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AN APPROXIMATE METHOD FOR BLAST RESISTANT DESIGN

Article · March 2002

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R429 AN APPROXIMATE METHOD FOR BLAST
RESISTANT DESIGN
Topside structures are required to withstand substantial levels of
air-blast loading caused by gaseous explosions. For an offshore
installation in which weight saving is a priority, provision of
adequate blast resistance often becomes a critical part of the design.
The purpose of blast resistant design is to ensure that loss of
integrity does not occur at any time during or after the blast. Loss
of integrity is judged by energy dissipation and exhaustion of the
structures’ strength capacity, as well as the existence of
deformations that could trigger damaging secondary effects and
levels of strain sufficient to initiate unstable crack growth.
In this paper a method is proposed which replaces the blast loads
by an equivalent reduced static load. This reduction is a function
of the largest acceptable deformation. A relationship is established
between the “demand” expressed as peak blast over-pressure,
and required strength. The method allows one to decide on a level
of acceptable damage ranging from no damage at all to major
damage. The ductility ratio is used as a measure of damage. Using
expressions developed in this paper, the reduced equivalent static
load can be computed so that the structure can be designed using
elastic analysis and conventional design methods.
Introduction
Certain concepts used in blast resistant design are different from
those used in design for normal (operational and non-operational)
loads. The main departure from conventional design is the
acceptance of un-recoverable (permanent) deformations. This
energy absorbing capacity of the structure is used to contain blast
effects. Well-engineered structures are capable of absorbing energy
before eventually falling apart and disintegrating. The acceptable
level of deformation depends on the repair cost as well as the
effect of large deformation on pipework and equipment.
Generally every precaution is taken to prevent, control and mitigate
the explosion. As a result, an explosion, which occurs despite all
these safeguards, large enough to affect the structural integrity,
should have a very low probability of occurrence. For such
abnormal loads with a low probability of occurrence, it is reasonable
to accept some level of damage while containing its catastrophic
effect. The acceptable deformation for any part of a structure
depends on the importance of that part to the integrity of the total
structure and likely future cost of repair. If parts of a structure can
be classified as less or more important, then a level of acceptable
deformation can be decided for each class.
Generally, deformations can be categorised into two levels; namely
the damage level deformation and the collapse level deformation.
The damage level deformation is defined as a level that requires
some minor repair or replacement after the incident. The collapse
level deformation is defined as deformations compatible with the
total collapse. The acceptable collapse level deformations are set
such that the structure would be just at the threshold of collapse.
That is, catastrophic collapse is just prevented, and the safe
shutdown of the system would be possible. In this instance, total
or partial replacement of the structure should be expected.
Issue 31 - January 2002
Technical Discussion
Hierarchy of Structural Systems
Blast loads first impinge on the plating (i.e. deck, claddings and
blast walls), and then pass through stringers and primary members
to reach the foundation. In general, a simple load path cannot be
identified as all structural members are interacting, but on a macro
scale, the load path can be divided into the following components:
Plating and their Stiffeners: This includes deck plating, claddings,
and blast walls. Stringers (or stiffeners) are lumped together with
plates, which are attached to them, as they provide the necessary
stiffening by reducing the loaded span.
This group of elements that see the blast load first are called level
one sub-system (or the secondary system) in the hierarchy of
structural sub-systems. Examples of this type of sub-systems are
the external walls, blast wall panels and deck plates together with
stringers.
This group of level one sub-systems could undergo large
deformation without endangering the integrity of the platform. In
fact, it is advantages to let them deform in order to dissipate energy.
As a result the rest of the energy, which is passed to the next level
sub-system(s), would be smaller and may not be large enough to
cause catastrophic collapse. Level-one sub-systems mainly transmit
their load by bending and membrane action, which means that
column buckling would not limit their ability to deform. However,
other restrictions such as the ability of joints to transmit reactions
and likely effect of deformations on equipment, would limit the
maximum deformations. Some of these sub-systems would also
function as a lateral support to the higher level sub-systems;
consequently their total loss might not be acceptable.
Primary structure: This group of elements, which have blast loads
transmitted to them from the level one sub-system, are called the
level two sub-system in the hierarchy of structural sub-systems.
For instance, the primary framing of a topside structure can be
thought of as level two sub-systems. The level two sub-system
can in turn be broken into horizontal and vertical sub-systems,
which differentiate the way they transmit their loads. For the
purpose of this work such differentiation is not necessary.
Such grouping of the structural elements, namely dividing the
structure into its building blocks or sub-systems, enables each
subsystem/group to be studied in isolation. The success of this
sub-division depends on the level of dynamic coupling between
sub-systems. The dynamic coupling is a function of the natural
period of each sub-system, which in turn depends on their relative
stiffness. The dynamic coupling determines the amount of energy
transmitted through the boundaries between two connected sub-
systems. Such boundaries may be ‘quiet’ but not totally silent,
thus ignoring interaction at the boundary conditions for a sub-
system will trap the energy within that sub-system.
The grouping of several structural elements as a sub-system
that act as a unit follows the natural load transmission through
the structure. In fact the division into two levels or sub-systems
Page 9
Technical Discussion

