NIRMA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
B. Tech. SEM. - V (ELECTRICAL), JULY-2017
EE501: ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

Unit 4
SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

Page 1 of 8
Page 2 of 8
Page 3 of 8
ALTERNATOR TYPES
There are two types of alternator (i) revolving armature type and (ii) revolving field type
Revolving Armature Type: It has stationary field poles and revolving armature. They have small
capacity and low voltage rating. It resembles a DC generator on appearance accept that it has slip
rings instead of commutator. The field excitation is supplied from an external dc source.
Revolving Field Type: It has a stationary armature and field poles rotate. Most of the power system
alternators are revolving field type. The excitation is given through slip rings and brushes from
external source. The field voltage of around 100 to 220 volts is required.
When the rotor rotates, the stator conductors are cut by the magnetic flux and hence emf is induced in
it. Since the magnetic poles are alternatively north & south, the induced emf depends upon the
number of north and south poles moving past a conductor in 1 second.

Revolving Armature Type Alternator Revolving Field Type Alternator

1.6 CONSTRUCTION

Page 4 of 8
Main parts of the alternator, obviously, consist of stator and rotor. But, the unlike other machines, in
most of the alternators, field exciters are rotating and the armature coil is stationary.

1.6.1
Stator

The stator of a synchronous machine carries three phase armature winding. It consists of a laminated
steel core to minimize the loss due to eddy currents. The laminations are stamped out in complete
rings (for smaller machines) or in segments (for larger machines). The laminations are insulated from
each other and have spaces between them for allowing the cooling air to pass through. The slots for
housing the armature conductors lie along the inner periphery of the core and are stamped out at the
same time when laminations are formed. The above figure shows a stator lamination of a synchronous
machine that has a number of uniformly distributed slots. Coils are in these slots and connected in
such a way that the current in each phase winding would produce a magnetic field in the air gap
around the stator periphery. Each phase is able to produce a specified number of magnetic poles. The
windings of the three phases are arranged uniformly around the stator periphery and are labeled in the
sequence that phase ‘R’ is 120o (electrical) ahead of phase ‘Y’ and 240o (electrical) ahead of phase B.
Different shapes of the armature slots are shown in figure.

Wide- open Semi-closed Closed

The wide open slot permits easy installations and removal of windings. The induced emf in the
windings produce ripples because of distribution of air gap flux into bunches. This is somewhat
overcome in semi closed type slots. The totally closed slots do not disturb the air gap flux but they
tend to increase the inductance of the coil. The armature conductors have to be threaded through
thereby increasing the initial labour and cost of winding.

1.6.2
Rotor, Salient Pole, Cylindrical Pole

Page 5 of 8
There are two types of rotor used in an AC generator / alternator:
(i) Salient and (ii) Cylindrical type
1. Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed
alternators. Construction of AC generator of salient pole type rotor is shown in the figure
above. This type of rotor consists of large number of projected poles (called salient poles), bolted
on a magnetic wheel. These poles are also laminated to minimize the eddy current losses.
Alternators featuring this type of rotor are large in diameters and short in axial length.
2. Cylindrical type: Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed alternators, especially in turbo
alternators. This type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder havingg slots along its
outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots.
The DC suppy is given to the rotor winding through the slip rings and and brushes arrangement.

1.6.3
Difference Between Salient Pole and Cylindrical Rotor Alternator
Based on the rotor construction, synchronous machines are of two types:
1) Salient Pole or projecting pole type and
2) Smooth Cylindrical type

Smooth Cylindrical Rotor Salient Pole Rotor

1 It is used for steam turbine driven alternators It is used for low and medium speed (engine
i.e. turbo alternators. driven) alternators or hydro-generators.
2 The rotor is cylindrical in shape with DC field The rotor has projecting pole shape with field
winding embedded in slots at the outer winding supplied through slip rings and damper
periphery. It does not uses damper winding. winding to prevent hunting (momentary speed
fluctuations).
3 It is wound for 2 or 4 number of poles. It is wound for large number of poles (more
than 100).
4 These rotors are relatively long but have small They have small axial length but has large
diameter to limit the centrifugal forces diameter.
developed. It permits accurate dynamic
balance and provides greater mechanical
strength.
5 Cylindrical rotor has uniform air gap and thus The salient pole rotor has non uniform air gap
permeance offered to MMF acting on the and therefore the MMF varies considerably with
magnetic circuit is independent of the angle the angle between the MMF axis and that of the
between the MMF and that of the rotor poles. rotor pole.
6 It has quieter operation and has less windage Its operation is noisy and had greater windage

Page 6 of 8
 losses.
7 The rotor is simple and easy for analysis.
Armature reaction is simple
8 Cylindrical rotor alternators are usually long,
and the problem of air flow requires very
special attention.
9 Hydrogen is normally used as cooling
medium in all the turbine-driven alternators
because hydrogen provides better cooling
than air and increases the efficiency and
decreases the windage losses.
10 Voltage regulation is good
losses.
The rotor analysis is complex due to armature
reaction.
The slow speed salient pole alternators are
ventilated by fan action of the salient poles
which provides circulating air.
Liquid cooling is used for the stators of
cylindrical rotor generators.
Voltage regulation is poor.

