HSC​ ​Legal​ ​Studies​ ​2017

Crime
 Table​ ​of​ ​Contents
Crime 4
The​ ​Nature​ ​of​ ​Crime 5
The​ ​Meaning​ ​of​ ​Crime 5
The​ ​Elements​ ​of​ ​Crime 5
Strict​ ​Liability​ ​Offence 6
Causation 6
Categories​ ​of​ ​Crime 6
Summary​ ​and​ ​Indictable​ ​Offences 10
Parties​ ​to​ ​a​ ​Crime 10
Factors​ ​Affecting​ ​Criminal​ ​Behaviour 11
Crime​ ​Prevention 11
Criminal​ ​Investigation​ ​Process 13
Police​ ​Powers 13
Reporting​ ​A​ ​Crime 13
Investigating​ ​A​ ​Crime 13
Arrests 14
Bail​ ​and​ ​Remand 15
Detention​ ​and​ ​Interrogation:​ ​Rights​ ​of​ ​Suspects 16
Criminal​ ​Trial​ ​Process 17
Court​ ​Jurisdiction 17
Adversary​ ​System 18
Legal​ ​Personnel​ ​in​ ​Criminal​ ​Trial 18
Plea​ ​and​ ​Negotiation 19
Legal​ ​Aid​ ​NSW 19
Burden​ ​and​ ​Standard​ ​of​ ​Proof 20
Use​ ​of​ ​Evidence​ ​(inc.​ ​Witnesses) 20
Defences​ ​to​ ​Criminal​ ​Trial 20
Role​ ​of​ ​Juries 21
Sentencing​ ​and​ ​Punishment 22
Statutory​ ​and​ ​Judicial​ ​Guidelines 22
Purpose​ ​of​ ​Punishment 22
Factors​ ​Affecting​ ​Decision 22
Role​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Victim​ ​in​ ​Sentencing 23
Types​ ​of​ ​Penalties 23
Alternative​ ​Methods​ ​of​ ​Sentencing 26
Post​ ​Sentencing​ ​Considerations 26
Young​ ​Offenders 27
Age​ ​of​ ​Criminal​ ​Responsibility 27
Rights​ ​of​ ​Children​ ​when​ ​questioned/arrested 28
 Children’s​ ​Court:​ ​Procedures​ ​and​ ​Operations 28
Penalties​ ​for​ ​Children 28
Alternatives​ ​to​ ​Court 28
International​ ​Crime 28
Categories​ ​of​ ​International​ ​Crime 29
Dealing​ ​with​ ​International​ ​Crime 29
 HSC​ ​Legal​ ​Studies
Crime
Principal focus: Through the use of a range of contemporary examples, students investigate criminal
law, processes and institutions and the tension between community interests and individual rights and
freedoms.
Themes​ ​and​ ​challenges​ ​to​ ​be​ ​incorporated​ ​throughout​ ​this​ ​topic:
➢ The​ ​role​ ​of​ ​discretion​ ​in​ ​the​ ​criminal​ ​justice​ ​system
➢ Issues​ ​of​ ​compliance​ ​and​ ​non-compliance​ ​in​ ​regard​ ​to​ ​criminal​ ​law
➢ The​ ​extent​ ​to​ ​which​ ​law​ ​reflects​ ​moral​ ​and​ ​ethical​ ​standards
➢ The​ ​role​ ​of​ ​law​ ​reform​ ​in​ ​the​ ​criminal​ ​justice​ ​system
➢ The​ ​extent​ ​to​ ​which​ ​the​ ​law​ ​balances​ ​the​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​victims,​ ​offenders​ ​and​ ​society
➢ The​ ​effectiveness​ ​of​ ​legal​ ​and​ ​non-legal​ ​measures​ ​in​ ​achieving​ ​justice.
The​ ​Nature​ ​of​ ​Crime

