Sizing and applications of battery energy

storage technologies in smart grid system: A

review
Cite as: J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5063866
Submitted: 02 October 2018 . Accepted: 21 January 2019 . Published Online: 08 February 2019

M. Sufyan, N. A. Rahim , M. M. Aman, C. K. Tan, and S. R. S. Raihan

J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5063866 11, 014105

© 2019 Author(s).
 Journal of Renewable ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/rse
and Sustainable Energy

Sizing and applications of battery energy storage

technologies in smart grid system: A review
Cite as: J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5063866
Submitted: 2 October 2018 . Accepted: 21 January 2019 .
Published Online: 8 February 2019

M. Sufyan,1 N. A. Rahim,1,a) M. M. Aman,2 C. K. Tan,1 and S. R. S. Raihan1

AFFILIATIONS
1
Higher Instituion Centre of Excellence (HICoE), UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), Wisma R&D, University
of Malaya, 59990 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2
NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, Pakistan

a)
nasrudin@um.edu.my

ABSTRACT
Dynamics of the world are changing, and people are preferring low cost and reliable power throughout the day. The addition of
renewable energy to the existing system is also one of the ways to provide reliable and cheap electricity. The existing bottle neck
in transmission lines, continuous contamination of the environment due to heavy reliance on fossil fuels, and the highly
fluctuating cost of fossil fuel are few reasons for the widespread use of renewable energy technology. Energy storage
technologies are the need of time and range from low capacity mobile storage batteries to high capacity batteries connected to
the intermittent renewable energy sources. Selection of different battery types, each having distinguished characteristics in
power and energy, depends on the nature of power required and delivered. This paper presents a detailed review of battery
energy storage technologies pertaining to the latest technologies, benefits, sizing considerations, efficiency, cost, and recycling.
An in-depth analysis in terms of advantages and limitations between the different types of batteries is discussed and compared.
In terms of microgrid application, the economic benefits of battery sizing using optimization and probabilistic methods provide a
potential solution during the design stage by taking into account various factors affecting the sizing of the battery such as the
degradation rate, reliability, and battery placement. This paper ends with the discussion on the recyclability of these batteries
and their impact on the environment.
Published under license by AIP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5063866

I. INTRODUCTION the challenges of sustainable, economic, and reliable electricity

Currently, the dominant source of energy for power gener-
ation and transportation is fossil fuel. Most of the countries are
depending upon the imported fossil fuel, and therefore, the
countries need to face financial instability when the price of
fossil fuel changes in the international market. According to the
Energy information agency (EIA) report, a substantial increase in
oil prices will be observed in the next two decades.1 As such,
government and energy companies are taking steps to move
towards the priceless Renewable Energy Sources (RESs).
Greenhouse gas emission will be reduced by replacing fossil
fuels with RES and leads to growth in the industrial sector.
However, RES will present challenges when integrated with the
existing system due to its intermittent nature. As such, a battery
is considered an important component to suppress the inter-
mittent power delivery from RES. In contrast to the conven-
tional grid, a modified electrical system is required to overcome
by installing renewable energy sources at a higher level.
A smart grid provides the solution to revolutionize the elec-
tricity grid and improve the power delivery in an efficient man-
ner. The smart grid transforms the current grid into the one that
functions more responsively, economically, and cooperatively.
The National Institute of the Standards and Technology (NIST)
describes the smart grid as a system with the capability to inte-
grate communication and computing technologies as well as
services into power system infrastructure.2,3 Figure 1 shows the
transfer of electricity from the power plant generators to the
customer end in a smart grid power system. The flow of electric-
ity and communication between the generation, transmission,
and distribution (T&D) utilities and customers is also shown in
the diagram. The generation part consists of fossil fuel genera-
tors, renewable energy sources, and battery storage systems.
The data centre units manage the generation part remotely

J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5063866 11, 014105-1
Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Journal of Renewable
and Sustainable Energy
FIG. 1. Flow of electricity in a smart grid system with the control unit and PMU. Reproduced with permission from Hossain et al., Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 60, 1178
(2016). Copyright 2016 Elsevier.7
through their intelligent nodes installed at different locations.
Phaser management units (PMUs) are also installed inside the
control centre by which the operator can measure grid stability
in the case of any fault. The customer section contains the intel-
ligent building, electrical vehicles, household, and batteries to
store excess energy for later use as per customer require-
ment.4,5 In a smart grid network, RESs are safely plugged into
the grid and additional power is provided by the household
distributed generation and battery storage. The smart grid will
enable the consumers to manage the energy consumption and
cost. This will benefit the utility companies through increasing
security, reducing peak loads, and lowering the operational
costs.5,6
However, the smart grid also brings upon many challenges
when the integration of fuel cells, photovoltaics (PVs), wind
energy, and battery storage are considered.7,8 The energy stor-
age system (ESS) plays a leading role in increasing the penetra-
tion of renewable energy sources due to its continuous support
to the power grid in the fulfilment of load demands in terms of
regulating power system frequency and upgrading the transmis-
sion line capability. ESS minimizes the fluctuations of renewable
energy and stores the additional power when the generation is
high so that the energy can be used during peak load hours.9
ESS also improves the efficiency of the power system by mitigat-
ing the grid congestion.10 In general, ESS can be classified into
J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5063866
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ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/rse
mechanical energy storage (pumped hydro storage, flywheel,
and compressed air energy storage), electrical energy storage
[super-capacitors (SCs) and superconducting magnetic energy
storage], electrochemical energy storage (battery), chemical
energy storage, and thermal energy storage technologies.11
Figure 2 shows the classifications of energy storage systems.
Some of the types will be explained in detail.
This paper presents a detailed review of the battery energy
storage system (BESS). This paper is organized as follows:
Section II presents the benefits for energy storage systems, and
Sec. III gives a detailed review of battery storage technologies
and other types of energy storage systems. A review of hybrid
energy storage systems is provided in Sec. IV. The battery
energy storage sizing methods and the factors affecting the siz-
ing of battery storage are discussed in Secs. V and VI, respec-
tively. Finally, recycling of battery storages and their impact on
the environment are discussed in Sec. VII.
II. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM
Electricity storage and technologies that have the capability
to reduce peaks and smooth the power are crucial elements of
the future power system network. ESS can be the solution to fix
the aging power grid, bridging the gap between the utilities and
customer’s demand. They have become a critical tool for
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FIG. 2. Classification of energy storage systems.

