Signal:

Signals convey information. Systems transform signals. This topic is

about developing an understanding of both. We gain this
understanding by dissecting their structure and by examining their
interpretation. For systems, we look at the relationship between the
input and output signals (this relationship is a declarative description
of the system) and the procedure for converting an input signal into an
output signal (this procedure is an imperative description of the
system).

A sound is a signal. We leave a description of the physics of sound to

textson physics and instead show how a sound can be usefully
decomposed into components that themselves have meaning. For
example, a musical chord can be decomposed into a set of notes.
A signal is a function thatmaps a domain, often time or space, into a
range, often a physical measure such as air pressure or light intensity.
A system is a function that maps
signals from its domain—its input signals—into signals in its range—its
output
signals. Both the domain and the range are sets of signals (signal
spaces). Thus,
systems are functions that operate on functions. We use the
mathematical language of sets and functions to make our models

INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING:

Digital: operating by the use of discrete signals to represent data in the form of numbers
Signal: A parameter (electrical quantity or effect) that can be varied in such a way as to
convey information
Processing: A series operations performed according to programmed instructions.

What is signal processing ?

Signal processing is the action of changing one or more features (parameters) of a

signal according to a predetermined requirement. The parameters that is to be changed
may be , amplitude, frequency, phase etc... of the signal . The signal which undergoes
such a process is known as input signal. And the entity which performs this processing is
known as "Signal processing system" or simply system. ie; the input signal is fed to the
system and the appropriately processed signal is coming out of the system. This signal is
known as the "Output signal". This process is illustrated below.

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Some of the signal processing tasks are Amplification, Attenuation, Filtering,
Modulation, etc... . To accomplish the required task, the "system" is designed with
appropriate behavior and features. ie; for an amplifier, the "system" is designed such that
any input signal going to the "system" will be amplified. In actual circuit, such a behavior
can be realized using transistors , FET or Op-Amps. This sort of signal processing is
known as analog signal processing. Well !, then what is Digital Signal Processing ....?

Digital Signal Processor

Since the DSP system represents the signal as numbers , the digital signal processor must
be capable of manipulating numbers. As we know, it is nothing but a computer. A general
purpose computer or a dedicated digital signal processor can be used for signal
processing. The dedicated signal processors are specially designed for DSP applications,
and which outperforms the general purpose computers in processing efficiency. This is
because the instructions, memory and other features of a dedicated Digital Signal
Processor is optimized for DSP applications. Many companies like Texas Instruments,
Analog Devices ,Motorola etc.. has dedicated Signal Processors optimized for different
applications.

Digital Signal Processing techniques

The applications of DSP are numerous, simple toys to satellites... DSP is well suited
for any application since it can do almost all processing that can be done using analog
circuitry. The major drawbacks of DSP are comparatively high cost and distortion
because of finite word length used in signal processors. Since in DSP applications, most
of the hardware can be replaced with software, eventually DSP will become cost effective
in most of the applications. The Digital Signal Processor mimics the behavior of analog
circuitry using some DSP techniques and algorithms. The techniques that are commonly
used in DSP are convolution, spectral analysis and manipulation, filtering etc

SIGNALS AND SEQUENCES:

signals and sequences are basically the same. A signal is considered analog and is
operated in a continuous-time system. A continuous-time system is a system that
operates on and generate signals that may vary over the entire time interval, usually t
∈[0,∞) . Example of a sine wave signal of the general equation y(t) = Asin ωt
in which, the amplitude A is equal to 1.0, and the angular frequency ω is also equal to
0.5. A sequence, on the other hand, is considered discrete in nature, and is operated in a
discrete-time system. A discretetime system is a system that generally receives inputs at
equally-spaced (uniform) time intervals.

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. CONTINUOUS-TIME SIGNALS:

Unit Step Function

A unit step function, denoted by u (t ) is a signal (or function) that has an amplitude of 1
for time equal or greater than 0 (t ≥ 0 ), and 0.0 for time less than 0 (t < 0 ). It
mathematical definition is The unit step function is one of the most important functions
used by mathematicians and engineers in the analysis and design of continuous-time
systems. In addition to being useful, step functions also provide a way to “turn on” and
“turn off” other functions as well, due to its “on-off” characteristics. Thus, we can think
of step functions as mathematical switches.

Unit Impulse Function

A unit impulse function, denoted by δ (t ) is not really a function in the normal sense,
because it is generally defined as the limit of a function or through its properties. The
general definition of a unit impulse function is where, f (Δ, σ ) is any function such that
when Δ → 0 , the height of the function becomes infinitely large, making its area equal to
1.0. .The unit impulse is also an important signal in the study of continuous-time systems
because this signal can represent any arbitrary analog signal. This is because an
arbitrary analog signal can be represented (or approximated) by series of impulses in the
time domain t = [τ1, τ2].

Ramp Function
The ramp function, denoted by r(t) is a signal whose amplitude increases proportionally
as time increases.

exponential function

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The exponential function is a signal whose amplitude exponentially increases or
exponentially decreases, depending on the value of a , as time approaches infinity

DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS & SEQUENCES:

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A discrete time signal, x(n), is a sequence of numbers, real or complex. In general the
signal can be bi-infinite;
. . . . . . . . . . , x(-2), x(-1), x(0), x(1), x(2), . . . . . . .
Real signals can be represented graphically, as in the example below.

LINEAR SHIFT INVARIENT SYSTEMS:

Linearity means that the relationship between the input and the output of the system is a
linear map: If input produces response and input produces response
then the scaled and summed input produces the scaled and
summed response where a1 and a2 are real scalars.
The system is time invariant. This means that if the input signal x(t) generates the output
signal y(t),
then, for each real number s, the time shifted input signal ~x(t) = x(t � s) generates the
time shifted
output signal ~y(t) = y(t � s).