1.7 ADVANTAGE OF STATIONARY ARMATURE

(i) Output of current can be drawn directly from fixed terminals of stator and fed to load without
passing through gears and brushes.
(ii) Stationary armature winding can be easily placed in a rigid frame.
(iii) Armature winding can be cooled more easily because air space and cooling ducks can be large.
(iv) If stator winding is stationary, it is easy to insulate for high AC voltages of 33 kVA or more.
(v) Only two slip rings are required to supply DC to the field circuit.
(vi) The brush and gears are on low power side i.e field current and therefore easy to insulate due to
light construction.
(vii) Due to light weight of field poles, it can be rotated easily.
(viii) The maintenance of stationary armature winding is easy.

1.8 COMPARISON BETWEEN ROTATING AND STATIONARY FIELDS SYSTEM

Sr. Rotating Pole
1 Field system is rotating
2 Armature is stationary
3 Two slip rings are required
4 Sparking is weak
5 Brush friction is low
6 It is used for above 25 kVA
Stationary Pole
Field system is stationary
Armature is rotating
Four slip rings are required.
Sparking is very strong
Brush friction is high
It is used for below 25 kVA

1.9 DAMPER WINDINGS

Most of the alternators have their pole shoes slotted for receiving copper bars of a grid or damper
winding (also known as squirrel cage winding). The copper bars are short circuited at both ends by
heavy copper rings. These dampers are useful in preventing the hunting (momentary speed
fluctuations) in generators and are needed in synchronous motors to provide the starting torque. Turbo
generators do not have these damper windings (except in special case to assist in synchronizing)
because the solid field poles themselves act as efficient dampers. It should be clearly understood that

Page 7 of 8
under normal running conditions, damper winding does not carry any current because rotor runs at
synchronous speed. Damper windings also tend to maintain balanced three phase voltage under
unbalanced load conditions. Since a synchronous motor is not self starting, damper winding helps it
acting as an induction motor at during the starting period. When the rotor attains a speed closed to
synchronous speed, the DC field is excited.

Page 8 of 8
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Faults on Power System
A fault occurs when two or more conductors that normally operate with a potential difference come in
contact with each other. These faults may be caused by sudden failure of a piece of equipment,
accidental damage or short-circuit to overhead lines or by insulation failure resulting from lightning
surges. Most of the faults on the power system lead to a short-circuit condition. When such a
condition occurs, a heavy current (called short circuit current) flows through the equipment, causing
considerable damage to the equipment and interruption of service to the consumers. Short circuit
studies provide the information about currents and voltages at different points in the system during
various fault conditions. These are necessary in order to design the power system equipments,
insulation level and conductor diameter. It is also essential to design effective and adequate relaying
as well as switching system. Under fault conditions, the relay should trip and isolate the faulty part
from the healthy system as quickly as possible without damaging itself. These studies also provide the
information about short circuit MVA capacity required for circuit breakers. The circuit breaker
installed at different locations must be capable of carrying short circuit MVA momentarily and open
its contacts. Thus short circuit studies are required during planning, designing and at various operating
stages. The faults in power system are categorized as (i) symmetrical faults, (ii) unsymmetrical faults.
During symmetrical fault, system remains in balanced condition. The power system can be analyzed
on single-phase basis. However, during unsymmetrical faults, system remains in unbalanced
condition. Therefore such a power system cannot be analyzed on single-phase basis. It can be solved
on three-phase basis or by using the symmetrical component transformation 0,1,2.

The following table summarizes fault statistics.

