordi-
17.38)
25
For
.. . s.u f f i c i e n t l v small values o f the f i r s t leaves. The l a t t e r model, i t i s f e l t , i s more
i n t e g r a l (i.e. on an
becanes o f canparable
e a s i l y v i s u a l i z e d than t h e former, and more i n
consonance w i t h t h e model advanced i n preceding
sections. Another model i s seen t o a r i s e fran
a,
t h e minimum value o f
t o be h. S i m i l a r l y , differences i n the i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p a r t i c l e w i t h the u n i f i e d f i e l d
values o f J have a minimum value of h. f o r which leakage through a b a r r i e r by a sanewhat
s i m i l a r mechanism can be visualized. aqain a more
But, with reference t o a l i g h t wave of d i r e c t d e s c r i p t i o n than possible w i t h the a u x i l -
frequency Y , a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e energy i a r y 'lp f i e l d .
En = hY o f t h e wave (see (5.25)) i s given by
In closing, i t i s noted t h a t t h e need t o
(7.40) appeal t o spontaneous processes t o provide a more
c l a s s i c a l p i c t u r e o f quantum e f f e c t s i s well
No smaller energy transfer than h 9 can be known, e.g. the r o l e o f spontaneous emission of
expected, under t h e conditions assumed. r a d i a t i o n i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n of the Planck black
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26
equations (7.43) imply
3, = 859
-
(7.46)
W
where Try
tensor defined
T,,
4
i s the ener y momentum
r e l a t i o n (7.8j;-the use o f t h e oroo
f a c t o r 1 / 4 X i s then j u s t i f i e d . i r o00
A f o r c i n g a c t i o n may l i k e w i s e be obtained by
i n t e r a c t i o n o f two fields. Formal expression of
t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s obtained by r e p l a c i n g 9 in
t h e above theory by
(7.47)
where ( @ ) i s t h e e i g h t - p o t e n t i a l d e s c r i p t i v e
o f the interacting f i e l d .
OO?O
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SI 0 0 0
Now, l e t t i n g
-
y =(%) (3,..'. r'PL)
denote a row m a t r i x whose elements are t h e
(7.57)
The r e l a t i v i s t i c invariance of both (7.58)
and ( 7 . b 2 ) may be proved i n a manner too w e l l
described t o be repeated here.
a( A
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for L
(7.41 as a f o r c i n t e n . and t h e p o t e n t i a l s sly.
i n (7.473. Further, by analogy w i t h
t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e current sources i n
(7.41). one may imagine a l i k e generalization o f
t h e equations o f motion f o r t h e f r e e FD f i e l d
(7.58).
i t follows t h a t (7.58) becanes. t o t h e indicated
appmximati m ,
l.'.v+ *$ +ifx11p@3'47,62)
*It i s again poTnted out t h a t t h e quadratic
expressions o f t h e special theory are generalized
with '(t -% andp=p&. Equatim (7.62) i s
recognized as the D i ac equation. And w i t h
by extendjng t h e danain of t h e sumnation indices
f r a n four t o eight. Those variables defined i n
terms of ro. to alone are given an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
(7.62) one recovers t h e D i r a c formalism as w e l l analo ous t o t h a t i n observer space f o r corre-
as the c l a s s i c a l quantun mechanics i n t h e 9
spond ng exprersims. I n t h i s connection, one
notes t h e e f f e c t of a t r a n s l a t i o n o f observer
appropriate n o n - r e l a t i v i s t i c l i m i t .
J
On t h e other hand, t h e purpose here i s a magnetic moment t & E , Interacting wlth
dlscusslon c l o s e l y analogous t o t h a t employed by
Dirac i n d e r l v i n g t h e s p l n properties o f
t h e magnetic f i e 1 p/. . Only the f l r s t two
tenns survlve upon averaging over v i r t u a l pro-
t h e e l e c t r o n and demonstrate t h a t t h e mass states cesses. One must conclude, however. that t h e
of t h e f l e l d under discussion do indeed possess p a r t l c l e descrlbed b y (7.75) has half l n t e g r a l
b h a l f i n t e g r a l spin. spln i n observer space, wlth a s i m i l a r behavlor
I n l n e r t l a l space. The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e
Hence, i n analogy w i t h the customary proce-
dure, t h e s u b s t l t u t l o n s ( s u i t a b l e for a p o i n t
charge 1 w l l l be taken up i n t h e next section.
charge; prevlously f n t e r a c t l o n p o t e n t i a l s f o r 7.7 Magnetic Mments o f Rotatlnq R l a l d Bodies
charae and current d i s t r i b u t i o n s have been and t h e U n l f i e d F i e l d
The discusslon I n Section 7.6 found It
necessary to lntroduce a q u a n t l t y w l t h the
dimensions o f e l e c t r l c charge. d c h a r g e j can-
not be equal t o t? slnce charge creatlon a d
a n n i h i l a t l o n may proceed I n t h e nelghborhood o f a
p a r t l c l e observed t o have no net e l e c t r i c charge
Downloaded by KUNGLIGA TEKNISKA HOGSKOLEN KTH on November 12, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1981-1608
are c a r r i e d out l n equatlons (7.58). One then (e.g. t h e neutron), so t h a t although 8 4,i t
obtalns does n o t f o l l o w t h a t q-0. I n t h e l a t t e r connec-
tion, I t has been I m p l l c l t l y assuned t h a t t h e
scale o f Observation does not permlt separating
out t h e products o f charge creatlon; hence must
be considered t o be a k i n d of average c h a r 4 .
