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British Journal of Guidance &

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Computer-Assisted Careers
Guidance Systems and
Organisational Change
a b
James P. Sampson Jr. & A. G. Watts
a
Center for the Study of Technology in Counseling
and Career Development Florida State University ,
USA
b
National Institute for Careers Education and
Counselling
Published online: 28 Sep 2010.

To cite this article: James P. Sampson Jr. & A. G. Watts (1992) Computer-Assisted
Careers Guidance Systems and Organisational Change, British Journal of Guidance &
Counselling, 20:3, 328-343, DOI: 10.1080/03069889208253630

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 Computer-Assisted Careers Guidance Systems and Organisational
Change
J a m e s P. Sampson. Jr. Center for the Study of Technology in
Counseling and Career Development
Florida State University, USA

A .G. Watts National Institute for Careers Education and

Counselling
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This article describes a study condiicted to identify the range of potential

influences that a computer-assisted careers guidance system (PROSPECT
( H E ) ) hud on the furictioning of organisations (careers services in higher
education). Data f r o m six institutions indicated that use of PROSPECT ( H E )
was associated with important and varied change within the organisations. I t
oppears that when a careers service seeks opportunities f o r change, CACG
systems can be an important catalyst for change in two respects: b y providing a
focal point for achieriirig previousl~establishedgoals; or, as a consequence of
system use. h, making staff aware of the potential for new organisational
goals.

The ultimate effectiveness of computer-assisted careers guidance

(CACG) is a function of both the design of the system and the manner in
which the system is used in practice. Ballantine (1986) noted that the use of a
CACG system is influenced by the organisation responsible for the system’s
operation. Sampson et al. (1988) found that institutionally-based factors
(staff competence. organisational dynamics. clientele. facilities, and budget
support) were more influential than software-based factors (theoretical
basis of the system, user friendliness, and support from developers) in
determining how two different CACG systems (DISCOVER and SIGI)
were used in the United States. Helwig and Snodgres (1990) found that
institutional funding source (public v . private) and institutional size influ-
enced the extent and nature of CACG use.
Thcre appears to be a growing awareness in the literature that a reciprocal
relationship exists between CACG systems and the organisations that use
this technology: not only do organisations influence the use of CACG
systems. but the usc of CACG systems influences the functioning of organis-
ations. Watts (1986) contended that the systematic approach inherent in
CACG systems could result in improved clarity about the aims and theoreti-
cal assumptions of guidance. better accountability and enhanced quality of
other elements of thc guidance service. Similarly, Maze and Perlmutter
(1983) noted that the structure inherent in CACG systems can influence the

328 Volrinie 20 N o . 3, September I992

 structure of the total guidance programme. Ballantine and Watts (1989)
observed that the existence of a CACG system could influence the nature of
the complementary information required, the classification scheme for such
information, the amount of discretion counsellors have to use alternative
guidance models, and the role definitions of counsellors and of other staff. In
a pilot evaluation of PROSPECT (HE), Watts et al. (1989a) found that: (1)
careers advisers had a wider range of contacts with students than was
possible with traditional individual careers interviews; (2) careers advisers
worked with students representing a greater diversity of disciplines; (3)
limitations in the amount and organisation of materials in the information
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room were identified; and (4) questions were raised about the philosophical
orientation of the careers service. A further analysis of PROSPECT (HE)
pilot evaluation data (Watts et al., 1989b) revealed that PROSPECT use had
exposed the need for staff to work more collaboratively in the delivery of
services, and had resulted in some role confusion among staff.
Understanding the potential influence of CACG systems on organis-
ational functioning is particularly important during the implementation
process. Problems related to implementation remain a major barrier to the
effective use of CACG systems (Bluhm, 1988; Rayman, 1989; Sampson,
1984; Sampson and Reardon, 1991; Walz, 1984; 1987). Sampson etal. (1987)
reported that only 39% of institutions using DISCOVER and SIGI surveyed
in the United States had adopted a formal plan for CACG implementation.
Harris-Bowlsbey (1990) suggested that substantial effort should be directed
toward the development of specific and concrete implementation models.
This need was echoed by system developers and practitioners at a recent
conference on improving the design and use of CACG systems (Sampson et
a/., 1991).
The importance of understanding the potential impact of CACG systems
on organisations is emphasised further when these systems are viewed as an
agent of organisational change. Watts (1986; 1990) suggested that in ad-
dition to conceiving CACG systems as a tool that supplements other tools
used in providing guidance, or as an alternative to guidance services, CACG
systems can be used as an agent of change to engage intentionally in
organisational development. Ballantine and Watts (1989) stated that ‘in
order to gain significant advantage, the technology should be viewed as a
means to facilitate change in the structure of the organisation in such a way
as to improve the service it offers in a manner not possible without the
technology’ (p. 18). Examples of organisational change associated with
CACG system use could include: increased emphasis on the provision of
systematic group-based interventions; increased emphasis on student self-
directed use of self-assessment and information resources; increased student
use of existing print-based information materials; re-examination of the
facilitative role of the information officer or careers librarian; re-