The​ ​Meaning​ ​of​ ​Crime

Crime: An act or omission against the community at large, punishable by a recognised criminal
sanction upon proof of guilt in a criminal proceeding initiated by officers of the crown or its agencies.
However, Crime is can be defined differently within various societies, due to factors such as culture,
history, legal traditions, social attitudes and religious beliefs. Criminal cases attempt to redress an
injustice​ ​against​ ​a​ ​specific​ ​individual(s)​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​against​ ​the​ ​standards​ ​of​ ​the​ ​community.
➢ Criminal law aims to achieve justice through balancing the rights of the victim, the accused
and​ ​the​ ​community​ ​at​ ​large,​ ​and​ ​is​ ​concerned​ ​with​ ​disputes​ ​within​ ​the​ ​state​ ​(society).
➢ Aim is to prosecute an offender in a court of law to obtain a sanction/punishment on behalf of
the​ ​victim​ ​and​ ​the​ ​community.
➢ Cases are brought forward by the crown (Director of Public Prosecutions, or DPP) in an
adversarial court of law, where two parties present their case to an impartial mediator (judge)
and​ ​a​ ​jury.
➢ Burden of proof lies with the crown, which must prove guilt to a high standard (beyond
reasonable​ ​doubt)

The​ ​Elements​ ​of​ ​Crime

Actus​ ​Reus:​ ​latin​ ​for​ ​‘guilty​ ​act’
➢ Refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​physical​ ​conduct​ ​of​ ​the​ ​criminal​ ​act.
➢ Must​ ​be​ ​a​ ​voluntary​ ​action​ ​(or​ ​lack​ ​thereof)
➢ Must​ ​be​ ​proven​ ​that​ ​the​ ​individual(s)​ ​actually​ ​carried​ ​out​ ​the​ ​act.
➢ Often​ ​easy​ ​to​ ​prove,​ ​based​ ​on​ ​physical​ ​evidence​ ​and​ ​witness​ ​testimonies.
Mens​ ​Rea:​ ​latin​ ​for​ ​‘guilty​ ​mind’
➢ Refers to the mental state of the accused (person's intent). Requires someone to have the
mental​ ​capacity​ ​to​ ​have​ ​intent​ ​to​ ​commit​ ​the​ ​crime.
➢ The prosecution must prove that the defendant was (at least somewhat) aware of their actions
and​ ​their​ ​consequences
➢ There are three tiers of mens rea, with differing degrees which must be proved for different
crimes:
○ Intention: A clear, malicious or wilful intention to commit the crime - highest and
most difficult level of mens rea for the prosecution to prove. (e.g the accused murders
an​ ​ex-partner)
○ Recklessness: When the accused was aware that the action could lead to crime being
committed- chose to take the course of action anyway. (e.g the accused kills the
victim​ ​after​ ​speeding​ ​and​ ​crashing​ ​into​ ​their​ ​car)
○ Negligence: This is when the accused fails to see the danger present in their actions
leading​ ​to​ ​the​ ​death​ ​or​ ​injury​ ​of​ ​others.
 CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​R​ ​v​ ​Thomas​ ​Sam,​ ​R​ ​v​ ​Manju​ ​Sam,​ ​2009​ ​(NSW​ ​Supreme​ ​Court)

Criminal​ ​Negligence;
➢ The​ ​victim​ ​(a​ ​nine​ ​month​ ​old​ ​girl)​ ​passed​ ​away,​ ​after​ ​her​ ​parents​ ​failed​ ​to​ ​provide
conventional​ ​medical​ ​treatment​ ​for​ ​her​ ​serious​ ​eczema
➢ The​ ​court​ ​found​ ​that​ ​the​ ​risks​ ​related​ ​to​ ​the​ ​young​ ​girl’s​ ​condition​ ​would​ ​have​ ​been
obvious​ ​to​ ​any​ ​reasonable​ ​person,​ ​and​ ​that​ ​as​ ​educated​ ​adults,​ ​her​ ​parents​ ​should​ ​have
recognised​ ​these​ ​risks​ ​and​ ​sought​ ​medical​ ​treatment
➢ Because​ ​they​ ​failed​ ​to​ ​do​ ​so,​ ​the​ ​parents​ ​were​ ​found​ ​guilty​ ​of​ ​manslaughter​ ​and
imprisoned.