follows the current design practice for normal loads and it is

STRESS
known as the load-path approach. DUCTILITY
f
Ductility A
It would be economically unfeasible to design a topside structure C
fy
to remain elastic for the largest credible explosion. In such case,
damage to the structure is acceptable, provided its effect is
contained and no progressive collapse would ensue. As a result
lower “design blast loads” may be used for checking a structure,
if the structure’s ability to absorb and dissipate energy by B D
inelastic deformation can be assured and utilised. Because of O
uncertainties regarding the nature of blast loads and the dynamic εy εf STRAIN, ε

characteristics of structural system, structures must be capable Figure 429.1 Diagrammatic Presentation of Toughness and
of dissipating substantial energy. Resilience

While large inelastic deformations may be tolerated for blast

event with low frequency of occurrence, but deformations must STRESS
be controlled to prevent a total exhaustion of strength. σ B
The ability of a material to deform plastically is termed ductility.
If a material undergoes an appreciable amount of permanent
deformation prior to fracture, it is said to be ductile, if this prior
deformation is small, the material is brittle. “Ductile” and “Brittle” Material
are relative terms. Ductility of a material is measured by the plastic I
Material
strain at rupture. The most common measure of ductility in II
engineering practice is the percentage of elongation in a tensile
test, i.e. the percentage of strain at fracture (Figure 429.1): O CI CII D STRAIN, ε

ε =
(" f − "0)
× 100
Figure 429.2 Diagrammatic Presentation of Energy
(1) Absorption and Energy Dissipation Capacities
"0
f