British Journal of Guidance and Counselling 329

 examination of the facilitative role of clerical support staff; development
and refinement of staff skills; and enhanced visibility within the institution.

Purpose of the study

While the experience of researchers and practitioners combined with
CACG system evaluation data provides useful ideas regarding the organis-
ational change associated with CACG system use, a more comprehensive
investigation is needed to better understand this relationship. Accordingly,
a studv was conducted to identify the range of potential influences that a
CACG system (PROSPECT (HE)) can have on the functioning of organis-
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ations (careers services in higher education). The research question was as

follows: in what manner did staff members (heads of service, PROSPECT
site co-ordinators, and information officers) perceive that the implemen-
tation of a CACG system (PROSPECT (HE)) had influenced the function-
ing of their organisations (six careers services in higher education)? It was
hoped that data from this study could be used to: (1) assist careers-scrvice
staff to better anticipate the potential organisational change associated with
using a CACG system; (2) assist CACG system developers, researchers, and
careers-service staff to develop better implementation models; ( 3 ) assist
careers-service staff to intentionally use the implementation of a CACG
system as an opportunity for organisational development; and (4)provide
an additional foundation for further research on this topic.
It is important to note that the results of this study cannot establish
causality. Numerous other organisational variables are likely to moderate
CACG system use and organisational functioning. The study should be
viewed as a qualitative exploratory effort to suggest potential relationships
between CACG system use and organisational functioning that can then be
examined in more controlled experimental situations in the future.

Sample
The sample for this study was six institutions which had been using PROS-
PECT ( H E ) over a period of 28 months. PROSPECT is a major new CACG
system which currently consists of nine modules: Planning Your Career,
Assessing Yourself. Searching Occupations, Analysing Occupations,
Evaluating Your Options, Estimating Your Chances, Planning for Entry.
Hunting for Jobs, and Applying for Jobs. It is capable of being used on a
stand-alone basis, although it is expected to be most effective when fully
integrated into the facilities offered by careers services (Pierce-Price, 1983;
1988). The six institutions were identical to the sample used in the PROS-
PECT ( H E ) pilot evaluation (Watts e f al., 198%; 1989b; 1991). They
comprised: Aston University. Brighton Polytechnic, the Polytechnic of
Central London. the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, the University of
Sussex, and the University of Warwick. These sites had been selected from
23 applicants on the basis of representing diversity in institutional type