Strict​ ​Liability​ ​Offence

➢ The​ ​element​ ​of​ ​actus​ ​rea​ ​will​ ​need​ ​to​ ​be​ ​shown​ ​in​ ​such​ ​offences.
➢ No mens rea will need to be proven i.e speeding offences; police must show that the person
breached​ ​laws,​ ​not​ ​whether​ ​they​ ​intended​ ​to​ ​do​ ​so.
➢ Assist​ ​in​ ​dealing​ ​with​ ​everyday​ ​offences.
➢ Defence​ ​to​ ​strict​ ​liability​ ​possible​ ​if​ ​accused​ ​can​ ​prove​ ​it​ ​was​ ​a​ ​reasonable​ ​mistake.
➢ Administrative​ ​advantages,​ ​reduces​ ​strain​ ​on​ ​court​ ​hierarchy
➢ Places​ ​a​ ​greater​ ​onus​ ​on​ ​society​ ​to​ ​comply​ ​with​ ​certain​ ​laws

Causation
➢ The act that was performed must be the ‘operative and substantial’ cause of the crime,
meaning​ ​that​ ​the​ ​actions​ ​were​ ​the​ ​primary​ ​reason​ ​for​ ​the​ ​offence.
➢ Causation links to Actus Reus: The prosecution is required to prove a substantial link between
the​ ​act​ ​and​ ​the​ ​crime.

CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​R​ ​v​ ​Munter​ ​(2009)

​ ​Causation​ ​can​ ​be​ ​established​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​link​ ​between​ ​the​ ​assault​ ​and​ ​the​ ​death​ ​of​ ​the​ ​victim;
➢ The​ ​accused,​ ​Todd​ ​Munter,​ ​punched​ ​and​ ​then​ ​kicked​ ​a​ ​66​ ​year​ ​old​ ​victim​ ​following​ ​a
dispute​ ​over​ ​water​ ​restrictions
➢ The​ ​victim​ ​later​ ​died​ ​of​ ​a​ ​heart​ ​attack​ ​as​ ​a​ ​direct​ ​result​ ​of​ ​the​ ​blows​ ​inflicted​ ​by​ ​the
accused.
➢ The​ ​accused​ ​was​ ​convicted​ ​of​ ​manslaughter​ ​and​ ​imprisoned.

Categories​ ​of​ ​Crime

Offences Against a Person: ​Acts which cause physical harm or injury to another individual. Divided
into​ ​three​ ​distinct​ ​areas:

Homicide Murder:
The unlawful killing of a Deliberate killing of another person. The prosecution must prove
person. The judge must either
determine that there is a
‘causal relationship’ between
the​ ​actus​ ​rea​ ​and​ ​mens​ ​rea.
Assault
Causing physical harm or
threatening to cause physical
harm to another person. The
law makes no distinction
between the threat and actual
application​ ​of​ ​force.
Sexual​ ​Offences
Offences against the person When someone is forced into sexual intercourse without their
involving​ ​a​ ​sexual​ ​element. consent. Sexual assault cases revolve around the consent of the
➢ The accused intended to kill the victim or inflict grievous
bodily​ ​harm
➢ The act was committed with reckless indifference to human
life
➢ The​ ​act​ ​was​ ​done​ ​while​ ​committing​ ​another​ ​serious​ ​crime
Manslaughter:
The killing of a person in a manner considered to be less intentional
than​ ​murder.​ ​There​ ​are​ ​five​ ​types:
➢ Voluntary manslaughter: Occurs when the accused kills
someone with intent, but there are mitigating circumstances
involved​ ​(e.g​ ​provocation,​ ​self​ ​defence).
➢ Involuntary Manslaughter: Occurs when the accused acted
in a reckless or negligent way, without intent to kill the
person.
➢ Constructive Manslaughter: Occurs when the accused kills
the victim while performing another unlawful act (e.g
assault).
➢ Infanticide: A special case of manslaughter, occurs when a
mother’s actions cause the death of her child when they are
less​ ​than​ ​12​ ​months​ ​old.
➢ Dangerous driving causing death: A special case of
manslaughter, where the accused driving in a reckless way
causes​ ​the​ ​death​ ​of​ ​the​ ​victim.
Common​ ​assault:
Involves an assault where no physical harm is inflicted upon the
victim.
Physical​ ​assault:
A direct act in which force is applied to another person unlawfully
and​ ​without​ ​their​ ​consent​ ​(punishable​ ​by​ ​5-7​ ​years​ ​imprisonment.
Sexual​ ​assault:
victim.
Aggravated​ ​sexual​ ​assault:
Sexual assault involving aggravating factors, including the victim
being​ ​under​ ​16,​ ​or​ ​if​ ​violence​ ​is​ ​used
Indecent​ ​assault:
A sexual offence not involving sexual intercourse, but other acts of
indecency
Aggravated​ ​sexual​ ​assault​ ​in​ ​company:
Sexual assault conducted by multiple individuals, punishable by
life​ ​in​ ​prison.
 CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​R​ ​v​ ​Boughey​ ​(1986)