A more accurate measure is the true strain at fracture, i.e.
ε f = "n(" " f 0
) (2)
Fracture ductility is very sensitive to the state of stress and
strain at the region where fracture occurs. Although not
commonly used in designing structures subjected to normal
operational loads, it is very important since it is this factor that
determines the safety of a structure. Perhaps, rather than using
ductility, it is better to use toughness. Toughness is the amount
of energy that a member can absorb prior to fracture, i.e. the
ability of a material to absorb energy during plastic deformation.
In a static tensile test, this energy is measured as the area under
the stress-strain curve, which represents the work required to
fracture the test specimen.
Energy absorption and energy dissipation capacities are often
used interchangeably in the literature on the design for accidental
loading. A clear distinction should be made between the technical
meaning of these two terms. The difference is in the unloading
path, Figure 429.2 shows two materials that have the same energy
absorption capacity (toughness), represented by area OBD.
However, their energy dissipation capacities are quite different,
since they follow two different unloading paths. The hysteric
area OBC1 gives the energy dissipation capacity of material 1,
and that of material II is equal to a much larger area, OBC2. A
desirable property of blast resistant design is that the structure
should have a high energy dissipation capacity.
Ductility Factor
A definition of ductility that is commonly used is the ratio of
final deformation to the deformation at first yield. There are
several alternative definitions for displacement at the first yield,
Figure 429.3.
Real structural systems may not have distinct yield points. For
instance yielding in a multi-storey structure does not generally
occur instantaneously at all locations, which is necessary to
develop a collapse mechanism. Structures experience gradual,
rather than sudden, reductions in their stiffness. For example,
Figure 429.4 shows a plot of base shear against roof deflection
for a two story structure, which differs significantly from almost
any ideal elastic-perfectly plastic shape for a simply supported
beam subjected to uniformly distributed load. The lateral load-
deflection relationship for such a multiple degree-of-freedom
systems is not unique and depends on the distribution and
history of loading.
Many other parameters, such as variation in operational loading,
high rates of loading, stress redistribution due to long-term
loading, loading sequence, and so on, can also substantially
affect the lateral load-deflection relationship. Precise
determination of the yield value may not be possible in such
cases. Possible estimates of the yield value includes the deflection
when yielding first occur, the deflection corresponding to the
collapse load had the structure remained elastic, or the yield

Page 10 Issue 31 - January 2002

 Technical Discussion

Load Load Load

Collapse Equal
First Load Areas
Yielding
δy δy δy
Deflection-δ Deflection-δ Deflection-δ
Based on First Yielding Based on Initial Yielding Based on Energy Absorption
Figure 429.3 Alternative definition of displacement at the first yield

deflection of an elasto-plastic system with the same energy up to 5%, the adhesion of the fire proofing material is not affected
absorption as the real structure. In many cases the physical very badly. For fire proofing which is wrapped around the
significance of the yield displacement may be lost. structural members, larger deformations and strains may be
acceptable.
Additional problems arise when cyclic deformation occurs. While
ductility factors as previously defined are good indices of the The concept of controlled damage, as outlined above, is an
maximum deflection of the system, they do not necessarily accepted practice for most abnormal loading with a low
measure the severity of the largest inelastic deformation. probability of occurrence such as earthquakes. If some level of
damage is permitted, provided the resulting deformations and
strains are not unacceptably large, then a less substantial
δ m+ structure is required. The designer can set the level of acceptable
µ δ+ = damage for a particular case. As it is explained later in this paper,
δ
F δy
F IDEAL setting a level of damage requires some understanding of the
structural behaviour and how loads are transmitted through the
structure. The hierarchy of structural members in the load path
is important for meaningful design, since as the blast load passes
REAL
δ through the structure it loses some of its energy and only part of
δ − δy δ+m
µ =
−
δ
m
the load effect reaches the final destination, i.e. foundation.
δy