increasing consumer comfort, reducing electricity bills, and Some benefits of the energy storage system in microgrids
earning revenue. and smart grids are presented as follows:
The storage device allows the consumer to not only store
energy for a longer duration of time but also save the consumer’s A. Peak shaving
money by charging the storage devices during off peak hours
Peak shaving is the technique to reduce the consumption
when the price is low and uses them during peak hours.12 This
of electricity when the demand of electricity is at peak, usually
increasing importance of energy storage devices has forced the
during the daytime in summer and the night time in winters.
researchers to put great effort into achieving high efficienct and
Utility companies now have different pricing tariffs based on the
cost-effective storage device. However, there are many other
demand at different times, with high price during peak hours.
factors associated with the energy storage devices, which
This variable tariff has helped the utility companies to achieve
include energy storage capacity (MWh), power capacity (MW),
economic dispatch during peak hours. Organizations with high
device cost, and maintenance cost. The charging and discharging
electrical consumptions find peak shaving an attractive option
process of the storage devices requires adequate control strate-
due to its pricing.
gies to perform reliable operation of grids even during the peak
Peak shaving can be done by several ways. One of the
demand.13,14 Consumers may reduce the energy consumption of
options is to reduce the consumption during peak hours by
thermal loads such as air conditioners, water chillers, and water
turning off unnecessary equipment and install thermostats. A
heaters, which results in saving the electricity during peak hours.
couple of other options include the use of generators to meet
Microgrids are small part of the power system that allows
the power demand during the peak time. The other option is to
the smart grid to function properly. Microgrids play a vital role
install storage devices and solar panels that may help in reduc-
in the integration of smart grids to the existing network and
ing power demands as these are effective during peak hours
consist of distributed energy resources and loads that are grid
when the demand is high.
connected or operated in the islanded mode. They generally
A self-consumption energy generation technique for peak
produce energy with renewable sources, making power systems
shaving is studied in Ref. 17 where community based centralized
reliable, economical, clean, and protected. ESS in microgrids is
storage units are analysed to share power within the commu-
used to retain the power balance between the load demand and
nity. The self-consumption ratio rises more for the case without
generation, which ensures the regulation of frequency and grid
the storage unit compared to the case with the central storage
voltage. Selection of different energy storage units, each having
unit. The storage unit is hardly used in winters due to low PV
distinguished characteristics in power and energy, depends on
power production. However, the storage unit increases the
the nature of power required and delivered, but the most com-
yearly revenue and reduces losses by changing from individual
monly used units in microgrids are super-capacitors (SCs) and
household to the centralized unit. The extra revenue can be
batteries. Super-capacitors have high power density and low
used for the community expenses and the maintenance work.
energy density, and so, they are used in applications to support
the fast-transient power demands. In contrast, batteries that
have high energy density and low power density which can be B. Home energy management
active for longer durations and are used to support slow tran- Battery storage is deployed in the houses as a source to
sient power demands. Hybrid energy storage systems having provide power supply during power interruptions. The batteries
both high energy and power density are deployed to support are often used with uninterruptable power supply (UPS) to pro-
the slow and fast transients together.15,16 tect the equipment during the times of high spikes or low