Causes of Faults Percentage Types of Fault Probability of failure

Lightning 6% Single phase to ground 10%
Sleet, wind, Mech* 10% Phase to phase 15%
Apparatus Failure 10% Two phase to ground 10%
Switching a fault 10% Three phase faults 05%
Misc, Tree falling etc 10%
*mechanical damage to the equipment, bridging of conductors by birds.
For the effective design of protective scheme, it is very useful to have an idea of frequency of
occurrence of these faults. Usually, generation plants are located far away from load centers. The
distance between the two is few hundred kilometers that exposes large number of equipments to the
varying atmospheric conditions. The chances of faults occurring due to storms, falling of external
objects on the lines, flashover resulting from dirt deposits on insulators, etc, are greater for overhead
lines than other parts of the power system. The occurrence of fault drive a very large current called
short circuit currents to flow in the circuit. The determination of fault current is the basis for selection
of appropriate protective devices such as relays and circuit breakers. It also helps in estimating the
withstanding forces that arises out of fault currents during the period prior to the interrupting device
clearing the fault. The short circuit currents may cause heavy damage to equipment and would also
cause intolerable interruption of service to consumer. The modern power system is designed on two
aspects: one is to design the system so that faults cannot occur and the other is to accept the possibility
of faults and take necessary safety measures to safeguard the costly equipments from getting damaged
temporarily or permanently. In an electric power system, a fault or fault current is any
abnormal electric current. For example, a short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal
load. I
Load Current

Generator G Load

Fig.1 Normal Operation of Power System

Page 1 of 5
 For Short circuit
analysis, in most of the
G Load cases, the load currents
Generator If >> I are ignored

Fig.2 Power System during fault

Symmetrical Faults
A fault on the power system which gives rise to symmetrical fault currents (i.e. equal fault currents in
the lines with 120o displacement) is called a symmetrical fault. The symmetrical fault occurs when all
the three conductors of a 3-phase line are brought together simultaneously into a short- circuit
condition as shown in Fig.3. This type of fault gives rise to symmetrical currents i.e. equal fault
currents with 120o displacement. Thus referring to Fig. 3, fault currents IR, IY and IB will be equal in
magnitude with 120o displacement among them. Because of balanced nature of fault, only one phase
need be considered in calculations since condition in the other two phases will also be similar. The
following points may be particularly noted: (i) The symmetrical fault rarely occurs in practice as
majority of the faults are of unsymmetrical nature. However, symmetrical fault calculations are being
discussed in this chapter to enable the reader to understand the problems that short circuit conditions
present to the power system. (ii) The symmetrical fault is the most severe and imposes heavy duty on
the circuit breaker.

Fig. 3

Current Limiting Reactors

Fig.4

When a short circuit occurs at any point in a system, the short-circuit current is limited by the
impedance of the system upto the point of fault. Thus referring to Fig. 4, if a fault occurs on the feeder
at point F, then the short circuit current from the generating station will have a value limited by the
impedance of generator and transformer and the impedance of the line between the generator and the
point of fault. This shows that the knowledge of the impedances of various equipment and circuits in
the line of the system is very important for the determination of short-circuit currents.

Page 2 of 5
The fault MVA is mathematically expressed as:
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑀𝑉𝐴 =
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The power demand is growing at the rate of 7 to 8% per annum. This needs addition of generators into
the system. The fault current and hence fault level also increases on account of increased voltamperes
and decreased impedance. It becomes necessary to replace the old switchgear with a new one with
higher rating which is not economically viable. The alternative way is to cope up with this situation is
to use the current limiting reactors.
In order to limit the short-circuit currents to a value which the circuit breakers can handle, additional
reactances known as reactors are connected in series with the system at suitable points. A reactor is a
coil of number of turns designed to have a large inductance as compared to its ohmic resistance. The
forces on the turns of these reactors under short-circuit conditions are considerable and, therefore, the
windings must be solidly braced. It may be added that due to very small resistance of reactors, there is
very little change in the efficiency of the system.
Advantages
1) Reactors limit the flow of short-circuit current and thus protect the equipment from overheating
as well as from failure due to destructive mechanical forces.
2) Troubles are localised or isolated at the point where they originate without communicating their
disturbing effects to other parts of the power system. This increases the chances of continuity of
supply.
3) They permit the installation of circuit breakers of lower rating.

Location of Reactors

Generator Reactor
When the reactors are connected in series with each generator, they are known as generator reactors.
In this case, the reactor may be considered as a part of leakage reactance of the generator; hence its
effect is to protect the generator in the case of any short-circuit beyond the reactors. But these
generator reactors causes a constant voltage drop and power loss in the reactors even during normal
operation. If a bus-bar or feeder fault occurs close to the bus-bar, the voltage at the bus-bar will be
reduced to a low value, thereby causing the generators to fall out of step. If a fault occurs on any
feeder, the continuity of supply to other is likely to be affected. Due to these disadvantages and also
since modern power station generators have sufficiently large leakage reactance to protect them
against short-circuit, it is not a common practice to use separate reactors for the generators.