330 Volitme 20 No. 3, Septeriiber 1992

 (universities and polytechnics), diversity in the nature of careers services
(size, resources, orientation, and range of services typically offered), and
willingness to participate in an evaluation of PROSPECT (HE) (for a
complete description of the pilot sites, see Watts et al., 1989a). The pilot
evaluation had covered the first eight months of use.
PROSPECT (HE) pilot evaluation sites were used as the sample for this
current study because: (1) the results of the pilot evaluation had revealed
that the system functioned adequately within its design parameters; (2) by
examining only one CACG system, potential differences in system function-
ing were held constant: and (3) since the pilot evaluation was completed 20
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months previously, staff could still be expected to remember any organis-

ational change associated with using the system at that stage, and yet there
had been additional time for further organisational change to be observed.
Also, PROSPECT- because of its comprehensiveness and flexibility - raises
more integration issues than other UK systems.
In order to avoid systematic bias associated with specific staff roles, data
were collected from the head of the careers service, the PROSPECT site co-
ordinator, and the information officer from each pilot site. In one case the
roles of head of service and of PROSPECT site co-ordinator were assumed
by one staff member, while in three other cases the PROSPECT site co-
ordinator position was vacant with its duties being assumed by the heads of
service (two cases) or the information officer (one case): thus a total of 14
interviews were conducted. The head of the careers service was typically
responsible for securing staff and financial commitment to participate in the
pilot evaluation, supervising staff, and ensuring that the system was appro-
priately integrated into ongoing service delivery. The PROSPECT site co-
ordinator was typically responsible for liaison with development and evalu-
ation staff, co-ordination of local operation, and collection of some evalu-
ation data. The information officer was typically responsible for the
information room where the system was located and was also in a good
position to observe student and staff use of PROSPECT (HE).
It is important to note that for a period of twelve months after the
conclusion of the pilot study, considerable uncertainty existed concerning
the management and future development of the system. Uncertainty about
the system decreased during the six-month period of negotiation of the
current ten-year management and software development agreement. One
head of service commented during the interview that this uncertainty had
resulted in some reluctance to initiate post-pilot trial integration efforts. It is
possible that this reluctance also existed in varying degrees at the other pilot-
site institutions.

Procedures
A letter was sent to the head of the careers service at each pilot site,
informing them of the nature of the study and requesting participation of

British Journal of Guidance and Counselling 331

 appropriate staff. Staff from all six sites agreed to participate in the study.
Each staff member was interviewed by phone, with the typical interview
lasting approximately 30 minutes. In order to ensure the consistency of data
collection. a standard format was used for each interview. Staff were asked
to: (1) identify. without prompting. any potential organisational change
associated with using PROSPECT within their careers service during and
since the pilot evaluation (a total period of 28 months); (2) identify, again
without prompting, any anticipated futitre organisational change associated
with using PROSPECT within their careers service; (3) respond (‘yes’ or
*no’)to a listing of 24 examples of potential organisational changes associ-
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ated with using PROSPECT within their careers service during and since the
pilot evaluation; and (4) respond (‘yes’ or ‘no’) to a listing of 24 anticipated
future examples of organisational change associated with using PROSPECT
within their careers service. In this way, unbiased responses were obtained,
while at the same time subsequent prompting was provided so that staff
could consider a full range of possible organisational change associated with
use of CACG systems. The 24 examples of potential organisational change
were derived from PROSPECT pilot evaluation data and the experience of
the investigators.

Results
Staff perceptions, without prompting from the interviewer, regarding the
organisational changes associated with use of PROSPECT within their
careers service during and since the pilot evaluation are synthesised in table
1 in terms of actual and potential changes respectively. Staff comments were
extempore as there was no prompting that would have suggested CACG
system impact. Similar perceptions have been logically categorised to aid the
reader in interpreting the data. and an indication has been made of the
number of respondents who made each comment. Within each category, the
data are ordered from most common to least common in occurrence.