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 Journal of Renewable
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voltages (LVs). Moreover, energy tariff implemented in many
countries can help residential customers to store energy when
the electricity price is low and then utilizing the stored energy
during the high tariff period. A home energy management model
is examined in Ref. 18 to minimize the electricity price of the
household by shifting the timings of the electrical and thermal
appliances of the house base on the electricity pricing value. The
author discusses the home with self-energy generation and
storage units, which interact with the main grid for the
exchange of power. Within the home, the energy consumption
pattern examines the probability of activity and social random
factors like weather and the environment for the electrical and
thermal household appliances. In addition, the energy schedul-
ing problem is modelled as Mixed Integer Linear Programming
(MILP) to get the optimal power dispatch. The optimal size for
the storage device is obtained to enhance the supply and
demand by saving the extra energy.
C. Load levelling
Load levelling involves the process of storing energy when
the system load is light and delivering back during the high
spikes of loads. Flexible Alternating Current Transmission
System (FACTS) devices and battery energy storage systems
(BESSs) are examined in Ref. 19 to mitigate the voltage rise and
the load levelling problem. The smart voltage source inverter
(VSI) having the capability for the reactive power compensation
using the variable power factor is used for high penetration of
PV in the low-voltage (LV) network. The control method mini-
mizes the communication between the static synchronous
compensator (STATCOM) and PV units. During the high PV pen-
etration of up to 30%, the overvoltage issues are mitigated using
the proposed control method even at the farthest point from
the distribution transformer. Thus, the control method is cost
effective because the controller can be installed only at the criti-
cal points rather than installing at all the testing points with a
conventional controller.
D. Power fluctuations
Energy storage systems have been very effective in reduc-
ing fluctuations by shifting the load from the peak periods to off
peak periods. However, with the rapid increase in the load
demand and penetration of renewable sources, the distribution
system faces many challenges of power fluctuations, voltage
stability, and immense power losses.20–22
The authors in Ref. 23 propose methods for smoothing the
power fluctuations by using two load forecasting methods. The
Complex-Valued Neural Network (CVNN) predicts the 24-h load
data, and the series parallel forecasting method predicts the
load data 20 min ahead. The primary objective is to achieve
smoothing and peak shaving for which CVNN performs the opti-
mization technique to follow the state of charge (SOC) trajectory
of BESS. The distribution grid load curve experiences some
unsuitable charging and discharging of BESS, which increases
the complexities due to inaccurate forecasting. Thus, the series
parallel method performs smoothing of the load curve by dump-
ing the load stochastic fluctuations due to high PV penetration.
J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5063866
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E. Transmission and Distribution (T&D) upgrade
deferral
Energy storages are deployed in the transmission system to
defer the equipment upgrades of T&D due to the increase in
power demand or to extend the life of T&D equipment. ESS pro-
vides economical alternatives to develop new infrastructure
(substations and feeder), which poses challenges concerning
local communities, future demand growth, capital investment,
and massive time requirement. The T&D system may require
energy storage for small portion of the year during the summer
days when the demand exceeds equipment’s capacity. Thus, ESS
is beneficial in increasing the equipment life, provided that
equipment operates at the rated capacity and temperature. This
helps in reducing the ground fault incidents in the underground
cables.24,25
F. Frequency regulation
Electric power systems face problems like frequency
deviations and voltage variations due to the uncertainty in
wind and PV output power depending on the location of
installation, weather conditions, and season of the year.26 The
power fluctuations of these renewable sources in the islanded
mode may result in the disconnection of a large area. The grid
codes in European countries have been modified to provide
dynamic grid support such as frequency control and fault ride
through (FRT) during voltage sags. The ancillary service mar-
kets are providing system services like frequency regulation
in many countries. The fast response time of BESS compared
to other storage devices makes it a more effective way of
supporting system frequency. Moreover, the charging and
discharging operation of the battery delivers the regulated
power to the grid in less than 20 ms.27 The power block of the
battery storage system includes converters, filter circuits,
and control systems. The frequent change in active and reac-
tive power supply improves the frequency control capability
and delivers fast active power by implementing the effective
control strategy.28
G. Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT)
Photovoltaic systems connected to the network are devel-
oping at a very fast pace and will soon be a large part of the
power generation in some regions.29 With more grid-connected
PV systems in the medium voltage network, the higher penetra-
tion level in the grid will cause stability and reliability issues, par-
ticularly under the voltage problem.30 Thus, grid codes are
being released by the transmission system operators for PV
sources that are connected to the low or medium voltage net-
works with Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT) capability.
Furthermore, grid codes require the injection of reactive cur-
rent during such faults. The switching losses increase with the
injection of reactive power, and to compensate this, the system
must draw active power. Moreover, the DC voltage falls in the
system during the severe faults. The energy storage can support
the voltage level to stabilize the system during such faults.31–34
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H. Loss minimization
The radial structure of the electrical distribution system
having a large current to voltage ratio results in high quantity
of power losses in a distribution system. These power losses
can be minimized by the reconfiguration of systems like opti-
mal allocation of distributed generators and shunt capacitors
and placement of renewable energy sources.35,36 The utility
companies are intended to place the distributed generators,
e.g., PV system near to the distribution load to reduce the
power flow, minimize losses, and provide stability to the sys-
tem in terms of avoiding voltage disturbances. Power loss in
each branch is the measure of squared value of current flowing
into the branch, and energy storage shifts some of this current
to a low demand period decreasing the resistive losses. The
energy storage placement in the distribution system can also
result in power loss minimization. The energy loss within the
storage system due to the power conditioning unit and internal
resistance loss during the charge discharge processes can be
minimized by managing the efficiency of energy storage.37–40
Moeini in Ref. 41 discusses the power factor based method
to minimize the losses during charging and discharging. A multi-
objective genetic algorithm (GA) technique is proposed to find
the optimal tuning of the power factor to save energy through-
out the year. The power loss of the system decreases even in the
charging mode by allocating the energy storage appropriately.
I. Reliability improvement
The variability in wind and solar power may deteriorate the
reliability of the power system. Energy storage can provide the
required reactive power to improve the reliability by providing
the voltage support. A charge/discharge schedule of BESS is
designed in Ref. 42 to reduce the line losses of the photovoltaic
connected distribution system. The fast response time of BESS
allows the charging/discharging to be scheduled on an hourly
basis depending on the intermittent nature of PV and load varia-
tions. A mathematical model of the battery storage is imple-
mented to determine the scheduling process using the genetic
algorithm technique. The authors further emphasize that the
battery scheduling can improve the reliability and provide the
voltage support to the system.
J. Reserve application
Energy storage can provide reserve facility to respond to
the forecast error of renewable resources. These reserves can
be utilized to solve the contingency issue due to the rapid
increase in generation or the sudden fall of load demands. The
response time of the storage system for this kind of support is
very fast and may last for some hours.43 The storage system bal-
ances the supply and demand of the electricity when the actual
demand rises above the forecasted demand. Flow batteries due
to their short response time and high capacity are heavily used
for this application.44
K. Demand response
The demand response programs have been deployed
in a large extent as the possible solution to overcome the
J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5063866
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unpredictability of RES. The demand response is defined as
the change in the energy consumption by the consumer from
the normal load as an incentive provided by the utility compa-
nies or change in price of electricity during peak hours to
maintain the stability and reliability of the system.45,46 Energy
storage due to its prominent features is the ideal candidate for
managing the residential demand response where the demand
and supply are controlled by households.47 The benefits from
the demand response programs are not limited to the con-
sumers in terms of saving bills. But they are extended to utility
companies where reliability is increased by modifying the load
shape and improving market performance.48
A demand management response is studied in Ref. 49
where the primary objective is to provide the energy with rela-
tively low price and without sacrificing human comforts. A con-
trol algorithm for the electricity demand response of a smart
house is proposed. The algorithm uses local battery storage as
an additional supplementary source to manage the electrical
operation on the basis of hourly electricity price. The algorithm
charges the battery during off peak hours and discharges during
high demand hours. Furthermore, it manages the temperature
of the room to optimize the electricity consumption if the house
total power consumption exceeds the defined level. A daily
reduction in electricity price is observed by deploying the stor-
age device and managing the power consumption efficiently.
L. Electric/hybrid vehicles
Battery energy storage is extensively used in transportation
applications to provide power such as electric and hybrid
electric vehicles (EVs). BESS with high energy density and fast
charging/discharging capability is well suited for EVs. Super-
capacitors are also utilized in transportation during high power
peaks for short durations when the BESS fails to deliver. The effi-
ciency of the EV is increased by incorporating a hybrid energy
storage system (combination of SC-battery) which stores the
energy during braking. The phenomenon of regenerative brak-
ing energy is dominant in city buses. SC delivers this energy for
acceleration purposes, while the battery can be used for air-
conditioning, heater, or electronic appliances.50,51 Therefore,
hybrid storage with high power and energy density and long
calendar life can improve the performance of EV and increase
their penetration in the market. However, the range of the EV is
a major issue due to the high time consumption in charging the
energy storage, and thus, adequate charging infrastructure
should be developed.52
Table I summarizes the benefits of energy storage with the
specific characteristics and suitable technology preferred.
III. BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGY
(ELECTROCHEMICAL)
Although Fig. 2 divides the energy storage technologies
into six subcategories, this section will only concentrate on the
electrochemical type of battery storage technology. Batteries
are the most widespread and oldest of all the energy storage
technologies.53,54 This electrochemical device uses chemical
energy to deliver energy in the electrical form by undergoing
electrochemical reactions. They are manufactured in a variety of
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TABLE I. Overview of benefits with the characteristics.

