Professional Documents
Culture Documents
o Q.3:explain the sub process ,mechanism and technology for the following:
o 1:knowledge discovery:
o Ans:
o Knowledge discovery systems support the process of developing new tacit or
explicit knowledge from data and information or from the synthesis of prior
knowledge
o Support two KM sub-processes:
o combination, enabling the discovery of new explicit knowledge
o socialization, enabling the discovery of new tacit knowledge .
o Knowledge Discovery Systems:
Mechanisms for Combination
Mechanisms that facilitate combination:
o Collaborative problem solving
o Joint decision making
o Collaborative creation of documents
Example:
o At senior management level, new explicit knowledge is created by sharing
documents and information related to midrange concepts (eg, product concepts)
augmented with grand concepts (eg, corporate vision) to produce new knowledge
about both areas
o This newly created knowledge might be a better understanding of products and a
corporate vision [Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995].
o 2:knowledge capture:
o Ans: Knowledge Capture Systems:
Knowledge capture systems support the process of retrieving either explicit or tacit
knowledge that resides within people, artifacts, or organizational entities
Technologies can also support knowledge capture systems by facilitating externalization
and internalization
o Knowledge Capture Systems:
Mechanisms for Externalization:
Examples of mechanisms that facilitate externalization, from the consulting company
Viant [Stewart 2000]:
o Before every project, consultants are required to complete a “quicksheet”
describing:
the knowledge they need
what aspects of knowledge can be leveraged from prior projects
what they need to create
the lessons they hope to learn that they can share with others later
o After every project, the team is required to meet to produce a sunset review to
document what worked and what did not work well
Forgetting these reports is hard for several reasons:
o “Almost every document ends up on Viant’s internal website, hot-linked every
which way.”
o “Sunset reviews are done with a facilitator who wasn’t on the team, which helps
keep them honest.”
o “Every six weeks [the] knowledge-management group prepares, posts, and pushes
a summary of what’s been learned.”
o Knowledge Capture Systems:
Mechanisms for Internalization:
Mechanisms that facilitate internalization:
o Learning by doing
o On-the-job training
o Learning by observation
o Face-to-face meetings
Example:
o At one firm “the product divisions also frequently send their new-product
development people to the Answer Center to chat with the telephone operators or
the 12 specialists, thereby `re-experiencing’ their experiences”
o Knowledge Capture Systems:
Technologies:
Technologies that facilitate externalization:
o Knowledge elicitation is needed for implementation of intelligent technologies
such as:
expert systems
case-based reasoning systems
Technologies that facilitate internalization:
o Computer-based training technologies
o Communication technologies
eg, an individual can internalize knowledge from a message sent by
another expert, an AI-based knowledge capture system, computer-based
simulations, …
o 3:knowledge sharing:
o Ans: Knowledge Sharing Systems:
Knowledge sharing systems support the process through which explicit or implicit
knowledge is communicated to other individuals
Knowledge sharing systems operate by supporting socialization (which promotes sharing
of tacit knowledge) and exchange (ie, sharing of explicit knowledge) subprocesses .
o Knowledge Sharing Systems: Mechanisms & Technologies for Socialization:
Mechanisms and technologies facilitating socialization: many play an equally important
role for knowledge sharing as in knowledge discovery
Topically focused discussion groups (or technology-enabled chat groups) facilitate
knowledge sharing by enabling individuals to explain their knowledge to the rest of the
group
o Knowledge Sharing Systems:
Mechanisms & Technologies for Exchange:
Mechanisms facilitating exchange:
o memos & letters
o manuals
o progress reports
o presentations
Technologies facilitating exchange:
o Web 2.0, groupware & other team collaboration mechanisms
o web-based access to data & databases
o repositories of information, including best practice databases, lessons learned
systems, and expertise locator systems
o 4:knowledge application:
o Ans: Knowledge Application Systems:
Knowledge application systems support the process through which some individuals
utilize knowledge possessed by other individuals without actually acquiring, or learning,
that knowledge
Mechanisms and technologies support knowledge application systems by facilitating
routines and direction.
o Knowledge Application Systems: KM Mechanisms:
Mechanisms facilitating direction include:
o traditional hierarchical relationships in organizations
o help desks
o support centers
Mechanisms supporting routines include:
o organizational policies
o work practices
o standards
For both direction and routines, these mechanisms can be implemented either:
o within an organization (eg, organizational hierarchies)
o across organizations (eg, software support help desks
o Knowledge Application Systems: KM Technologies:
Technologies supporting direction include:
o experts’ knowledge embedded in expert systems and decision support systems
o troubleshooting systems based on the use of technologies like case-based
reasoning
Technologies that facilitate routines include:
o expert systems
o enterprise resource planning systems
o traditional management information systems
Again, for both direction and routines, these technologies can be implemented either:
o within an organization
o across organizations
Nonaka and Takeuchi introduced the SECI model (Nonaka& Takeuchi 1996) which has
become the cornerstone of knowledge creation and transfer theory. They proposed four
ways that knowledge types can be combined and converted, showing how knowledge is
shared and created in the organization. The model is based on the two types of
knowledge outlined above.