δ *m µδ=? The ductility ratio µ is a measure of the degree of deformation,

µ δ* =
δy δ-m i.e. level of damage. The higher µ is, the higher the damage will
δ*m
be. Some care should be exercised in choosing appropriate values
for ductility ratios. For flexural members µ can be as high as 12,
Figure 429.4 Definition of Ductility Factors
but for compressive members, which fail in buckling, a safe value
would be 1.5 to 2. This statement is true for structural elements
Ductility Demand (and for level one sub-system). For higher system levels, greater
caution is required. A structural system consists of members
The basic aim for blast resistant design is to contain the damage
that transmit loads in different manners, e.g. bending, tension
and to prevent progressive collapse. Therefore, large inelastic
and compression. Depending on the redundancy of the
deformations can be tolerated, provided rupture is not imminent.
structure, the number of load paths and number of compressive
The design requirements to satisfy this aim are:
members within each load path, the ductility for the system varies.
A structure, which is designed according to one of the present
1. Deformations should be limited so that vital pipework and
codes, should possess a ductility of between 2 to 4. Generally a
equipment can function in their damaged state. The
ductility ratio up to 2 leads to repairable damage, while a value of
acceptable transient and permanent deformation is obviously
4 is the collapse level ductility.
dependent on the layout and proximity of other structures.
However, large deformation should not cause escalation.
It is recommended that the higher (primary) sub-system should
2. Rupture of large parts of the structure is not acceptable,
not exceed 1.5 to 2, while for the first level sub-systems (deck
since it could lead to progressive collapse. The resulting
plates and blast walls) a ductility of 4 can be assumed. However,
strains associated with acceptable displacements will not
all connections between two sub-systems should be checked
cause brittle failure or ductile tearing.
for their ability to transmit the in-plane forces which large
deformations generate.
For a topside with Passive Fire Protection (PFP), if the insulation
is required to be in-place after the explosion, then a lower limit of
deformation or strain should be imposed. Such a limit should be Level one Sub-System Response
ascertained by test to check the de-bonding effect of large The proportion of blast load transmitted to the primary structural
deformations and strains. Past experience shows that for strains system can be estimated using an energy balance. Figure 5 shows
the maximum elastic response of a one degree-of-freedom system.

Issue 31 - January 2002 Page 11

Technical Discussion

For material with elastic-plastic behaviour, the stiffness is where ω 2 = K M is the circular frequency of the system.
constant in the elastic range, and Figure 429.4 shows a reasonable
approximation for resistance versus deformation for such
behaviour. This is a simplification of the overall behaviour. This Introducing µ = ∆ max ∆ e as the ductility factor, and
type of behaviour can be expected in simple structures such as substituting M = K ω 2 into Eq(4) gives:
beams and plates.

Under impulse I ∆ (
0 )
 = I M , the kinetic energy transmitted R
=
1
(6)
to the system instantly is: Iω 2µ − 1

R(∆ ) For a linear system, µ = 1 the required strength, Re can be

calculated from Eq(6):

Re = Iω = I ⋅ 2 π T (7)
R
The above relation can be used to determine the reduced load
∆ to be used in an elastic design method provided the ductility
∆e factor is µ Thus
Figure 429.5 Deflection-Resistant curve for the level one
sub-system S
Pmax 1
=
2π 2µ − 1 (8)
Fitted I
Curve R(∆ ) = R Tanh(K∆ R ) T
R
K If the pressure lasts for a short period of time td then the impulse
1 of the pressure is 0. 5 Pm td then, Eq(8) becomes:
Actual Curve
Hinge Formation R µS π td 1
Stage = ⋅ (9)
2µ − 1
S
P max T
Displacement

O For the above derivation, it is assumed that the pressure duration

Figure 429.6 Resistance - Displacement curve for a is very short, if the pressure is of infinitely long duration, the
multiply redundant ductile second level sub- external work done is equal to the internal energy absorbed at
system maximum deflection. Then

1  I2
∫ F d∆ = 2
M∆ 0 =
2M
(3)
S
Pmax

∆ max = R µS ∆ max 1 −
1 
 (10)
 2µ 
where ) DQG∆ are force and displacement respectively, and
dot refers to differentiation with respect to time. At the time of
maximum displacement, all the above kinetic energy is changed RµS 1
into elastic strain energy and plastic dissipation. Thus, =
P S
 1  (11)
max
1 − 
 2∆   2µ 
I 1
= R∆ e  max − 1 (4)
2M 2  ∆e  Eq(9) applies when td is very small and Eq(10) when td is very
long. The following empirical equation is generally applicable
where R is the resistance function. If a simple structure can be
idealised as a single degree of freedom system with mass M and for all ranges of td ,
stiffness K the equation of motion for free undamped vibration
is given by: S
Pmax T 1 − 1 (2µ )
M∆  + K ∆ = 0 = ⋅ 2µ − 1 + (12)
 + ω 2 ∆ = 0
or, ∆ (5)
RµS
π td 1 + 2T (π t d )