Characteristics power requirement, response time,

Benefits and storage/discharge time43,58–61 Energy storage technology References

Peak shaving
Energy management
Load levelling
Power fluctuations
T&D upgrade deferral
Frequency regulation
Low voltage ride through
Loss minimization
Reliability improvement
Reserve application
Demand response
Electric/hybrid vehicles
100 kW–100 MW, seconds to minutes, and 1–10 h Lead-acid, Li-Ion, and Vanadium Redox Flow 17 and 62–64
Batteries (VRFBs), fuel cells, ZnBr, NaS, and NiCd
<1 MW, milliseconds to seconds, and 2–10 h PHS, NaS, ZnBr, VRFB, Li-Ion, and flywheel 65 and 66
More than 100 MW, minutes, and up to 10 h Lead-acid, SMES, Li-Ion, PHS, CAES, VRFB, ZnBr, 19 and 67–69
and fuel cells
Few hundred kW, milliseconds, and few seconds Flywheel, SMES, super-capacitor, and VRFB 20, 22, 70, and 71
10–100 MW, seconds, and 1–10 h PHS, CAES, VRFB, and fuel cells 24, 72, and 73
1–5 MW, milliseconds to seconds, and few minutes to 1 NaS, Lead-acid, NaNiCl2, NiCd, ZnBr, and super- 74–77
capacitors
<10 MW, milliseconds, and few seconds to minute Lead-acid, NaNiCl2, Li-Ion, NaS, and super-capacitors 71 and 78–80
100 MW, milliseconds, and few seconds SMES, NaS, ZnBr, VRFB, Li-Ion, and flywheel 35, 37, 41, 62, and 70
1 MW, milliseconds, and few minutes to 5 h Super-capacitor, SMES, lead-acid, VRFB, and NaS 42, 43, and 62
1–100 MW, few seconds, and minutes to few hours CAES, flywheel, VRFB, ZnBr, fuel cell, NiCd, and 81–83
PHS
<1 MW, seconds, and 1–10 h Li-Ion, VRFB, ZnBr, flywheel, and NaNiCl2 43, 47, 58, and 62
50 kW, milliseconds, and minutes to hours Li-Ion, lead-acid, super-capacitors, and fuel cells 50, 52, 84, and 85

sizes and chemistries depending on their applications with the
power range of few Watts to several MegaWatts. The efficiency
of battery storage varies from 60% to 90% depending on their
operation and type of battery. Some of the types of battery stor-
age technologies are discussed in this literature.55–57
reactions between nickel (Ni) and sodium chloride (NaCl)
stored at the positive electrode. The negative electrode is
filled with sodium. The electrolyte beta-alumina ceramic
separates the electrodes and serves as a conductor for
sodium ions.

A. Sodium Sulfur (NaS) battery

Tokyo Electric Power Corporation (TEPCO) discovered
sodium sulfur batteries in 1983, and they have been used in
many of the power system projects in Japan and other countries.
The positive and negative electrodes of the battery contain sul-
fur and sodium in its molten form as shown in Fig. 3, respec-
tively. During the discharging operation of batteries, sodium
from the negative electrode is oxidized in beta alumina tube to
become sodium ions. The sodium ions combine with sulfur to
form sodium pentasulfide, which is not immiscible with sulfur.
The sulfur is consumed separately, and the remaining mixture is
converted into sodium polysulfide with large quantity of sulfur.
Due to its lower cost and high energy density compared to other
battery storages, NaS is widely used in electrical utility distribu-
tion grids and wind power systems. The high energy density
ranging from 151 to 170 kWh/m3 allows the battery to last longer
with a cycle capability of 2500 cycles with a depth of discharge
(DOD) of 90%. The discharge period can further be increased if
the efficiency of the battery is greater than 85%.86,87
The charging and discharging operations of the NaS battery
response fast within few milliseconds, which makes it capable
for use in microgrid power regulations. They are produced
abundantly in larger volumes because of low cost and minimal
maintenance. However, there are some reliability issues at high
temperature and risk of operational hazards such as exposure of
sodium to water, which is combustible.88

B. Sodium Nickel Chloride (NaNiCl2) battery

FIG. 3. Schematic of the NaS battery. Reproduced with permission from S. Hameer
Sodium Nickel chloride (NaNiCl2) batteries store energy and J. L. van Niekerk, Int. J. Energy Res. 39(9), 1182 (2015). Copyright 2015 John
by going through electrochemical charge/discharge Wiley & Sons.92