Tuhle I. Staff perceptions of actual and potential organisational change associated with
PROSPECT (without prompting from the interviewer)
Actual Potenrial
clirrrige clzange
0 1) friJ A’arure of orgariisarioricil change
-
23 22 Change associarrd nith ihe delir,ery qf rervices

11 3 Prompted change in student use of careers guidance services

> 0 - increased number of student information requcsts to
information staff
-
7
1 - increased use of information resources by students
0 2 - increase in the level of student demand for services
1 0 - increased sophistication of student questions to staff

332 Volume 20 No. 3, September 1992

 Table 1 (cont.)
Actual Potential
change change
(n) (4 Nature of organisational change
1 0 - improved student preparation for individual interviews
1 0 - increased perceived availability of careers advisers
1 0 - increased perceived visibility of the careers service
1 0 - increased perceived responsiveness of the careers service to
meet student needs
1 0 - increased speed of student learning as evidenced by a
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reduction in the total number of contacts per student

5 15 Prompted change in the nature of services provided to students

0 4 - increase in the use of group interventions to support student
use of PROSPECT
0 3 - increase in the amount of co-operative service delivery efforts
with academic departments
2 0 - reduced the emphasis on individual interviews as the dominant
mode of service delivery
0 2 - increase in the provision of local information by using the local
information capacity of PROSPECT
1 0 - increased student demand for counselling after using
PROSPECT
1 0 - expanded the capacity of the careers service to respond to
student questions
1 0 - expanded the diversity of service delivery options for students
0 1 - increase in the availability of careers services to students
0 1 - reduced the emphasis on individual interviews as the dominant
mode of service delivery
0 1 - increase in the availability of other computer applications to
meet student needs
0 1 - increase in the integration of PROSPECT with all careers
guidance services available
0 1 - increase in staff efforts to intervene to help students use
PROSPECT
0 1 - increase in the use of PROSPECT prior to student use of
other careers-service interventions

4 2 Enhanced the capacity of the careers service to deal with diverse

studentklient needs
1 0 - students with more difficult career problems
1 0 - students with more diverse learning styles
1 1 - graduates seeking careers guidance services
1 0 - adults from the local community seeking careers guidance
0 1 - postgraduates seeking careers guidance services

0 2 Increase the amount of space available in the information room

1 0 Prompted the development of new support materials for students

1 0 Prompted change in scheduling procedures for service delivery

British Journal of Guidance and Counse[ling 333

 Table I (cont.)
Actual Potenrial
change change
(11) (nJ Nature of orgariisatiorial change
1 0 Created additional demands on limited space within the
information room

18 14 Change associard wirh organisational proce.c.ses

1(I 7 Enhanced evaluation and planning efforts

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0 4 - re-evaluate the information room in terms of the information

available and the organisational schema for information
3 0 - encouraged re-evaluation of careers guidance theory and
practice
3 0 - stimulated re-evaluation of the information room in terms of
the information available. the organisational schema for the
information. and signposting within the room
1 0 - increased evidence of staff interest in long-range planning
1 0 - encouraged exploration of new ways of serving students
1 1 - stimulated re-evaluation of the quality of the total careers
service
1 0 - encouraged exploration of how to best integrate PROSPECT
with existing service-delivery options
iI i - re-evaluate the promotion of PROSPECT i n order to better
identify students who could benefit from using the system
i) I - allow staff release time to explore new service-delivery options
related to PROSPECT

4 0 Reinforced the philosophical and theoretical foundation of the

careers service
5 0 - reinforced the model and philosophy of guidance espoused by
the careers service
I 0 - facilitated agreement among staff concerning the
appropriateness of adopting a systematic approach to carecrs
guidance

Prompted change in staff training

- increased amount of staff training completed
~ provided a new staff training resource
- prompted new topics for staff training
- increased perceived need for information-room staff's
knowledge of career development principles

iI 3 Increase i n the tinancial resources needed to meet increased

demand for careers guidance services

0 1 Increase in the amount of communication and collaborative

efforts among institutions using PROSPECT

334 Volume 20 No. 3. September 1992

 Table I (cont.)
Actual Poteritial
change change
(n) (n) Nature of organisational change
~

12 3 Change associated with staff members

5 Change in staff behaviour

2 - increased time spent by careers advisers in the information
room
- encouraged more effective use of careers advisers’ time
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- increased diversity of tasks completed by staff

- required a reallocation of how time was spent by information
staff
0 1 - increase in the amount of time spent by careers advisers in
dealing with difficult student problems