➢ ​ ​The​ ​accused​ ​strangled​ ​his​ ​wife​ ​during​ ​a​ ​‘sex​ ​game’

➢ The​ ​court​ ​found​ ​that​ ​Boughey’s​ ​actions​ ​constituted​ ​reckless​ ​indifference​ ​to​ ​human​ ​life,​ ​that
he​ ​should​ ​have​ ​known​ ​much​ ​better,​ ​and​ ​there​ ​was​ ​a​ ​good​ ​chance​ ​of​ ​harm.
➢ Boughey​ ​was​ ​convicted​ ​of​ ​murder:​ ​The​ ​accused​ ​was​ ​convicted​ ​of​ ​murder​ ​because​ ​it​ ​was
deemed​ ​that​ ​he​ ​acted​ ​with​ ​reckless​ ​indifference​ ​to​ ​human​ ​life.

CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​R​ ​v​ ​AEM​ ​(Snr);​ ​R​ ​v​ ​KEM;​ ​R​ ​v​ ​MM​ ​[2002]

➢ ​ ​The​ ​accused​ ​(three​ ​family​ ​members)​ ​lured​ ​two​ ​16​ ​year​ ​old​ ​girls​ ​into​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​offender’s
homes​ ​and​ ​sexually​ ​assaulted​ ​them​ ​over​ ​several​ ​hours.
➢ Violence​ ​and​ ​death​ ​threats​ ​were​ ​utilised​ ​by​ ​the​ ​offenders
➢ The​ ​men​ ​were​ ​originally​ ​sentenced​ ​to​ ​less​ ​than​ ​10​ ​years​ ​imprisonment.
➢ Public​ ​outcry​ ​led​ ​to​ ​the​ ​introduction​ ​of​ ​a​ ​new​ ​type​ ​of​ ​offence,​ ​aggravated​ ​sexual​ ​assault​ ​in
company,​ ​into​ ​the​ ​Crimes​ ​Act​ ​1900​ ​(NSW)
➢ This​ ​case​ ​was​ ​the​ ​catalyst​ ​for​ ​law​ ​reform​ ​in​ ​this​ ​area​ ​of​ ​law.

Offences​ ​Against​ ​the​ ​Sovereign:

Against​ ​Sovereign Treason:
In which the accused is Commission of acts aimed at bringing down the government.
targeting the state Undermining the government by passing on information to other
(government). governments​ ​etc.

Sedition:
The inciting of public unrest with the aim of bringing down the
government; the act of encouraging hatred or contempt for the
government.

Economic​ ​Offences:
Crimes​ ​Against​ ​Property Larceny:
Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​intentionally​ ​takes​ ​the​ ​victim’s​ ​property
without​ ​their​ ​consent.

Robbery:
Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​uses​ ​force​ ​to​ ​steal​ ​property.​ ​The​ ​use​ ​of​ ​a
weapon​ ​constitutes​ ​armed​ ​robbery.

Break​ ​and​ ​enter:​ ​Intentionally​ ​trespassing​ ​with​ ​the​ ​intention​ ​of

committing​ ​another​ ​criminal​ ​offence

White​ ​Collar​ ​Crimes Embezzlement:

Involves non-violent crimes Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​misappropriates​ ​property​ ​entrusted​ ​to​ ​them​ ​by
associated with business another
professionals.
Tax​ ​Evasion:
Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​uses​ ​various​ ​means​ ​to​ ​avoid​ ​paying​ ​taxes​ ​to​ ​the
government.
 Insider​ ​Trading:
Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​obtains​ ​confidential​ ​information​ ​regarding​ ​the
share​ ​value​ ​of​ ​a​ ​public​ ​company,​ ​and​ ​utilises​ ​this​ ​information​ ​to
their​ ​advantage​ ​in​ ​the​ ​stock​ ​market.