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NaNiCl2 battery energy storage has been used in the indus-
try over the last few years and is mainly found in electric
vehicles and stationary and railway backups.89,90 Their energy
storage capacity ranges from a few kWh to several MWh. The
most common battery sizes are between 4 and 25 kWh depend-
ing on the application. They have a high temperature range of
270  C–350  C and are more efficient than sodium sulfur batter-
ies (80%–95%).
The harsh environment and diurnal temperature variation
do not affect the performance and durability of NaNiCl2 batter-
ies as their internal temperatures always remain within their
range. Due to these high temperature resistance and flexibility,
these batteries are used in residential and commercial buildings
for time shifting applications and uninterruptible power
supplies. They are also used for peak shaving purpose in distri-
bution grids and smoothing and optimizing renewable energy
generation.91
C. Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB)
A Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB) is a type of flow bat-
tery that has V4þ/V5þ in the positive electrode and V2þ/V3þ in
the negative electrode. These materials are always present in
the electrolytic solution during operation. During the charging
process, the V3þ ion is converted into the V2þ ion at the negative
electrode and the V4þ ion is converted into the V5þ ion at the
positive electrode by absorbing energy to convert from electri-
cal to chemical as shown in Fig. 4. During the discharge process,
the V2þ ion is oxidized to the V3þ ion, releasing the electron in
the external circuit at the negative electrode, whereas at the
positive electrode, V5þ accepts electrons from the external cir-
cuit and reduces to the V4þ ion; thus energy is converted back
from chemical to electrical. The exchange of hydrogen (Hþ) ions
maintains the charge neutrality between the two electrodes.
The diffusion of the Hþ ion may occur with loss of energy, but
due to the presence of vanadium on both electrodes, there is no
loss of energy.93
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The normal operating temperature of VRFB is quite low as
compared to those of sodium batteries which are 10  C–40  C. If
the temperature exceeds 45  C, cooling systems are required.
The efficiency of the battery has been reported to be in the
range of 75%–85%, while the power rating is from several
kiloWatts to few MegaWatts. The low-cost feature of the battery
and its ability to deep charge have made it possible to be used in
pumps, sensors, and power management applications.94
D. Zinc Bromine flow battery (ZnBr)
The zinc bromine battery shown in Fig. 5 comprises two
different electrolytes flowing in two electrodes, catholyte (posi-
tive terminal) and anolyte (negative terminal) separated by a
micro-porous membrane. The charging process involves the
reduction of zinc on the anolyte in the form of a thick film,
whereas the oxidation of bromide ions to bromine is done at the
catholyte. The catholyte contains organic amine, which converts
bromine into bromine oil that becomes residue at the catholyte
tank. The discharge operation is a reverse process to that of
charging, i.e., the oxidation of zinc to the Znþ2 ion at the anolyte
releases electrons and at the catholyte bromine reduces to
bromide ions.94
The operating temperature of the battery is below 35  C,
and active cooling systems are required if temperature is raised
above it so that the bromine compound remains stable. These
cells are expensive due to the high cost of the membrane. The
battery efficiency is reported to be 65%–75%. However, among
the flow batteries, the zinc-bromine battery has the highest
energy density.
E. Lithium ion (Li-Ion) battery
Lithium ion batteries have high energy and power density
and are used in a wide range of applications mainly in portable
electronic devices, medical equipment, and electric and hybrid
electric vehicles. The thin, insubstantial, and robust characteris-
tics of lithium ion cells make them dominant over batteries.
FIG. 4. Schematic diagram of the
Vanadium Redox flow battery. Reproduced
with permission from Luo et al., Appl.
Energy 137, 519 (2015). Copyright 2014
Elsevier.58
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These cells consist of carbon-based compounds at the anode,
and the cathode is filled with the oxide/phosphate layer. The
batteries have high efficiency with a minimal discharge rate of
5% per month with a lifetime of above 1500 cycles.95,96
Excessive research has been carried out on the materials of the
electrode and the electrolyte, and it has been reported that
nanowire silicon-based lithium batteries can produce electricity
ten times more than that of the current battery. Lithium batter-
ies are temperature dependent, and their lifetime can be
reduced due to high temperature. However, the high cost of the
batteries is the main drawback that has to be overcome in the
near future by finding adequate electrodes and effective fabrica-
tion techniques.72
J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5063866
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ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/rse
FIG. 5. Schematic of the Zinc Bromine
flow battery. Reproduced with permission
from Schneider et al., RSC Adv. 6(112),
110549 (2016). Copyright 2016 The Royal
Society of Chemistry.98
F. Lead acid battery
Lead acid batteries are the oldest and cheapest energy
storage among the battery storage devices. They are still used in
many household applications due to their low cost, high matu-
rity and reliability, fast response, and greater lifespan.97 They are
not the best in high energy and high-power applications but still
can achieve the efficiency up to 90% with a low discharge rate.
Figure 6 shows the lead-acid battery consisting of lead oxide
and metallic load at the positive and negative electrodes,
respectively, with the electrolyte solution of sulfuric acid. The
main disadvantage of this battery type is the necessity of peri-
odic water maintenance and vulnerable response at high
temperature.72
FIG. 6. Structure of the lead acid battery.
From Oberhofer and Meisen, Energy
Storage Technologies & their Role in
Renewable Integration. Copyright 2012
GENI. Reproduced with permission from
GENI.99
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G. Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) battery
Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries are dominant over other
nickel-based batteries and are commercially produced since
1900. They use nickel hydroxide for the positive electrode and
cadmium hydroxide for the negative electrode, while the elec-
trolyte is the aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide and lith-
ium hydroxide.100 NiCd batteries have high energy density and a
longer life cycle as compared to lead acid batteries with low
maintenance service. But the cost of the battery is 10 times
higher than that of lead acid batteries, which has become a
major drawback in large scale production.101 Beside this, the
toxic chemicals used in the battery present health risks for
humans and it is also environmentally harmful.102 For this rea-
son, research is carried out to make this battery environmentally
friendly. The alternative solution is the use of the nickel metal
hydride (NiMH) battery which does not contain toxic chemicals
like cadmium. However, the energy density of NiMH batteries is
25%–30% better than that of NiCd, but the fast self-discharge
rate is a major concern for future energy storage.103,104
H. Others
Super-capacitors/ultra-capacitors are a family of electro-
chemical energy storage, which have gained much attention in
recent years as the demand for fast energy storage systems has
increased. SCs have replaced Li-ion batteries in many applica-
tions because of the lethargic charge/discharge issues and the
short lifetime of the latter.105,106 Super-capacitors shown in Fig.
7 have the same working principle as the normal capacitor,
which is to store energy. In contrast to dielectric materials in
normal batteries, SC uses the electrolyte solution which sup-
ports ion movement between the electrodes, resulting in huge
energy density and substantial capacitance compared to other
capacitors.107,108
Super-capacitors are of two types; those having symmetric
designs where the anode and the cathode are of the same mate-
rial and the other with asymmetric design having different
FIG. 7. Schematic diagram of the supercapacitor system. Reproduced with permis-
sion from Luo et al., Appl. Energy 137, 520 (2015). Copyright 2014 Elsevier.58
J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5063866
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materials for both the electrodes. The specific energy of sym-
metric capacitors is 6 Wh/kg with high power performance
compared to asymmetric design, which has the specific energy
nearly up to 20 Wh/kg.109 The super-capacitors with a pro-
longed life cycle, immense power density, and better reliability
are attractive in the market and are high in demand in portable
electronics and medical devices. They have been deployed in
electric and hybrid electric vehicles and other transportations
because of their fast response time.
The most important challenges in the production of super-
capacitors is their high cost and ability to achieve high energy
density.110 However, asymmetric super-capacitors with an aque-
ous electrolyte can offer opportunities for develop low cost bulk
energy storage with high energy density. They are better suited
for grid applications due to the extensive charge duration of
approximately 5 h each.
The efficiency of super-capacitors is very high (95%) as
compared to that of other electrical energy storage devices111
with a high lifetime of around 10 years. Table II shows the com-
parison of technical characteristics of different energy storage
technologies discussed above.112,113
IV. HYBRID ENERGY STORAGE
HESS is the combination of two ESSs in which one storage
has high power density, fast load fluctuations, and high effi-
ciency during transient, longer lifetime, and fast response time,
while the other storage covers high energy density having a
discharge rate comparatively lower.114 The most commonly
used HESS is the battery that has high energy density, reliabil-
ity, and modularity mixed with super-capacitors, which over-
comes the battery deficiencies of low power density and low
cycle life and increases the overall efficiency of the system. The
hybrid energy systems can be connected in seven types of
structures which are subdivided into two main categories of
direct and indirect connection structures. DC-DC converters
and DC-AC inverters are used to connect the batteries, super-
capacitors, and motors to the DC bus. In direct connection
structures, the batteries and super-capacitors are directly
connected to the DC bus without any involvement of convert-
ers (DC-DC and DC-AC), whereas batteries and super-
capacitors are connected to converters and then to the DC bus
in indirect connection structures. Figure 8 shows direct and
indirect connection structures. The main benefits of hybrid
energy storage are cost reduction, increase in system effi-
ciency, greater storage capacity, and longer lifetime.115–117
HESS applications have been reported in a number of liter-
ature studies, where batteries with super-capacitor hybrid stor-
age and batteries with fuel cell hybrid storage are applied in
electric vehicles.118 Electric vehicles use HESS to meet the
demands of high energy and high-power densities and also due
to its small size and weight. Hybrid storage is able to perform
peak shaving and stress reduction on other storage devices and
public grids. HESS is also used in renewable energy systems
with battery/hydrogen combination and in solar parks.119–121
V. SIZING OF THE BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM
To achieve maximum economic benefits from the storage
system, optimal sizing is an important factor of the battery that
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and Sustainable Energy