Page 3 of 5
Feeder Reactor

When the reactors are connected in series with each feeder, they are known as feeder reactors. Since
most of short-circuits occur on feeder, a large number of reactors are used for such circuits. Two
principal advantages are claimed for feeder reactors. Firstly, if a fault occurs on any feeder, the
voltage drop in its reactor will not affect the bus-bars voltage so that there is a little tendency for the
generator to lose synchronism. Secondly, the fault on a feeder will not affect other feeders and
consequently the effects of fault are localised.
Disadvantages
There is a constant power loss and voltage drop in the reactors even during normal operation.

Ring system bus bar reactor

The above two methods of locating reactors suffer from the disadvantage that there is considerable
voltage drop and power loss in the reactors even during normal operation. This disadvantage can be
overcome by locating the reactors in the bus-bars. Under normal operating conditions, each generator
will supply its own section of the load and very little power will be fed by other generators. This
results in low power loss and voltage drop in the reactors. However, the principal advantage of the
system is that if a fault occurs on any feeder, only one generator (to which the particular feeder is
connected) mainly feeds the fault current while the current fed from other generators is small due to
the presence of reactors. Therefore, only that section of bus-bar is affected to which the feeder is
connected, the other sections being able to continue in normal operation.

Page 4 of 5
Tie bar system

Comparing the ring system with tie-bar system, it is clear that in the tie-bar system, there are
effectively two reactors in series between sections so that reactors must have approximately half the
reactance of those used in a comparable ring system. Another advantage of tiebar system is that
additional generators may be connected to the system without requiring changes in the existing
reactors. However, this system has the disadvantage that it requires an additional bus-bar i.e. the tie-
bar.

STEPS FOR SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

It has already been discussed that 3-phase short-circuit faults result in symmetrical fault currents i.e.
fault currents in the three phases are equal in magnitude and have an inter-phase difference of 120o
from each other. Therefore, problems involving such faults can be solved by considering one phase
only as the same conditions prevail in the other two phases. The procedure for the solution of such
faults involves the following steps:
i) Draw a single line diagram of the complete network indicating the rating, voltage and percentage
reactance (per unit) of each element of the network.
ii) Choose a numerically convenient value of base kVA and convert all percentage reactances to
this base value.
iii) Corresponding to the single line diagram of the network, draw the reactance diagram showing
one phase of the system and the neutral.
iv) Indicate the % reactances on the base kVA in the reactance diagram.
v) The transformer in the system should be represented by a reactance in series.
vi) Find the total % reactance of the network upto the point of fault.

For example, let the reactance upto fault point be X% or X p.u. Find the full-load current
corresponding to the selected base kVA and the normal system voltage at the fault point. Let it be I.
Then various short-circuit calculations are: Short-circuit current,
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑓𝑜
𝐼𝑆𝐶 =
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡

Percentage Reactance
The machine reactance is expressed in percentage. All transformer, generator reactance have reactive
voltage drop equal to IX.
𝐼𝑋
Hence percentage reactance = 𝑥 100
𝑉
(%𝑋)𝑉 %𝑋 𝑉2
Or 𝑋= =
100 𝐼 100 𝑉𝐼

Page 5 of 5
(

Et. For -tt* .rrdio) \eta*n5 , 6 39 $u,r

OC:C\/t6' OJ-

Oet (htvt't'tQ. -th, N*OV c&ttY 04)

'tz\r- )i,v.
p.r,tf F.
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k c ooJi )-;o",.

St,,:-
Tl ssroo
I o MUA t3qse
f* Our,W'fors : llKv basQ
F*< o)A linc = 33 xy laos@, 6lU line Sot<nr
Fq qoble __ 6.6xy leqse , 2? +Jo.e e)tl4^
33hv i<,
ab,r Tz 5 Mvn, 37.
,X5, =.1
o. 15 ?.r) .
c.6
RV z = o.r3s+j o.ag
X1.".jo. lzs SKrnl a)nq
?.1). col:fq
,Xt,-- Jo, I F.u.
Xrz= jo.ogx
l! =
j o.,G p.u.

r3osP iT. + lirro : it 2

to = lo o't a /rh.
p.o . ;^7. "( olH liqt . (o,zT+jo.ze)zo
to8'9
o.o74sgi o.oeet
SroitrilT bosB ;*.y. "l- cs.lrlA
-__
P.v.
a.6'= (.sse .rt_
lo
p.u.t^1. + cabt2 : Ql,r:lo o-o9e9tlo.osso9
6.gre "a)r- F-,r,
eqc to t cO
jo.o 99 I

o.0713 Jo.o55og

C oblO
f

F^
H.1,n?-* y,r. $urr foitr
= ,'s /ljo.rz<J + j o.r t o.o7g3r j o.ogrr
Qio +jo-16
+ o.ogz9 + jo.ossog
o,t6?2- +jo.0gz: P.u.
o.sroq6 Lro.88'(,v.