Computer​ ​Offences Fraud:

Involves the unauthorised
access or modification of
computer​ ​data
Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​acts​ ​deceitfully​ ​or​ ​dishonestly​ ​for​ ​their​ ​own
personal​ ​gain.​ ​Fraud​ ​is​ ​becoming​ ​more​ ​prevalent​ ​as​ ​technology
advances,​ ​and​ ​hackers​ ​discover​ ​new​ ​avenues​ ​of​ ​identity​ ​theft​ ​and
credit​ ​card​ ​fraud.​ ​Internet​ ​piracy​ ​is​ ​another​ ​serious​ ​offence​ ​which​ ​is
increasing​ ​in​ ​its​ ​prevalence.

Other​ ​Types​ ​of​ ​Offences:

Drug​ ​Offences
Relates to acts involving
restricted​ ​or​ ​prohibited​ ​drugs
The​ ​main​ ​types​ ​of​ ​offences​ ​are:
➢ Possession​ ​of​ ​a​ ​prohibited​ ​drug
➢ Use​ ​of​ ​a​ ​prohibited​ ​drug
➢ Supply​ ​of​ ​a​ ​prohibited​ ​drug
➢ Cultivation/creation​ ​of​ ​a​ ​prohibited​ ​drug
➢ Less serious drug offences are punished with rehabilitation
in mind, while suppliers and cultivators are dealt with
more​ ​severely.
Relevant legislation includes: - Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act
1985​ ​(NSW)​ ​ ​&​ ​ ​Customs​ ​Act​ ​1901​ ​(Cth)

Driving​ ​Offences Offences​ ​include:

➢ Exceeding​ ​the​ ​speed​ ​limit
➢ Driving​ ​under​ ​the​ ​influence​ ​of​ ​alcohol​ ​or​ ​drugs
➢ Reckless​ ​or​ ​negligent​ ​driving​ ​occasioning​ ​bodily​ ​harm
➢ Disobeying​ ​road​ ​rules

Included in the Road Transport (Safety and Traffic Management)

Act 1999 (NSW), and managed by the RMS. Most offences are
summary​ ​offences,​ ​and​ ​are​ ​offenders​ ​are​ ​normally​ ​strictly​ ​liable.

Public​ ​Order​ ​Offences Affray:

Where an individual utilises/threatens violence in a public setting,
Included in the Summary in​ ​such​ ​a​ ​way​ ​that​ ​a​ ​reasonable​ ​person​ ​would​ ​fear​ ​for​ ​their​ ​safety
Offences Act 1988 NSW).
Acts which violate the public Riot:
order, which are note socially Where a group of 12 or more individuals utilise/threaten violence
acceptable Most offences are in a public setting for a common purpose, in such a way that a
summary offences, and are reasonable​ ​person​ ​would​ ​fear​ ​for​ ​their​ ​safety
offenders are normally
strictly​ ​liable.

Preliminary​ ​Offences Attempt:

Acts which precede the Where an individual attempts to commit a crime but fails or was
commission​ ​of​ ​a​ ​crime. prevented,​ ​though​ ​intended​ ​to​ ​complete​ ​the​ ​crime.

Conspiracy:
 Most preliminary offences Where​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​individuals​ ​attempt​ ​to​ ​commit​ ​a​ ​crime.
are punished as it the crime
was successful, except for
some exceptions (attempted
murder).

Regulatory​ ​Offences ➢ Set​ ​out​ ​in​ ​delegated​ ​legislation.

➢ Minor offences with lesser penalties, usually strict liability
offences.
➢ Enforced​ ​by​ ​local​ ​law​ ​officers​ ​or​ ​government​ ​officers.
➢ Examples​ ​may​ ​include:
○ Violating​ ​water​ ​restrictions​ ​or​ ​fire​ ​bans.
○ Traveling​ ​on​ ​public​ ​transport​ ​without​ ​a​ ​ticket.

Summary​ ​and​ ​Indictable​ ​Offences

Many indictable offences can be tried summarily: The accused can elect to have the case heard by a
magistrate.​ ​This​ ​can​ ​be​ ​much​ ​quicker​ ​and​ ​cheaper​ ​than​ ​a​ ​lengthy​ ​court​ ​process.
Summary​ ​Offence Indictable​ ​Offence

➢ Less​ ​severe​ ​offences. ➢ More​ ​serious​ ​offences.