TABLE II. Comparison of technical characteristics of energy storage technologies.112,113

Specific energy Specific power Self-discharge Power cost Energy cost Power rating
Technology (Wh/kg) (W/kg) Efficiency (%) (%/day) Cycle life ($/kW) ($/kWh) (kW)

NaS 150–240 150–230 75–90 0 2500 1000–3000 300–500 50–34 000

NaNiCl2 100–120 150–200 80–95 0 >2500 150–300 100–200 50–8000
VRFB 10–25 166 75–85 Low 12 000 600–1500 150–1000 30–3000
Zinc-bromine 30–50 45 65–75 Low >2000 700–2500 150–1000 50–2000
Li-Ion 75–200 150–315 85–98 0.1–0.3 1000–10 000 175–4000 500–2500 0–100
Lead acid 30–50 75–300 70–90 0.1–0.3 500–800 300–600 50–200 0–20 000
NiCd 50–75 150–300 60–70 0.2–0.6 2000–2500 500–1500 800–1500 0–40 000
Super-capacitor 5–20 500–5000 95–98 20–40 >50 000 100–300 500–3000 0–300

should be known. The calculation for the optimal size of the bat-
tery is a complex task because efficiency of the battery, its life-
cycle, and electricity tariff are all dependent on battery sizing.
This task becomes more complicated when integrated with the
renewable energy source due to the uncertainties, which has a
direct impact on load demands and energy prices. Probabilistic
and stochastic approaches have been reported in the literature
for the sizing of BESS. The former is used when integrated with
renewable energy sources due to its fluctuating nature, while
the latter is used when storage devices are connected with the
load.122–125
A. Probabilistic methods
A probabilistic approach for the optimal sizing of ESS has
been discussed in Ref. 126 which takes into account the demand
variability, reliability, and energy-power limits. The authors
consider the energy storage system and real time thermal rating
(RTTR) to address the optimal sizing problem for the application
of peak shaving in distribution networks. A reliability metric
known as Expected Energy Not Supplied (EENS) has been used
to quantify the appropriate size of ESS. Extension of RTTR in the
sizing method provides greater benefits on the distribution net-
work security of supply compared to ESS individually. However,
the inclusion of RTTR increases the size of ESS and high energy
to power is attained.
Bludszuweit127 studied the cost benefit analysis for ESS
sizing to reduce the forecast uncertainty. The method estimates
the uncertainty as a function of ESS size by studying the forecast
error statistical patterns and state of charge (SOC) to quantify
unserved wind energy. Energy storage power and capacity can
be reduced by having small quantity of unserved energy,
whereas the inclusion of forecast error increases the size of
energy storage.