For t h e present, i t w l l l s u f f i c e t h a t one can
(7.77)
"-
(where t i s of the order of u n i t y ) .
for a l l r o t a t i n g c e l e s t i a l bodles,i..c.
to h o l d
+...
Equations (7.75) i s recognlzed as t h e non- Although t h e agreement w l t h observation was
r e l a t i v l s t l c expresslon f o r t h e energy of a s t r i k i n g l y accurate f o r many cases, l a t e r obser-
p a r t l c l e w i t h magnetic manent C y,c l n t e r - vatfons dlsagreed w i t h t h e p r e d i c t l o n s of 7.77.
a c t i n g with t h e magnetic f i e l d $! , and However. t h e theory presented above makes i t
p o s s i b l e t o evaluate go f o r cases i n whlch
magnetohydrodynamic e f f e c t s do n o t predominate
29
~
30
t h e gas. To r e - e s t a b l i s h t h i s condition, 'there I n equation (D), i t has been assumed that
must be a mass f l o w from each element of volume
toward each o f t h e l a r g e p a r t i c l e s u n t i l a sym-
m e t r i c d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h smaller mean
free path (due t o t h e increased density) and a
l
i smaller region In which t h e d e n s i t y varies i s
established. The r e a c t i o n upon t h e l a r g e p a r t i - An elenentary s o l u t i o n o f (83) i s
cles, o f canpelling t h i s mass flow, i s a force ef(ko'F w*to)e-u* where X z =
u r g i n g the p a r t i c l e s toward one another, t a k i n g
i n t o account t h e symnetry o f t h e processes
ki - %/e2, so t h a t the e f f e c t i v e dianeter @
act ing . o t h e m a i n o f f(n,ro.po)
o f qgngnttude I/& 2 x . i n n is o f t h e order
That is, t h e f i x t o r
e- X governs t h e amplitude o f t h e
Appendix B elementary solution, w i t h
e.,
w i t h r e s u l t a n t (xo. yo. 20, i c t o )
(SO&.
-
t i o n s o f n independent u n i t sinusoidal motions
Q. (see footnote of Section 12)
i) t h e square r o o t o f t h e maximum e f f e c t i v e
value of n. and
and l e t
ii) t h e d i m e t e r o f t h e d m a i n o f t h e
A/ FCnA3,s
,*b*odpd@ at#Q!J i n e r t i a l motion.
a-- sa
ng." 30 -s. s f n q s i q 4 a I M T .
*ind,,cbsp,
(81)
%'' (i.e. langevin's equation, where i$ i so the
t&'= tC..--so &=N. p o s i t i o n vector o f t h e Brownian p a r t i c l e , p is
a constant, and A ( t ) i s a f l u c t u a t i n g vector
function), w i l l be evident.
and the number i n t h e volume element
dxodyodzod(icto) a f t e r t h e addition, and averag- L e t i t be supposed that,sme boundary condl-
i n g over phases, must be given by t h e l e f t side tiy has been assigned t o V(r.t) f o r t h e p o i n t
Of
~ . one may i n d i c a t e t h e dependence
r = ~ - ~ , ~ t = tThen
N ~s.d&.A@d.lGW/,%; $,rWD, o f V ( r , t ) on t h i s choice by s e t t i n g
4FfHI,**,*,3-.&WJ9 dgf(tk&) V @ , t h V~*,*;Z.*d (C3)
But, upon expanding F(n,xo.yo,zo.icto) in a Any m b i g u i t introduced by the n o t a t i o n I n t r o -
power series about t h e p o i n t (xo,yo,ro.icto) and duced i n (C33. w i l l be avoided by always i n d i c a t -
c a r r y i n g o u t t h e I n d i c a t e d average, one f i n d s i n g t h e arguments o f t h e f u n c t i o n under
t h a t only t e r n s quadratic i n t h e v a r i a b l e s discussion.
.
remain Further, expand 1ng F( n+l ,no .yo. 10.1 c t o)
i n a power series i n t h e neighborhood o f n , and One thenaimagines t h e motion of t h e poten-
equating quadratic terms f i g u r i n g i n (B2). one t i a l f i e l d V(r.t) constantly interrupted, each,
finds time beginning a new w i t h d i f f e r e n t values o f ro
and to. such t h a t
<*.>,a 0
(C4)
<%>,-O
~
References
1. Alrofon, F.E., "The O r i g i n of the Gravita-
t i o n a l Field," Advances i n the
Astronautical Sclences Vol. 5. Plenum
Press, Inc.. N.Y. (1d0). Ls
side o f (C6) are exhibited as f o r c i n g t e r m on 2. Welton, T.A., "Sane Observable E f f e c t s o f
the same scale o f observation as W(r,t). the Quantum-Mechanlcal Fluctuations o f the
Moreover, Electromagnetic Field," Phys. Rev. 74(1948)
1157-1167.
- i at*
d 4+o 6.
New York Times, 3 February 1929.
33