➢ Heard​ a​ nd​ ​sentenced​ ​by​ ​a​ ​magistrate​ ​in
a​ ​Local​ ​Court.
➢ Less​ ​severe​ ​penalties​ ​such​ ​as​ ​fines.
➢ Prosecutor​ ​is​ ​normally​ ​a​ ​police​ ​officer
➢ Tried by a judge and jury (not guilty
plea) or sentenced by a judge (guilty
plea).
➢ Committal hearing is held in a local
court to determine whether the
prosecution’s evidence is sufficient to
go​ ​to​ ​trial.

Parties​ ​to​ ​a​ ​Crime

A ‘party,’ is someone involved in the crime in any way. The punishment they receive is determined by
their​ ​level​ ​of​ ​involvement.

The​ ​Principal​ ​in​ ​the​ ​First The principal offender, the person who is directly responsible for
Degree. the​ ​crime​ ​and​ ​commits​ ​the​ ​act

The​ ​Principal​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Second A​ ​person​ ​present​ ​during​ ​the​ ​crime​ ​(physically​ ​or
Degree. otherwise),​ ​who​ ​encouraged​ ​or​ ​assisted​ ​the​ ​offender.

Accessory​ ​Before​ ​the​ ​Fact. A person who has helped in planning or preparation before the act
is​ ​carried​ ​out.

Accessory​ ​After​ ​the​ ​Fact. A​ ​person​ ​who​ ​has​ ​assisted​ ​the​ ​principal​ ​after​ ​the​ ​act​ ​is​ ​carried
out.
Factors​ ​Affecting​ ​Criminal​ ​Behaviour
Criminology: The scientific study of crime and criminal behaviour. All crimes are committed for
different​ ​reasons​ ​and​ ​are​ ​influenced​ ​by​ ​a​ ​combination​ ​of​ ​factors:
Psychological​ ​Factors ➢ Extremely​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​mens​ ​rea​ ​aspects​ ​of​ ​trial.
➢ May​ ​constitute​ ​a​ ​mitigating​ ​circumstance​ ​if​ ​mental​ ​illness
is​ ​involved
➢ Punishments​ ​will​ ​have​ ​a​ ​focus​ ​on​ ​psychological
rehabilitation

Social​ ​Factors ➢ Attitudes​ ​towards​ ​crime​ ​and​ ​acceptable​ ​behaviour​ ​are

influenced​ ​by​ ​one’s​ ​relationships.
➢ Previous​ ​experiences​ ​may​ ​influence​ ​the​ ​behaviour​ ​of
potential​ ​criminals.
➢ Some​ ​situations​ ​may​ ​constitute​ ​a​ ​mitigating​ ​circumstance.

Economic​ ​Factors
➢ People​ ​from​ ​disadvantaged​ ​backgrounds​ ​are​ ​more​ ​likely​ ​to
commit​ ​crimes
➢ Poor​ ​education​ ​and​ ​lack​ ​of​ ​skills​ ​leads​ ​individuals​ ​to
commit​ ​economic​ ​offences​ ​to​ ​improve​ ​their​ ​financial
situations
➢ One​ ​third​ ​of​ ​male​ ​and​ ​one​ ​half​ ​of​ ​female​ ​criminals​ ​in​ ​NSW
receive​ ​welfare​ ​payments

Genetic​ ​Factors ➢ Studies​ ​have​ ​been​ ​conducted​ ​attempting​ ​to​ ​link​ ​criminal
behaviour​ ​to​ ​a​ ​genetic​ ​abhorrence
➢ No​ ​conclusive​ ​evidence​ ​yet​ ​exists

Political​ ​Factors ➢ Offences​ ​against​ ​the​ ​sovereign​ ​or​ ​public​ ​order​ ​offences
may​ ​have​ ​a​ ​political​ ​factor​ ​involved
➢ An​ ​extreme​ ​example​ ​of​ ​such​ ​an​ ​offence​ ​is​ ​terrorism

Self​ ​Interest​ ​Factors ➢ Most​ ​crimes​ ​are​ ​committed​ ​in​ ​the​ ​interest​ ​of​ ​the​ ​offender(s)
➢ White​ c​ ollar​ ​crimes​ ​are​ ​a​ ​good​ ​example​ ​of​ ​crimes
motivated​ ​by​ ​personal​ ​greed,​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​external​ ​factors