FIG. 8. Schematic structures of hybrid ESS (a) direct connection and (b)–(d) indirect connections.

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In Ref. 128, a probabilistic approach for the optimal energy
dispatch by considering the uncertainties of solar irradiance and
consumer loads has been discussed. Feed in Tariff (FiT) and time
of use (TOU) electricity tariff are taken into account for the con-
sumers to decide the optimal PV array and battery size for the
residual installations. The authors implement the fuzzy method
to conduct the long-term assessments of battery sizing. With
identical electricity buying and selling price, the photovoltaic
(PV) array and battery sizes are independent, whereas different
tariff marks a great impact on concurrent optimization.
A reliability index known as the loss of load expectation
(LOLE) has been discussed in Ref. 129 to reduce the microgrid
operating cost by determining the optimal battery size. The eco-
nomic benefits of the microgrid are justified by providing the
power from ESS to local loads at low price, and excessive gener-
ations can be reduced. The mixed integer programming assesses
the reliability criteria with high accuracy. The larger size of the
battery (more than the optimal) results in high operating cost of
the microgrid.
Another similar approach has been addressed in Ref. 122 to
optimize the total cost with energy prices, discount rate, and
load demand as input variables. The probability density
functions of these random input variables are solved by Monte
Carlo simulation for the effective size of BESS. Furthermore, the
authors also highlight the importance of TOU tariffs in battery
sizing and allow the customers to sell energy to the grid with
beneficial rates. The analysis demonstrates the important link
between the BESS size and energy price, and the results show
the decrease in the profit of installing BESS with the increase in
tariff.
B. Stochastic method
A unit commitment approach for the sizing of energy stor-
age in the grid connected and islanded mode is analysed in Ref.
130. The objective is to obtain a cost-effective solution for the
microgrid with power being exported to the grid during low
load periods in the grid connected mode. The proposed method
takes the forecast error and uncertainties into consideration.
The optimal BESS size reduces the total cost for the islanded
microgrid and increases the total benefit in the grid connected
scenario. It is indicated that the lifetime of the battery can be
increased with the limitation of charging and discharging rates.
Nguyen in Ref. 131 discussed the VRB in the microgrid sys-
tem to be effective in both modes with charging and discharging
rates added as a constraint. Furthermore, the nonlinear charge/
discharge efficiencies are considered as a function of voltage,
stack efficiency, and temperature. The independent ratings of
power and energy make VRB more flexible for the microgrid
conditions. The dynamic programming-based unit commitment
method is implemented to find the optimum size.
A heuristic method incorporating particle swarm optimiza-
tion (PSO) is used to find the optimal size of BESS.132 The mix-
mode energy management strategy operates the microgrid at
the lowest operating cost by integrating three different operat-
ing strategies. Linear programming and mixed integer linear
programming methods are used to minimize the cost of the
microgrid under these strategies. The operating cost of the
J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5063866
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microgrid in a day is reduced with the initial charge of the bat-
tery being taken as 100% at the start of the day. In addition to
this, the immense availability of PV in summer affects the cost
compared to winter.
The genetic algorithm (GA) based method to determine the
optimal battery size has been presented in Ref. 133. The pro-
posed method uses the fuzzy expert system to regulate the
power flow of the energy storage. The GA method builds the
knowledge base of the fuzzy rules and membership functions. A
lifetime ageing model predicts the lifetime and growth of the
battery. The microgrid cost is also affected by the lifetime and
sizing of the battery.
VI. FACTORS AFFECTING SIZING OF ENERGY STORAGE
There are multiple factors which decide the size of energy
storage.
A. Battery degradation
The design consideration for the optimal sizing of BESS has
to undertake some key battery parameters, and battery degra-
dation is one of them. Apart from its rated life, there are other
factors which deteriorate the battery capacity.
1. Depth of discharge
Depth of discharge (DOD) represents the amount of capac-
ity used by the battery relative to its total battery capacity. DOD
is a major factor in the lifespan of the battery as it allows for
deep charge/discharge cycles. Unlike sodium sulphur batteries
which can bear 100% DOD, the lifetime of other battery chemis-
tries will be severely impacted by the DOD value. The optimal
DOD should be selected to increase the efficiency and longevity
of the battery. The relationship between the lifecycle and DOD
is normally presented in a curve which varies across different
battery types. A typical curve is shown in Fig. 9 for the lithium
ion battery at a temperature of 20  C.
2. Battery lifetime
The lifetime of the battery is the most important factor in
the cost operation of BESS. The number of lifecycles a battery
can sustain in its entire life depends on the charging and dis-
charging schedule of the battery. The lifetime degradation of the
battery is affected by two main factors; the lifecycle aging
reflecting the number of cycles that the battery has accom-
plished and the decrease in battery capacity.134,135 The lifetime
equation varies with the type of battery used. However, it can be
extended with a proper selection of the depth of discharge and
cycle depth.
3. Temperature
The degradation of the battery life is dependent on the
ambient temperature by a phenomenon called capacity fading.
It analyses the reduction in the total capacity of the battery
operating at a certain temperature after it experiences a partic-
ular number of charging and discharging cycles. This phenome-
non has been observed at both high and low temperatures to
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evaluate its impact on the performance of the battery. The inter-
nal resistance of the battery increases at low temperature,
whereas battery chemical reaction increases at high tempera-
tures, which degrades the electrodes.136,137 The capacity fading
percentage changes with the battery characteristics provided
by the manufacturers.
4. Charge and discharge current
Another factor constituting the battery degradation is the
charge and discharge currents. The high current during charg-
ing and discharging operation negatively affects the battery life-
span. The battery capacity also reduces when supplying large
currents due to the increase in the internal resistance. Thus,