Page 12 Issue 31 - January 2002

 Technical Discussion

This equation was first derived by Newmark. This equation errs The energy stored and dissipated in the system is given by:
less than 10% over the whole range of values of td from zero to
infinity and µ from 1 to infinity. The error is less than 5% for the ∆ ∆
practical range of µ <12. The above derivation is based on the ∫ R(∆ )d∆ = R ∫
0 0
Tanh(K∆ R )d∆
assumption that the load is of short duration and some plastic
deformations occur.
R2  K∆ max  (14)
= ln Cosh 
K  R 
In using the above equation for calculating the load transmitted
to the primary sub-system, a ductility factor of 3 to 6 for plates
and secondary beams that transmit loads mainly in bending, is If the impulsive load transmitted to the primary structure Pmax
P

achievable. Values above 2 would lead to a substantial (which is the dynamic reaction of the secondary steel on the
deformation of the secondary system. Beams at high ductility
transmit their loads mainly by membrane action. Support primary steel; PµS ), then
restraints should be adequate for such membrane action to
develop. For continuous plate this is not a problem, however,
stringers which are connected as simply supported beams may
P
( Pmax )2  R2   K∆ max 
=   ln Cosh  (15)
not be able to develop high ductility. Generally, simply supported 2M K   R 
conditions, unless specifically designed, should be able to offer
a ductility factor of 1.7 to 2.
Substituting for M = K Ω we get
Second level (Primary System) Sub-system
Blast loads pass through the deck and wall plates to reach the K∆ max 

primary steel. At this stage the intensity of the blast load is
P
( Pmax ) 2 Ω 2 = R 2 ln Cosh  (16)
reduced, dissipated through large deformations. Whatever load  R 
reaches the primary system, it should be safely transmitted to
the foundation. The reduced blast load may still be too high for Where M , Ω , R and K refer to the primary stricture.
the primary sub-system to transmit by elastic action. If the
primary sub-system has some capacity to dissipate energy, it
Rewriting equation (16) gives:
should be utilised for economic reasons. As for the level one
sub-system (secondary system), the required resistance can be
calculated if a certain level of plastic deformation is allowed. K∆ max 
R 
However, there is a major difference between the secondary and = 2 ln Cosh  (17)
the primary sub-systems. Whilst first level sub-systems mainly P Ω
P
max  R 
transmit loads by bending action, the primary system loads are
transmitted by frame action, which consists of a combination of
bending and compressive actions. The existence of compressive For an optimum design R ≈ PµP
force causes early buckling and softening behaviour after that.
Further, the P∆ effect could complicate the issue. An implicit solution is required. Since the displacement at the
elastic limit cannot be determined, defining a ductility factor is
The same approach used at component level could be used to difficult. In using the above equation one must determine the
determine the required resistance by allowing a certain level of elastic limit load of the structure. In many instances this can be
damage. However, it is preferred to represent the resistance assumed to be the load corresponding to formation of the first
displacement curve in such a manner so as to take into account hinge.
the sequential formation of plastic hinges and ensuing
deformation. This curve should have an elastic portion and a The available value of K ∆ max R in a structure depends on the
final horizontal portion corresponding to a plastic mechanism, number of compression members and their utilisation in the
Figure 429.6. structure. For a well engineered structure this value ranges from
1.5 to 3, perhaps 2 is more representative of a typical topside
The following equation which can adequately approximate the structure.
behaviour4, could serve the purpose:
It should be noted that a value of K ∆ max R =1, and neglecting
R(∆ ) = R Tanh(K∆ R ) (13) displacement, the structure remains elastic and no reduction in
load is obtained.
When ∆ is small R(∆ ) → K∆ and when ∆ is large For the above derivation it was assumed that the pressure
R(∆ ) → R , which fits the requirements. duration was very short, if the pressure is of infinitely long
duration, an expression similar to Eq (12) can be obtained.

Issue 31 - January 2002 Page 13

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