Socialization: Tacit to tacit. Knowledge is passed on through practice, guidance,
imitation, and observation.
Externalization: Tacit to explicit. This is deemed as a particularly difficult and often
particularly important conversion mechanism. Tacit knowledge is codified into
documents, manuals, etc. so that it can spread more easily through the
organization. Since tacit knowledge can be virtually impossible to codify, the
extent of this knowledge conversion mechanism is debatable. The use of
metaphor is cited as an important externalization mechanism.
Combination: Explicit to explicit. This is the simplest form. Codified knowledge
sources (e.g. documents) are combined to create new knowledge.
Internalization: Explicit to tacit. As explicit sources are used and learned, the
knowledge is internalized, modifying the user's existing tacit knowledge.
The first step in the process is to determine how knowledge in an organization will
be discovered. There are multiple sources of relevant data that businesses have
access to, so this step requires an in-depth understanding of the flow of knowledge
within the organization. This involves discovering where the most critical knowledge
lies within the organization, what the most important business practices from which
data can be gathered are, and how information can get trapped or lost within these
processes. A company can undergo the discovery step of the process by identifying
knowledge present in current organizational processes, interviewing individuals or
groups within the organization, hiring new talent or consultants offering critical
knowledge outside of the current realm of the company, and utilizing intelligence-
gathering and data-mining techniques culled from manufacturing, customer-
related information, and other business-based practices.
Capture
Capturing refers to the ways in which both established and new organizational
knowledge will be stored. This step benefits organizations by increasing the
organizational structure of the knowledge management process. The vast amount
of important business information needs to be categorized and mapped in order for
the organization to reap the most benefits inherent in the knowledge. Digital
storage is a useful aid for complex organizations. Written documents can be
scanned to digital databases for easier access and data management. Classifying
valuable information through the use of metadata, which involves identifying
repeated names, keywords, and dates, along with indexing, can assist in capturing,
searching, and retrieving the most relevant knowledge stored.
Process
Once knowledge has been discovered and captured, it will need to be processed to
increase its utility. At this point, organizations have acquired the information and
data making up the most relevant company knowledge. Additional analysis,
reorganization, and assessment are now required. The synthesis of knowledge
during this step will assist in determining how knowledge can be incorporated into
the procedures and rules of an organization. It will also aid in establishing a culture
of knowledge and developing individuals and teams who will make the greatest
improvements and innovations to the organization as a whole.
Share and Benefit
o OR
o 1:knowledge discovery:
o Ans:
o Knowledge discovery systems support the process of developing new tacit or
explicit knowledge from data and information or from the synthesis of prior
knowledge
o Support two KM sub-processes:
o combination, enabling the discovery of new explicit knowledge
o socialization, enabling the discovery of new tacit knowledge .
o Knowledge Discovery Systems:
Mechanisms for Combination
Mechanisms that facilitate combination:
o Collaborative problem solving
o Joint decision making
o Collaborative creation of documents
Example:
o At senior management level, new explicit knowledge is created by sharing
documents and information related to midrange concepts (eg, product concepts)
augmented with grand concepts (eg, corporate vision) to produce new knowledge
about both areas
o This newly created knowledge might be a better understanding of products and a
corporate vision [Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995]
o 2:knowledge capture:
o Ans: Knowledge Capture Systems:
Knowledge capture systems support the process of retrieving either explicit or tacit
knowledge that resides within people, artifacts, or organizational entities
Technologies can also support knowledge capture systems by facilitating externalization
and internalization
o Knowledge Capture Systems:
Mechanisms for Externalization:
Examples of mechanisms that facilitate externalization, from the consulting company
Viant [Stewart 2000]:
o Before every project, consultants are required to complete a “quicksheet”
describing:
the knowledge they need
what aspects of knowledge can be leveraged from prior projects
what they need to create
the lessons they hope to learn that they can share with others later
o After every project, the team is required to meet to produce a sunset review to
document what worked and what did not work well
Forgetting these reports is hard for several reasons:
o “Almost every document ends up on Viant’s internal website, hot-linked every
which way.”
o “Sunset reviews are done with a facilitator who wasn’t on the team, which helps
keep them honest.”
o “Every six weeks [the] knowledge-management group prepares, posts, and pushes
a summary of what’s been learned.”
o Knowledge Capture Systems:
Mechanisms for Internalization:
Mechanisms that facilitate internalization:
o Learning by doing
o On-the-job training
o Learning by observation
o Face-to-face meetings
Example:
o At one firm “the product divisions also frequently send their new-product
development people to the Answer Center to chat with the telephone operators or
the 12 specialists, thereby `re-experiencing’ their experiences”
o Knowledge Capture Systems:
Technologies:
Technologies that facilitate externalization:
o Knowledge elicitation is needed for implementation of intelligent technologies
such as:
expert systems
case-based reasoning systems
Technologies that facilitate internalization:
o Computer-based training technologies
o Communication technologies
eg, an individual can internalize knowledge from a message sent by
another expert, an AI-based knowledge capture system, computer-based
simulations, …
o 3:knowledge sharing:
o Ans: Knowledge Sharing Systems:
Knowledge sharing systems support the process through which explicit or implicit
knowledge is communicated to other individuals
Knowledge sharing systems operate by supporting socialization (which promotes sharing
of tacit knowledge) and exchange (ie, sharing of explicit knowledge) subprocesses .