Crime​ ​Prevention

Situational​ ​Crime​ ​Prevention Social​ ​Crime​ ​Prevention

➢ Measures which make it more difficult
or​ ​less​ ​rewarding​ ​to​ ​commit​ ​crimes
➢ May include installation of security
systems, anti virus software, or avoiding
poorly​ ​lit​ ​environments
➢ i.e Greater number of police in areas
such as King's Cross were majority of
drunken, one punch assaults occur; Use
of UV lights in bathrooms in order to
➢ Measures which attempt to address the
underlying social factors which may
lead to criminal behaviour, including a
lack of skills or socioeconomic
disadvantage.
➢ May include youth programs or
educational​ ​workshops.
➢ The most common strategy to
encourage young people away from
crime is the use of diversionary
stop individuals from injecting programs that provide a venue for
substances​ ​harder​ ​to​ ​see​ ​veins. alternative activities, such as sporting
groups, the Police Citizens Youth Clubs
and​ ​drop-in​ ​centres.
Criminal​ ​Investigation​ ​Process

Police​ ​Powers
➢ Responsibility​ ​to​ ​enforce​ ​criminal​ ​law​ ​in​ ​their​ ​relative​ ​jurisdiction.
➢ Role is to investigate crime, interrogate witnesses, gather evidence and make arrests. To
prevent crime through maintaining a public presence and acting as a deterrent, and to
investigate​ ​criminal​ ​activities​ ​and​ ​assist​ ​in​ ​the​ ​prosecution​ ​of​ ​those​ ​charged​ ​with​ ​offences.
➢ Challenge lies in the balance between civil liberties and police powers, which violate the
individual​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​citizens.

Powers are granted by the Law Enforcement (Power and Responsibilities) Act 2002 (NSW). Such
powers​ ​include;
➢ Questioning suspects, detaining suspects, search and seizure, all with the use of reasonable
force.
➢ May​ ​need​ ​a​ ​warrant​ ​to​ ​utilise​ ​certain​ ​powers
➢ NSW​ ​Police​ ​force​ ​adheres​ ​to​ ​a​ ​code​ ​of​ ​practice​ ​which​ ​ensures​ ​the​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​suspects.
➢ Since 2002, amendments to LEPRA have increased police powers in NSW. New powers have
been​ ​introduced​ ​to​ ​assist​ ​in​ ​criminal​ ​investigation​ ​process.

Role​ ​of​ ​Discretion​ ​for​ ​Police:

➢ Areas​ ​to​ ​patrol
➢ Decisions made by individual officers; i.e let an offender go without caution, investigate
certain​ ​behaviour,​ ​charge​ ​suspect
➢ Whether​ ​to​ ​handle​ ​with​ ​force
➢ Draw​ ​a​ ​gun

Reporting​ ​A​ ​Crime

➢ Victims​ ​and​ ​witnesses​ ​use​ ​their​ ​discretion​ ​to​ ​discern​ ​whether​ ​or​ ​not​ ​to​ ​report​ ​crimes
➢ Citizens​ h​ ave​ ​role​ ​of​ ​reporting​ ​crime​ ​in​ ​justice​ ​system
➢ May be hesitant for several reasons, including reluctance to be involved, administrative
burdens,​ ​or​ ​fear​ ​of​ ​reprisal
➢ Some crimes are more widely reported than others: Sexual Assault is rarely reported. 50% of
women​ ​do​ ​not​ ​report​ ​DV​ ​(BOCSAR
➢ Police​ ​do​ ​not​ ​see​ ​most​ ​crimes:​ ​Only​ ​respond​ ​to​ ​reports
➢ The police rely on members of the public to report crimes. Community-based programs such
as Crime Stoppers and Neighbourhood Watch are designed to create a sense of teamwork
between the police and the community. These programs reinforce the fact that, without
information from the public, the police would have difficulty in solving (and preventing)
crime.