Stability and Causality
The notion of causality is rather intuitive: it corresponds to the experience ofexciting a 
system and getting its response back only in future time instants,i.e. in instants that 
follow the excitation time along the time arrow. It is easyto realize that, for an LTI 
system, causality is enforced by forbidding non­zero values to the impulse response for 
time instants preceding zero. Non­causal systems, even though not realizable by sample­
by­sample processing, can be of interest for non­realtime applications or where a 
processing delay can be tolerated.The notion of stability is more delicate and can be 
given in different ways.We define the so­called bounded­input bounded­output (BIBO) 
stability, which requires that any input bounded in amplitude might only produce a 
bounded output, even though the two bounds can be different.

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Linear Constant Coefficient Difference Equation:

Linear Constant Coefficient Difference Equation is the equation that described the
relationship between the input and the output of any system .It is described the operation
of the digital processors in the time domain and provided a method for computing the
response of a system, y(n), to an arbitrary input x(n).The Nth order of a linear constant
coefficient difference equation is Where the coefficients a(k) and b(k) are constants that
define the system. If the difference equation has one or more terms a(k) that are nonzero,
the difference equation is said to be recursive. On the other hand, if all of the coefficients
a(k) are equal to zero, the difference equation is said to be nonrecursive.

Describing the discrete linear time invariant systems

There are two basic method for analyzing the behavior or response of a linear system to a
given input signal

• One method is based on the direct solution of the input-output equation for the system

• The second is to decompose or resolve the input signal into a sum of elementary signals.
The elementary signals are selected so that the response of the system to each signal
component is easily determined.
But if the input is not trivial or cannot be implemented by elementary signal, then the
digital convolution is used for any LTI system and any form of input signal.

Types of system responses

The impulse response:
The impulse response is the output of a linear system when the input is impulse signal
The system can be classified according to its impulse response into FIR or IIR system.
Definition: if the unit sample response (impulse response) of a linear time invariant
system is of finite duration, the system is said to be a finite impulse response (FIR)
system. It is also called nonrecursive system.
Definition: if the unit sample response (impulse response) of a linear time invariant
system is of infinite duration, the system is said to be an infinite impulse response (IIR)
system. It is also called recursive system.
Frequency Domain Representation of Discrete Time Signals & Systems

Let us assume we have an LTI system

x[n] h[.] y[n]

If x[ n]  e
j 2 f d n
then

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  
y[n]   h[ k ]x[ n  k ]   h[ k ]e j 2f d ( n k )

k   k  


 e j 2f n  h[k ]e  j 2f k
d d

k  

 e j 2f n H (e jw )
d

Eigenfunction eigenvalue

Example:
Let 
x[ n ]  A cos 2fn     A
2

e

j   2fn   e  j    2fn  

y[ n ]   h[ k ] x[ n  k ]
k  

 A  
j   2f n  k      
 j   2f n  k   
   h[ k ]e
2 k  
 h[ k ]e
k   

A
2
 
H e
jw
e

j   2fn
 
  H e  jw e  j    2fn  
A special case of this problem exist when h[n] is real

H e  jw  H e jw  
In this case
 
y[ n]  A H e jw cos 2fn      where   angH e jw  

In other words a sinusoidal input to a discrete time LTI system provides a sinusoidal
output.

Frequency Domain Representation of Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Discrete time Fourier Transform is a tool by which a time-domain sequence is mapped
into a continuous function of a frequency variable. Because the DTFT is periodic the
parent discrete-time sequence can be simply obtained by computing its Fourier Series
representation.

Definition of the Forward Transform

Discrete-time Fourier transform X  e jw  of a sequence x[n] is defined as:

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 X  e jw  


 x[n]e
n  
 jwn
(1)

In general X  e jw  is a complex function of the real variable w and can be written as:

X  e jw   X re  e jw   jX im  e jw 

 
X e jw can alternatively be expressed in polar form as:

   
X e jw  X e jw e j ( w) where,   
( w)  arg X e jw (2)

In many applications the Fourier transform is called the Fourier Spectrum and likewise
X  e jw  and (w) are referred to as the “magnitude spectrum” and “phase spectrum”
respectively.

Note from eq.(2) that if we replace (w) with (w) + 2k , where k is an integer,
X  e jw  remains unchanged implying that the phase function cannot be uniquely
specified for any Fourier Transform.

We will assume from now on that unless otherwise specified (w) is restricted to a
2 range.

i.e 0≤ (w) < 2

-  ≤ (w) < 

Fourier transform of some sequences exhibit discontinuities of 2 in their phase

responses. The process of removing these discontinuities is called “unwrapping the
phase” and the new phase function will be denoted as  c (w) . The subscript “c”
indicates that phase is a continuous function of w.

Example:
Consider a causal sequence x[n] where;

x[ n ]   0.5 u[ n]
n

Its DTFT X  e jw  can be obtained as

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 X  e jw  
 

  0.5 u[n]e  jwn    0.5 (1)e  jwn

n n

n   n 0

   0.5e jw  

n 1
n 0 1  0.5e  jw

Magnitude and phase of the above FT is shown below:

Note that the FT of the sequence x[n] is a CONTINUOUS function of ‘w’. It is also
periodic with period 2
Equation (1) therefore represents the Fourier Series representation of the periodic
function X  e jw  .

The Fourier coefficients x[n] can be computed from X  e jw  using the reverse Fourier
integral below;

 X  e e
1
x[ n]  jw jwn
dw
2 

This is called the inverse discrete-time Fourier Transform (IDTFT).