Novo $r't etryr,rml' W -sho# ei reuil- c tznsel- (O' "')

-r1 = l /-o' : t'tsW7-?o.Bg" p...
o .slo96
l-+o.&S'

.rv ;y'I' -t1ol +^r $uff crn+ml is f .9 sA4 +;qL

ihs t-ole d ( Uoo) c we"u)
l3qx c (Ar.nV in @bV = loxto6 : 8?9.7? A*p
.J3 x 6.6 rro3

-rh %J,*
qvvla'ok ry -sb"'n- g\rtJ' I cvn'a'u (l A*!)
-S",t
= Bro.77 x t.qsg g /-?o.Bg'

= lT ls. rss /?o,ta" 2ny.

'lrlsrJ
6rh9pl ol- ll xY bur
= l. 9s *1 t7o.Bd'n Lj o 'r + o 'o?( s +j o.o9er +i o.re +-l
o .09 z9 +jo.ossoi J
nfa
+D,l
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I l'- l'.i
flo'.rL "
F tv ,t k v bvr
t.qs&? LTa'&8 x Io.,ut" +jo.4s4t
t.ss8 q t?o.Bg , [o.,rr 6e /,6g.o l
I

0..8766 t*.8c72 ?.v.

.'' Aclr./ wt$a ol- rrKy bu ,: lc o.B?( e /2.&c??
: 1,e z /-a,gc7 z t<v
L
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fotrrl .*?,
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q 3p foulr- at- -t^l.
$ezraohx (; xca \vif e od .

-rA, liru is 4oo Lsry lU.

Tr

'T'ii^H X = o.
Lr
2nlf^
lQ ed ezr
loo mv't
nf tlzlr-v t to.l.

Tz Le-
fout)-
X=o.2/?.fu-,lfh
€)0 Mvn
ll kv
I o'/.
SO MYA
tr /tzz4v, g./.

$onn ,- ,4 s",-r, I oo r.,t vA bo re

ll KY lcoso P"t SAa Orohor:.
l3z t<v bqsa W 7 .L.

lb, = jo'ts p.v. ) lB. = J o.f x lg = \Jo.L p.rt.

-St)
Ar,=jo.rp.r. ) Xr. = -j o'oBnry
--jo'16pu. S(>
L
t32 17g,zq JL
teo =
,Xu, p.u. = o.zx zoo io. 229s p.u.
t7 9.?g

Be
qcro",ca ?fi?f
"o-l
J o'22q5

Jo. z 3o.16
-j0.229S Fqoll-

3
 FouU- C'yrreol l /-o"
(s.c. clytry+^,y)

| /o"
j( o' 2s // o'z c) r ro'ttq?s

= I /-o"
-J3.&l 2S;ee
Jo,zGzz
Bosr cuw€zn l- 04 I"$n^
=w=
loox ro 6
{sr l3zxto3
= 4s2.33 ,4Y.
Nole
Foutf' cwl,aqY i.l A"y
= 4zt.3Ax s.&lzs 'rbis
= l66?.ss A"y
-Fc,oll- rqve =
Bqs? MyR lor'
€.c. Mv,
x e1. {*l
--Z_ zs

= loet
= 3e1."q MyA
a. 2 623
Foull- le vol : Fqulr M!/A .I.rq
Bq sc MYA l(b = s.Bta9
b/ Oqk*q L io puwit-
6ulF cunarrl- co,rFl'b4€)
: -js.&resx jG.z+o.te)
j [o.e+ o.t0 *: (o.rs *o.D
= _j:.gtas A jo.s6
= t x'2s P'u'
R.o ft curtf-'ll' og
io,s 6r io.es
d€., Qasl*t
= looxta e
ffi = -5218'63 A^'f
Rulr etrwt,rl- co.^fyi b,h) lr/ ge rtuslor iq
! A.,yt
= -j2' zs i szr'.6s I I &o9 .r,s
= /- oto, Ay
@
 l=aull- cLry1+^F Co"rM b"fD lT do/). Z io f, ().

= j(s.&r zs - 2-zs)
= -3 l,sezs ' '. P'v'
foulF cwre-rl- co",hri b,rtO ,y dt%. Z iq fl^1,
l'S6zs x *SzqB.e e
= Bzao.qS lS"'A^7
Er.s
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q -svi'h"1s1ons'
C q O. is ^d.qlr) ol- loo r.r,rn , ^kv 6os *te'rr
teocl-o,o cl "l- 4o/. €oc'h 4' +1'L
4'rt"t 'fo
^D
ol- loo MvR , tt /lsz Rv & hq ' q 2pqql-oa Q "( 55'/.