3 Change in staff attitude

2 - improved staff attitude toward computer applications
1 - enhanced the sense of professionalism among staff

2 Change in staff roles

1 - increased perceived importance of information staff in the
delivery of careers services
1 0 - diminished distinction between the role of careers advisers and
information staff

2 0 Change in staff knowledge

1 0 - increased careers adviser awareness of studentklient needs
1 0 - increased careers adviser awareness of resources available in
the information room
Note: Total n = 14 (6 heads of service, 2 PROSPECT site co-ordinators, and 6 information
officers/managers).
~ ~~

Staff perceptions, with prompting from the interviewer, of the presence

or absence of 24 examples of actual and potential organisational change
associated with use of PROSPECT (HE) are presented in table 2. The
data, which are expressed in percentages, are ordered from most common to
least common in actual occurrence. Staff members perceived that PROS-
PECT was associated with a wide range of actual organisational changes.
with 18 out of 24 items (75%) being endorsed by more than half of the
respondents. They also in general perceived that the organisational change
associated with PROSPECT would be still greater in the future, with 16 out
of 24 items (67%) showing an increase, 4 items remaining the same and 4
items decreasing. It is interesting to note that several items perceived as
changing less in the past were perceived as changing substantially more in
the future, with the greatest change (in descending order) attributed to:
change in the amount of co-ordinated efforts amongst organisational units
within the institution, such as academic departments; change in the budget

British Journal of Guidance and Counselling 335

 Table 2: Staff perceptions of actual and potential organisational change associated with
PROSPECT (without prompting from the interviewer)
Actuol Poienrirrl
chunge chfrnge
hurlire of orgrrnisntionol chrige
Change in staff attitude towards PROSPECT.
Change in the promotional materials for the careers service.
Change in staff time allocated to various work tasks.
Change in quantity and/or nature of staff training.
Change in the amount of contact with other careers services in
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the country.
S6% 86% Change in roles among staff.
86% 7 1'"0 Deletion of other computer applications for student use.
79% 7 1O h Change in allocation of space in the information room.
7I "u 7906 Increase or decrease in services offered. such as individual
interviews. group work. or walk-in use of the information
room.
71"o 79 % Change in the content of particular services. such as interviews
or group work.
Change in the total amount o f space needed.
Positive or negative changes in staff attitude towards their work.
Change in staff time spent discussing careers-service goals.
Increase in level of student demand for services.
Change in the nature of space needed. such as more open spaces
rather than interview rooms.
Change in the nature of students served, such as serving more
first-. second-. and/or final-year students.
57% 64"/o Change in the nature of information available in the information
room.
5 7 Yl 86% Change in the general visibility of the careers service.
50"% 64 "(0 Change in the scheme for organising information in the
information room
36% 57% Change in staff behaviour in completing work tasks.
36% 79% Change in priorities for hiring future staff.
36% 64"10 Addition of other computer applications for student use.
36% 93"h Change in the amount of co-ordinated efforts amongst
organisational units within the institution, such ac academic
departments.
24% 79YO Change in the budget for training. information resources. etc.
N o r e . Total n = 14 (as for table I ) .

for training. information resources, etc.; change in priorities for hiring

future staff; change in the nature of students served. such as serving more
first-. second- and/or final-year students; change in the general visibility of
the careers service; addition of other computer applications for student use;
positive or negative changes in staff attitude towards their work; increase in
level o f student demand for services; and change in staff behaviour in
completing work tasks. It should also be noted that most staff voluntarily

336 Volume 20 No. 3, September 1992

 commented that changes in staff attitude towards their work were positive
(as opposed to negative) and that there was an increase (as opposed to a
decrease) in other services offered, such as individual interviews, group
work, or walk-in use of the information room.
Variability in staff perceptions of organisational impact was also exam-
ined. Data on the extent of agreement among staff at the six institutions
concerning perceptions of the actual and potential organisational change
associated with PROSPECT are presented in table 3. Agreement on the