o Knowledge Sharing Systems: Mechanisms & Technologies for Socialization:
Mechanisms and technologies facilitating socialization: many play an equally important
role for knowledge sharing as in knowledge discovery
Topically focused discussion groups (or technology-enabled chat groups) facilitate
knowledge sharing by enabling individuals to explain their knowledge to the rest of the
group
o Knowledge Sharing Systems:
Mechanisms & Technologies for Exchange:
Mechanisms facilitating exchange:
o memos & letters
o manuals
o progress reports
o presentations
Technologies facilitating exchange:
o Web 2.0, groupware & other team collaboration mechanisms
o web-based access to data & databases
o repositories of information, including best practice databases, lessons learned
systems, and expertise locator systems
o 4:knowledge application:
o Ans: Knowledge Application Systems:
Knowledge application systems support the process through which some individuals
utilize knowledge possessed by other individuals without actually acquiring, or learning,
that knowledge
Mechanisms and technologies support knowledge application systems by facilitating
routines and direction.
o Knowledge Application Systems: KM Mechanisms:
Mechanisms facilitating direction include:
o traditional hierarchical relationships in organizations
o help desks
o support centers
Mechanisms supporting routines include:
o organizational policies
o work practices
o standards
For both direction and routines, these mechanisms can be implemented either:
o within an organization (eg, organizational hierarchies)
o across organizations (eg, software support help desks
o Knowledge Application Systems: KM Technologies:
Technologies supporting direction include:
o experts’ knowledge embedded in expert systems and decision support systems
o troubleshooting systems based on the use of technologies like case-based
reasoning
Technologies that facilitate routines include:
o expert systems
o enterprise resource planning systems
o traditional management information systems
Again, for both direction and routines, these technologies can be implemented either:
o within an organization
o across organizations
o Q.7: why asses knowledge management?
o Ans: 1. It would not be possible to determine where improvements are needed
o 2. Helps establishing a baseline for implementing KM solutions
o 3. Helps understand whether costs of KM efforts are justified
o 4. Helps identify the gap in KM efforts
o 5. Help make a case for more investment into KM
o
o Q,9:who performs KM assessment?
Ans: Peers
o Review of internal performance
Customers, Suppliers, etc
o External appraisals
Management
o Business evaluation of effectiveness, efficiency and innovativeness
o Evaluation of the knowledge assets created.
Q.12:task charecterstics?
Ans: Task difficulty: problems in analyzing the work and stating performance procedures
Task variability: the variety of problems encountered in the tasks
Task uncertainty
Task interdependence
1:Task Uncertainty:
Task uncertainty reduces the organization’s ability to develop routines.
o Hence, knowledge application would depend on direction.
When task uncertainty is high, externalization and internalization would be more costly
due to changing problems and tasks.
o Knowledge is more likely to remain tacit, thus inhibiting ability to use
combination or exchange.
o Hence, direction or socialization is recommended.
Example:
o Individuals responsible for product design when customer tastes are expected to
change frequently would benefit most from socializing with, and receiving
directions from, each other.
When task uncertainty is low, routines can be developed for the knowledge supporting
them.
o Benefits from externalizing or internalizing knowledge related to any particular
task tends to accumulate through the greater occurrence of that task.
o Hence, routines, exchange, combination, internalization, or externalization are
recommended.
Example:
o Individuals performing tasks in credit and accounts receivables,large benefits are
obtained from
routines: eg, credit-checking procedures
exchange: eg, sharing of standards and policies
combination: eg, integration of explicit knowledge that different credit
analysts have generated from their individual experiences
externalization and internalization: eg, training and learning of existing
policies by new credit analysts
2:Interdependent Tasks:
Task interdependence indicates the extent to which the subunit’s
achievement of its goals depends on the efforts of other subunits
For interdependent tasks, performance relies mainly on dynamic
interaction in which individual units of knowledge are combined and
transformed through communication and coordination across different
functional groups
Q.13: Identification of Appropriate KM Solutions
Ans: Assess the contingency factors.
Identify the KM processes based on each contingency factor.
Prioritize the needed KM processes.
Identify the existing KM processes.
Identify the additional needed KM processes.
Assess the KM infrastructure.
Develop additional needed KM systems, mechanisms, and technologies
o Q.19:impact of KM?
Ans: KM solutions and knowledge can impact the organization performance and
therefore it is essential to assess the impacts
Impact on employees
Impact on processes
Impact on products
Impact on organizational performance
o Illustrative Measures of Impacts on People:
o
o Illustrative Measures of Impacts on Organizational Processes:
o
o Illustrative Measures of Impacts on Organizational Products:
o
o Illustrative Measures of Impacts on Organizational Performance:
o