-fho llru L, hqs o, i'r),,cfoocl "l t-2-9U/fU/kq..,,)

o lefh "{ loo h"r . Lin Q Lz !- L3 lr.on o4
^oJ.jooue 4-
lqn/pnfu*t 4 q lryn "l s k't
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jorrr ol- lrur 5 '

L3 lnxlltbly,,

o Fl/ph/r"r

t. z ,.wlph
loor.lvA ,oo MvA
,l t4y trlwzkv rc z/nkv I ll(y
4 o'/. l aol ua loo N4 ya 4o'/.
5/. 3./.

$ato'- ,Z1o"^lo lao qvn bo s4

lt Rv bo5p W EoA erol-a6.
l3e Kv bqse
W Tro4sgiSsio.,r ttnC_
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/At-- b"= io'z p.u.

Xt, = Ar. = jo'oS P'o.
.z
t3 o5a iny
loc>

Xr, =
l.2xr63n loo x 2xr x5o
t+q.zg = JO.Zt63 prl.

lx lO-3 X 5-g x 2t ,rx so

t74.zg Jo.ogors P.u.

P.u.

(e ecl", u .D iuD'o,o.

jo.o9ots jo.oiors

jo.z -jo.os j o.os J o.z

jo.e16t

lo'o gszg
Jo.ogqzg

(eochncL upts Favtl- pct,ol-

= iJo'esto'og9zB
* o .o no=J = u o't?o p.u.

rh
 FoulF I ld
I o-t Zat = - Js.8?&j p.o.
Fqutl- .s .87 &9 p.u.

hulr,MvNJ
MvR =
- MI/A
Q:.c 6jol7or
Foulf Curyr-,rF i-t a^y. = :jS.S7 &g A loo,rr,o6
-/3 a lZ Zoso
= -r .asr, '3 s Ar"tl
/-1r' A"-y

Ex.Q A 3p -slro# C iy ctiiF Occ\rs o l- -il.A 6ili o^r,

f
oo 33 kv S7sle,rrl . N"foP .shodJ lie il\o-
-s\t oaro
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I"ttr,
o +
cpo MvA
E./.

lo tttlR
8./.
I5 MYA
LrL tz.l.

Lr L
lo Mve
E /.
o
.lo N{ya
C,1,

san, -A -?o plvn q, bore & ss ku lro rg.

xb, --
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j o.rz x*
= jo.rdlr.r.;ftp{r=
A8r,
=
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x6. - jo'o8 P.u.
Z
t3q s+ ;nx' + l;q-t- 3s s4'9s tt
=
20 =
Xt, =Jry
s9.9s = j0.os$E p.o. ) Xt"= j..z,e .os98 u.
s(.4s =Jo P.

\,
ALz -_ J t.6 3 jo.oe p.u. ) Xt4 = j43s
5i.9s =
S9.9s -_ jo.r8p.o.
.Fcotl-eD B,.r

j o.or jo'osi8
10.o398

x8r jo.
'[9. io.r x6r -aio.16

.to'o8 jo.ossg

O.O rAz
o.o t?ig

o.o 9lg
 Fqutl- Foull

io.ot??E O Jo.os98 jo.olszg

O
io.oo81 i o'08
o o ro'or?7 jo.oZeT
J o'otfil

jo .ot 7s8 jo.ot3e8

j o .ro6'6

r
Xq =)('o??s8s++ o.o
o.o2 Jo.oo7
.:,,

l8 lo.
G.orJe8l o.o
I
+ o.oo?
.o o?
a :
= (o .,osrr$E ll
llco. + o .oo]
- J 0. o,
6'o29 U.

o
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(1, c. M/A) t
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-rhL Cw cr,A l- br+ ac',+/ -slr ovlJ

"\e" lza_ 6? z .? s tlvA

.llrs FD..hrqrr .tS,q6lo liac- J'Y. 4 a Sp syste-,-t.-Ttl-

fb"+rryissior l\,ue e1?ao?s ol- loKv lrn5l q
t€sist-o4 q! 4 lJr 4 reo.lo4cl "4 4t is ig-a e+D f"
M ta sR{
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q, Xrtf*; \gritr o 23ocl-oqcr- "1 3'/' %.,0-
b+ l>rn bor-r o)-( .stFplLa) by a. ,o MvA ollevqofar
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p'hose" 4 iF occvrr'
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49 o* -l-\, hU\ votYgx 'lQ.ve\nols + 4t*"ttf^'ora-

Srr,- lsou',o- lO M/A bqse

& loRtt 1", T'L.
BqsQ ;y. P* T-L. = lot = ro-rr
lo
X rrnu = (=+i9
- lo - = o.r+1o.g p.u.