Table 3: Percentage of agreement (either ‘yes’ or ‘no’) among staff concerning perceptions of
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the actual and potential organisational change associated with PROSPECT, by institution
(with prompting from the interviewer)
Actual Potential
change change Insrifuriori
71% 67% Aston University
70% 79% Brighton Polytechnic
7.5% 33% Polytechnic of Central London
63Yo 83% University of Newcastle upon Tyne
46 Yo 42% University of Sussex
50% 75% University of Warwick
64% 63% All institutions combined
Note: Total n = 14 (as for table 1).

existence (‘yes’ response) or non-existence (‘no’ response) of actual organis-

ational impact ranged from 46% to 79%, with all institutions combined at
64%. Agreement on potential organisational impact ranged from 42% to
83%. with all institutions combined at 63%. Table 4 shows the extent of
change (the percentage of items endorsed ‘yes’) perceived by staff at each

Table 4: Percentage of items endorsed ‘yes’, indicating actual and potential organisational
change associated with PROSPECT, by institution (with prompting from the interviewer)
Actual Potential
change change Institution
60% 67% Aston University
6.5Yo 85Yo Brighton Polytechnic
67% 71% Polytechnic of Central London
81Yo 94% University of Newcastle upon Tyne
63% 76% University of Sussex
63Yo 88% University of Warwick
67% 80% All institutions combined
~~~ ~

Note: Total n = 14 (as for table 1).

British Journal of Guidance and Counselling 337

 institution. Perceptions of actual change ranged from 60% to 81%, with all
institutions combined at 67%. Potential change ranged from 67% to 94%,
with all institutions combined at 80%. Table 5 shows the extent of change
perceived by the three different types of staff surveyed. Perceptions

Table 5: Percentage of items endorsed 'yes', indicating actual and potential organisational
change associated with PROSPECT, by staff role (with prompting from the interviewer)
Acrual Porential
cliatiye tlriirige Sraff role
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67"J" 86% Head of the career5 service

71"" 19% PROSPECT site co-ordtnatorc
65% 7i%, Intormation ofhcers
67"" X0"o All \taff combined
.%'ow: Total n = 14 (as f o r tahle I ) .

of actual change ranged from 65% to 71%, with all institutions combined at
67%. Potential change ranged from 75% to 86%, with all institutions
combined at 80%.

Discussion
The first goal of this study was to provide data to assist careers-service staff
to anticipate the organisational changes associated with use of a CACG
system. While cultural. economic, and political factors are likely to moder-
ate the specific extent and nature of such changes, the data from the study
provide a starting point for identifying potential areas of change.
The actual organisational changes associated with PROSPECT can be
generally categorised as relating to the delivery of services, to organisational
processes. or to staff members. In terms of service-delivery change, trends
were noted towards: (1) increased student use of information resources in
the information room: (2) a reduced emphasis on individual interviewing;
and (3) an enhanced capacity to deal with diversc student needs. Trends in
organisational-process change included: (1) the encouragement of a re-
evaluation of careers guidance theory and practice; (2) the encouragement
of a reevaluation of the information room; (3) a reinforcement of the
current model and philosophy espoused by the careers service; and (4)a
stimulus for staff training. Trends associated with change for staff members
included: (1) an increase in the time careers advisers spent in the infor-
mation room: and (2) an improved attitude toward computer applications.
The potential organisational changes associated with PROSPECT can
also be classified within the same three categories. In terms of service-
delivery change, trends were noted toward: (1) a greater use of group
interventions; (2) more co-operative service-delivery efforts with academic
departments; ( 3 ) an increase in computer-delivered provision of local

338 Volume 20 No. 3, September 1992

 information; (4) an increase in student demand for services; and ( 5 ) an
increase in space needed in the information room. Trends in organisational-
process change included: (1) a re-evaluation of the information room; (2) an
increase in staff training; and (3) a need for increased funding to meet
increased student demand for service. With regard to staff members, the
change associated with increased time spent by careers advisers in the
information room was expected to continue.
Some differences exist among staff perceptions of actual and potential
change associated with CACG system use. For the future, staff members
perceived a potential increase in the use of groups in service delivery, in co-
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operative efforts with academic departments, and in the provision of local

information, that had not been evident during and since the pilot trial. A
substantial potential increase in co-operative efforts was also evident in
table 2. It is likely that these changes are perceived as being best attempted