charge and discharge power should be limited to specific values
to avoid the damage of BESS.
B. Reliability
The reliability of the microgrid is essential for determining
the optimal size of energy storage. The reliability criteria should
satisfy the reliability indices available in terms of generation
adequacy and economic factors. The energy storage provides
feasible solutions for satisfying the microgrid reliability levels
efficiently. Load curtailment and load levelling are viable options
to achieve the reliability indices in the microgrid.
C. Battery placement
Research into the optimal placement of BESS in a micro-
grid is still at its infancy. To minimize the losses and improve
system stability, energy storage must be allocated appropri-
ately. The optimum location may lead to reduction in the
energy purchased from the main grid, which decreases the
cost of the microgrid. The optimal storage location which can
support the high penetration of RES is selected by performing
tests for different scenarios.
J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5063866
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FIG. 9. Lifecycle curve of the Li-Ion bat-
tery for different depths of discharges.
VII. RECYCLING OF BATTERIES
Recycling of batteries is a process to reduce the disposal of
batteries as a waste product. There are heavy toxic chemicals
and materials within the battery, and disposal of such elements
as trash may increase environmental concerns and water pollu-
tion. Battery manufacturers should be aware of the health haz-
ards of battery waste and have their own recycling centres.
Europe has been the leading market of recycling services, imple-
menting major projects of energy conversion and growing
awareness among the people to increase the demand of the bat-
tery recycling process. North America is the second largest mar-
ket followed by the Asia Pacific region as a result of stringent
governmental and environmental regulations.138
Lead acid has the highest recycling market among all the
battery storages due to the high demand of recovered materials.
The high maturity level of lead acid has retained its dominancy
in the market for centuries and will continue to lead the battery
recycling market till 2021.139 In contrast, other battery storages
like Li-Ion, Ni-Cd, and Ni-MH are less economical to recycle as
energy storages, whereas flow batteries and Na-S and Na-NiCl2
are not recyclable.140,141
The recycling process of lead acid crashes the batteries and
recovers the chemical contents. Lead, after refining, is again
used for battery production, and other materials are recovered
as scrap. Battery manufacturers are finding ways to give a sec-
ond life to lithium batteries in other applications to overcome
the dependency on lithium. However, the lithium recovered
from the battery is in small proportion and inexpensive com-
pared to cobalt and nickel.142 Lithium batteries used in electric
vehicles, when degraded with time, lose performance by reduc-
tion of 20% from their initial capacity. The average life of batter-
ies for electric vehicles is 8–10 years, but these batteries can be
reused as storage for load balancing and other applications.
Nickel metal hydride batteries used in hybrid vehicles are
recycled to get nickel and iron. These elements go through the
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electric arc furnace process to get ferro-nickel used in the
stainless-steel industry.143
The high utilization and presence of domestic and interna-
tional companies have increased the diversity in battery
manufacturing. Low cost, less efficient, and poor life batteries
are also available in the market, which have a bad impact on the
socio-economic-health impact of the society. Stringent laws
and enforcement are urgently needed. The recycling industry
needs to endeavor to expand the reusing waste by offering
motivating forces to the consumers.
VIII. CONCLUSION
When designing a battery storage system in a microgrid
system, a number of requirements have to be determined
from technical, economical, and environmental points of view.
In a microgrid application, combining renewable energy,
which has an intermittent energy profile, with energy storage
systems improves reliability and stability of the energy supply
for extended periods. Energy storage such as battery storage
technologies is manufactured in a variety of sizes and chemis-
tries depending on their applications. The pros and cons
between the different types of batteries are compared for
microgrid requirements such as the size, efficiency, cycle life,
and cost. As novel materials are being developed, current and
future research focus on solid-state batteries, which are
considered safer and have higher energy density, to replace
conventional liquid electrolyte batteries. The properties of
solid-state batteries would become the platform to propel
more research on new battery technologies. Currently, the
high cost of batteries is the main deterrent when designing
an energy storage system in a microgrid. One of the methods
to reduce the use of batteries is by HESS in which a combina-
tion of two or more energy storages is considered in a micro-
grid system. One of the advantages of HESS is the deficiency
of one energy storage type which can be compensated by
another energy storage type in the system.
To ensure that the proper sizing of battery storage is
economical for the microgrid, parameters such as the depth of
discharge, battery lifetime and degradation, temperature,
charge/discharge current, and battery placement are required
to be included in an optimization algorithm. Various stochastic
approaches such as PSO and GA are some examples of optimiza-
tion algorithms that have been implemented. Probabilistic
methods factor in the demand variability, reliability, and energy-
power limits of the system to determine the link between
battery sizing and energy price. Research on optimization and
forecasting algorithms is rapidly evolving as more and more
types of algorithms are introduced in literature studies.
Moreover, at the end of the battery life cycle, the disposal of
batteries has become problematic in recent years. The heavy
toxic chemical and materials have a negative impact on the envi-
ronment. To reduce this impact, recycling and second use of
batteries have been implemented by battery manufacturers.
However, further policies and enforcements should be intro-
duced to support safe battery disposal and recycling. In addi-
tion, novel materials used in the batteries should also consider
the recyclability of the materials as part of the research.
J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 11, 014105 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5063866
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of
the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and University of
Malaya through FRGS (FP052-2017A).
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