4)--io'' ?u ) X-i 3 JO.oS x ,o - Jo.f

3 P.v.
l* &utr F I

Ag,
-9 c. KuA, -- 6.rQ l(vA lo ooo
5o Ooo K yA
xa(, o.z
a.6o82
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/U.s;
?.v-
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a't g, n grlig' bre t<sist oo c'- ' Fi'rd J1.'0- Qxft 'qo I
4 q.e^.)4e.F) /, -sQ/lQ-s ,J,-rb
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+u o l Fe rllJlu -:ro -th ol- =k" D/ Curyf-,}-
--}tu
c '''rru'.)- boet qdT exc e e) B |i'nls $Af cttw+-1- '
5an,- Ld- 4omvR / lo Kv Qs bqs{s.
L at +,\0..e&* ort\,r{ a l- alV>toclq {c"r'n'ta of
"

O,0S
4o, Mv A.

S. C. ctrwarl- = I /c;
o -o5

s. e. Ctrnrc^r\- t\d1- +o exc oD 8 fi,rtps U,

^t
I p.u.
aw 5. c. Cynzarf 1 | /o,
6 .os + Xexy.

8
o 'os f xe*y

Xer| = j o'o zs p.v .

lo"
4o
" trV . l&qe-Far +D lrt c9.,4n;) w) -saalsr ^[fr\
-tho- $* +D liryit- -fu s. C. cct'..-rl- 1D B l,^<, ,;
h"kJ" fU /o.) Cvtl+-,tl-
= 5 11'0,o75 : .
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cwtsrsl-s -l- {rai lo,ooo l<vA de,n etolars + xoc'lo^l
a€oclonco-

t 2'/, <, .i l, *te Sooo K vA E'^us1or 4

cc-

l8/, -t'l\L B,,.^to<t o*, pEJ ^f corno e"'r'e) +D

is f" Beq
-ftu ..s lo r; ; b w- lrovr l-- ^'b'' c-h loaol
tn"''f"' 4 uts
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u
/A Lb -f.,.L c'vrc,' l- lc *alt e<s
\ox.r)wl J-s;ot-o
$r,, M "'l\'' o{ e ol A'"rh'
o{^) (,-) f- r/ a, H v *si ol-e' rttT hq x t'
looaol(uA
looooKr/A Sooo KvA
t 8./.

1.,
sooo Sooo ulhlu 5,opo
KVA AUA Jrrrnr RVA
s'/. s,l. 5'/.
l*,
t
Sar:- / sst"4a lo oo, Ky A bqse
X6, = jo.tz p.o. jo'tB loooo v
X,ys x
Xt.-- jo't z P'o' =
soao = -io.36p.u

X:r, -- X1, = )ts o.o5 x loooo

= .-j o'l
-- I
_s oao P'o .

X4,t Avrr o cc,",rr ol- Fl

X.1, = o.ostg p.o.

jo.se
Foutl'MvA = Xve
ffi-_nq+1g
Af fou
rr o eckn q l- Fe
Ay" -- jo'rsrq p.u. jo.rr
pou tl- Mv A= to ooo
o'rs l9
-- 66oso xvn
ex.7 Fr6. slloorrr q -see*io^4 br,c- t-aorrs A 4 B Qx l;nkD
lT o brrr-bovr ctar rr.Fe)oPSoool<vAtUrlb lo'/,
r€qclooc.a. . 04 bw - bo'- A, +htrs ole fi^'o B%Q'tolors
€qc,h "l- lorOOo k\rA NifI lo'/. l4oeto4cA o"rol on B
+u,t, B%0rolo<s €oc[ 4 Boaoqfvn 6"tf'\ l2'/,*qofo'tcl-.
do'qd -ho'# civc/'I
Fin.l -t^" -staoD2, Mvn f*a;'n
on B d'rfb l:us- bor rrPocl-or
'tq
be*,Aooa otl
1iho"n,
-fru C'rr Ld''l-.
louva 8u,ln
to'/. ,z'/ -

A
SOOO K uA

Sotr,- l,ssvaz lo MvA ,'!1

,r\6, -- j o.l 1,.o .
) XB. = -1
o. I P.tt
/At jo.tzx
= ro
B =j o''s P'o ; Xgc=jo'rsp.ur.

J0,' 2r lo = Jo' z P'o .