after the CACG system has been fully established in the institution. In-
creased careers adviser work in the information room, a re-evaluation of the
information room, and the need for staff training, were viewed as ongoing
areas of change.
Differences also existed among extempore and non-extempore staff
perceptions of change. With prompting from the interviewer, staff members
perceived further change occurring in: the promotional materials for the
careers service; the amount of contact with other careers services in the
country; availability of other computer applications for student use; pri-
orities for hiring future staff; and the budget for training, information
resources, etc. It is possible that staff may be less aware of the potential for
this type of change.
In terms of variability in staff perceptions, staff members at the six
institutions tended to agree more often than not about the existence of
actual and potential change (64% and 63% respectively). The extent of
agreement, however, did vary among institutions. Variability between
institutions in the perceived extent of change was also apparent in table 4. It
is interesting to note that staff at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne
perceived a relatively substantial amount of change related to the implemen-
tation of PROSPECT (HE). Watts el al. (1989a) noted that in comparison
with other pilot study institutions, Newcastle implemented a relatively
elaborate support structure for student use of PROSPECT (HE), which
actively involved careers advisers and information staff: this may have
contributed to the perception of more general organisational impact at this
institution. The data summarised in tables 3 and 4 would suggest that local
institutional variables have some influence over the nature of perceived
CACG impact on the organisation. Less variability was apparent in percep-
tions of organisational change between heads of service, PROSPECT site
co-ordinators, and information officers (table 5). It seems that local insti-
tutional variables account for more variability than does staff role.

British Journal of Guidance and Counselling 339

 The second goal of the study was to provide data to assist CACG system
developers. researchers. and careers-service staff to develop better im-
plementation models. Given the extent of the potential changes noted in the
study. revisions of implementation models are clearly needed. Aspects of
such models needing particular attention include software selection and
software integration. The potential for various CACG systems to stimulate
change needs to be examined during software selection and included as a
selection criterion. Specific change opportunities, as noted in this study,
need to be considered when deciding how to best integrate a CACG system
into the functioning of a careers service.
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The third goal of the study was to provide data to assist careers-service
staff to intentionally use the implementation of a CACG system as an
opportunity for organisational development. Several of the changes noted
have strategic implications that are relevant to the strategic-planning pro-
cess for careers services described by Watts and Sampson (1989) and
Peterson ef af. (1991). Change options identified that have particular
strategic-planning implications include: (1) enhanced capacity to deal with
diverse student needs: (2) co-operative efforts with academic departments;
(3) increased provision of local information: (4) increased student demand;
( 5 ) increased space needed in the information room; and (6) increased need
for financial resources.
It is important to note some cautions in interpreting the data from this
study. First. it is likely that the process for selecting institutions to partici-
pate in the pilot evaluation of PROSPECT (HE) influenced the results of the
study. The SIX institutions were selected partly on the basis that they wanted
to implement PROSPECT and to participate in the pilot evaluation, thus
indicating a readiness for organisational change that might well be greater
than that to be found in the typical careers service. During the phone
interviews, four of the heads of service commented that use of PROSPECT
helped the careers service to achieve goals that had been established before
the pilot study began; only one site co-ordinator commented that use of
PROSPECT facilitated exploration of new goals for the careers service. On
the other hand. the period of uncertainty concerning the management and
future development of PROSPECT may have served at least partially to
counteract this potential influence of the selection process on the study’s
results.
Second. in four of the pilot sites, a change occurred in the leadership of the
careers service from the time of the beginning of the pilot evaluation through
to the completion of the present study. These four new heads of service
seemed likely to have encouraged organisational changes that were parallel
to the changes resulting from the use of PROSPECT. It is not possible to
identify the relative contribution to organisational change that resulted from