5

{orrr = ^Y
= IJ[o't
lz *o,]il("+)
=G ,25 // 6,07s)
:Q .o5 ?69
P.t)

-9.c. M,/A or Noulr Mva

o .o s76g 173.s3 MyA

{€ l7g.s r
lo : 17.3s p. u .
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4 olF€rnolc.'<
-Sys{e.^.1 oVrBp
v/
-
e o ch T"kD ol- ll tcY z 50 ,YYA r,i rfrl .Sdcfoonsi
e.a l-

.ueqclqcl. ls 7.
"l-
Finol ("-.r pourt- lQvr) f* a &''- o,) o"n-'I- "4- i7"4-
&n Cn e*" +119 lrn) l.rrrD .<ora vnol'rr + >€qcf ryc x.
&u
Sl -ru- ttqcJ-o.,, c4 . + -tTt- cllrtizrl- lia;+;y )€o c+a^,/
x +D lieir -t1a Syir le wl +o &oo rqv| lry o (.u
or) oq,o, 4 +..0 ' f+ule-rr Croor -tt\L b9
6=€'==o',,
nl*rro I I q
&s,/ I I I

.3S'n''- Assuq'e ll kv, So s r4 Ule-

4,= t. = 4J.= 4lq = jo.rs f.o.
* I=o
Xq = Jo.o3Zs p.o.
Fqu tl- Le ne-.|
= Lo'
o.os7s = Qe 'G? ?'o .

6u*
j o.o32r -J ze.e7 P.o-
Gtaf MvA = 5o
o.o37s lass'?3 nva.
Qtl nr},y x
Faurl MurA qdr fu exce D &e-o lqv A

-hw 8so = so lVltrl.l

41. -
Wd i
\
F.r+ Mv/tr - BoseHyn)
x?/
o'o 6es p .u.
 ,I\l.gO

o.06zs--fo,t
(+ +x)/t (,+) j o.ts
J 0.15

=G.o?s+x)xo.o?s
o'o?s r X +-o.ois
o'o6es = u -1r (o.o?s + x)
0.rS +X
o'oo93?s + o.o6zsX = o.00562S + o.o?5x
o.o tzs x = o'oo3?S
x = O. 3 p.o.
l3osa ib[r.
+ fl.fu. : -+ = 2'4za-
r.1

-5o

Xorn"l = 4"qzxo.3: o.T..6JL

Ex.1
A I A%Axl;yp Sl-oh"-r hcs +^n o ller,l ol-ars
Sgot
4 3ooo r-tA "4eeliw\45oo" RvA snd Pq'?W x'{acl-o4ca 'f
i t & I '/. *'l ' --Ar- ci"'c'ri l- bteo \ut ho ve q
\ttvt,t6t c7,-oc',17 + t$ M vg . .Tf is o{e-siyep lD
ex@td +ho
)ste--"1 b)
q *p1tl fl"", -f\a d"/E viq
o +ry "fur-- ,l' Z-s* n.v; e, T,s./.>eocforcc, . fi"r)
a" ?€s cfoaqL "l +1a ]esotry ca.necj+] n Jr-a b^ _
b or se c,fio- ,. v>rl -ft.^o- ch.c,li l- b *o \ u,
beiy f<
ot?A|r.?q!
4 a ? r, e)rtu) --sh.r} cioc,,tF
it
-ffi*?"Y#"#":';;Yh
SOoo
KvA
7./. *l*
,rffrnF-soo KuA
T.s'/.
33ao
rrcll
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4,io'o? ^ Z-5"".
S@o .jo't?sP-0.
X5, = jo.o{, x TSoo j 0. ,333
= P.0.
4 soo

Xr = jo.o?s P.o .

jo.r+s j o'o7s
Jo.r333

,X1.= (o.ns// o.raa) tr (x + 0.079)

8'o7.eeiG to or,
x
+ O,lSoe et
.q -11c $r* M trn is ool' tD €xr e.) l50 -o ltr vA i4,
ayacilT 4 6".,r tdi l- bato lSe-r
'q+n'U .

Fo,rtf M vA Bo se MyA
xej.
l-So = 7's
xg
X<y

r"og Ay "q efo, h/r lrore

o'o5 o'o?sefx+ o.oos67sr
=
X + o.tro@
O-o5 + ?.SSsz\163= O.o?SGCX
^ O.oesf6A + 0.oosCTqS
= o.oorgsl?
.,, x = jo.olzg p.u-
t3n P i'^1
7.s
)c+"1 x
?x. to
J O^*^r'U *sholio-r loid ovA' qs .Shoar4 'fi
*f,f'4
Te r\e-rtfs f
qcenYodl r.?oc f oocQs "(- di ((sr"-y
lQ o 1.Q qs ilolicole). f+ a sP s.c.
o ecws ol- on/ qt
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