the use of PROSPECT as opposed to the new appointments and indeed to
other factors.

340 Volume 20 No. 3, September I992

 While data from this study has provided an indication of organisational
change associated with the use of PROSPECT (HE), further research is
needed to identify how various moderator variables influence how CACG
systems and careers services interact to bring about organisational change.
For example, how does organisational culture, with respect to the willing-
ness to innovate, influence the nature and extent of CACG impact on the
organisation? How does the consistency of leadership over time and the
style of leadership (e.g. the amount of staff participation allowed in organis-
ational decision-making) influence CACG impact? Other potential moder-
ator variables include: (1)the extent of pressure for change from outside the
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careers service; (2) institutional size; (3) financial resources available to the
careers service, (4) anticipated v. unanticipated need to change; ( 5 ) amount
of time spent in planning how best to integrate the system with existing and
potential service-delivery options; and (6) cultural, economic, and political
factors.
It would also be important to investigate whether or not the organisational
changes identified in this study occurred as a result of factors unrelated to
PROSPECT, e.g. would the trend towards increased use of groups have
occurred anyway, due to increasing demand and/or decreasing resources?
Also, organisational change is not inherently positive in and of itself. To
what extent do staff implementing systems like PROSPECT (HE) perceive
the changes as appropriate or inappropriate for their organisation? Finally,
what type of change occurred in individual staff members as a result of using
PROSPECT (HE), as opposed to change in the organisation in general?
How much and what type of individual change is necessary prior to the more
general perception that the organisation has changed? In terms of research
methodology, a combination of correlational and case-study designs would
be needed to explore these questions fully.

Conclusion
The use of PROSPECT (HE) by the six careers services represented in this
study was associated with important and varied change within the organis-
ations. Some of the changes had strategic implications for the relationship
between the careers services and their institutions. In general, it is likely that
computer-assisted careers guidance systems have a varying degree of organ-
isational impact, ranging from minimal to substantial, depending on the
extent to which organisational culture and situational factors (such as
staffing changes) support or inhibit change. A CACG system that is im-
plemented as a replacement for counsellors and is then ‘forgotten about’
(Rayman, 1989, p.3) will have little appreciable influence on organisational
functioning, while CACG systems that are actively sought by staff to
enhance careers services (as was the case in this study) will tend to have a
more significant influence.The study supports the notion that a reciprocal
relationship exists between CACG systems and the organisations that use

British Journal of Guidance and Counselling 341

 this technology: organisations influence the use of CACG systems; CACG
systems influence the functioning of organisations. In this reciprocal re-
lationship, it appears that the organisation itself mediates the nature and
extent of CACG system influence on the organisation.
In summary. when a careers service seeks opportunities for change,
CACG systems can be an important catalyst for change in two respects: by
providing a focal point for achieving previously established goals; or, as a
consequence of system use, by making staff aware of the potential for new
organisational goals. The potential for achieving the joint optimisation
noted by Ballantine and Watts (1989), where both the technology and the
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organisation change and interact in order to maximise the effectiveness of

service delivery. is dependent upon careers-service staff anticipating poten-
tial change and then using this knowledge to encourage change that is
congruent with the existing and emerging goals of the organisation. It is
hoped that this study will provide careers-service staff with an indication of
the nature of the organisational changes that are possible in relation to
CACG system use.

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Support for this study was provided by the National Institute for Careers
Education and Counselling, the Oxford University Careers Service, and the
Florida State University. Appreciation is expressed to Malcolm Ballantine,
Sandra M . Sampson and Robert C. Reardon for their review of an initial draft
of this manuscript.

Received 28 March 1991; final revisions received 28 August 1991.

Correspondence should be addresed to: Dr James P. Sampson, Jr., Center

for the Study of Technology in Counseling and Career Development, 215
Stone Building, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, USA.

British Journal of Guidance and Counselling 343