Investigating​ ​A​ ​Crime

Gathering​ ​Evidence ➢ Evidence​ ​is​ ​gathered​ ​to​ ​support​ ​a​ ​charge​ ​in​ ​court.​ ​May
include​ ​witness​ ​statements,​ ​forensic​ ​analysis.
 ➢ Must​ ​be​ ​collected​ ​according​ ​to​ ​the​ ​Evidence​ ​Act​ ​1995
(NSW)​ ​to​ ​be​ ​admissible​ ​in​ ​court.
➢ Evidence​ ​collected​ ​at​ ​crime​ ​scene​ ​‘in​ ​situ’​ ​(in​ ​the​ ​place).
Ensures​ ​the​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​individual​ ​citizens​ ​during​ ​investigation
process.

Use​ ​of​ ​Technology ➢ Surveillance technology has provided more evidence for use
in criminal investigations; for e.g. the installations of
cameras in major public spaces has assisted in identifying
criminals.
➢ Must be extremely reliability for admissible evidence. In
NSW there are strict rules about the use of DNA evidence
and its collection, contained in the Crimes (Forensic
Procedures)​ ​Act​ ​2000​ ​(NSW).
➢ DNA EVIDENCE: Genetic material that can be used to link
a​ ​suspect​ ​with​ ​a​ ​crime​ ​scene.
➢ Suspect​ ​must​ ​consent​ ​to​ ​taking​ ​of​ ​DNA​ ​samples.
➢ Crimes​ ​(Forensic​ ​Procedures)​ ​Act​ ​2000​ ​(NSW)

Use​ ​of​ ​Warrants ➢ A legal document issued by a court authorizing the use of
particular​ ​police​ ​powers
➢ Ensures police powers are only used in appropriate
circumstances:​ ​Judicial​ ​regulation
➢

Search​ ​and​ ​Seizure ➢ The Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act
2002 (NSW); procedures for police to follow when
conducting​ ​personal​ ​search​ ​or​ ​strip​ ​search;​ ​respect​ ​dignity.
➢ Mandated​ ​by​ ​LEPRA​ ​2002​ ​(PART​ ​4)
➢ Controversial:​ ​Invasion​ ​of​ ​Privacy
➢ Police must reasonably believe the person is carrying an
illegal​ ​article​ ​or​ ​an​ ​item​ ​connected​ ​to​ ​a​ ​crime​ ​(discretion)
➢ Governed​ ​by​ ​strict​ ​regulations​ ​to​ ​protect​ ​individual​ ​rights
➢ LEPRA Amendment (Search Powers) Act 2009 allows
covert​ ​searches​ ​for​ ​serious​ ​indictable​ ​offences.

Arrests

Arrest LEPRA​ ​(2002)​ ​governs​ ​conditions​ ​of​ ​arrest

➢ The​ ​suspect​ ​is​ ​seen​ ​committing​ ​an​ ​offence
➢ It is believed on reasonable grounds the suspect has/may
commit​ ​an​ ​offence
➢ A​ ​warrant​ ​is​ ​possessed​ ​for​ ​the​ ​suspects’​ ​arrest
➢ Arrest is supposed to be a last resort, but critics say it has
become​ ​simply​ ​a​ ​means​ ​of​ ​investigation.
➢ Reasonable​ ​force​ ​may​ ​be​ ​used
➢ Police​ ​must​ ​state​ ​the​ ​reasons​ ​for​ ​the​ ​arrest

Charge ➢ After max detention period, suspect must be released

unconditionally,​ ​or​ ​charged​ ​with​ ​an​ ​offence
 ➢ Extensions​ ​can​ ​be​ ​applied​ ​for

Summon ➢ A legal document summoning a suspect to court on a

specific​ ​date
➢ Witnesses​ ​are​ ​summoned​ ​by​ ​a​ ​subpoena

CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​Dietrich​ ​v.​ ​The​ ​Queen​ ​(1992)

Dietrich, who had been charged with drug offences, was denied legal aid after he refused to plead
guilty. Legal aid took the view that the evidence against Dietrich was so overwhelming that his case
had​ ​no​ ​merit;​ ​that​ ​is,​ ​it​ ​was​ ​pointless​ ​for​ ​him​ ​to​ ​plead​ ​not​ ​guilty.
Dietrich represented himself and was convicted. He appealed his conviction to the High Court
arguing that he did not get a fair trial, as he had no legal representation. The High Court agreed that
it was probably that Dietrich did not get a fair trial but noted that there was no automatic right to
legal representation. This ruling meant that individuals who are not eligible for legal aid and cannot
afford their own lawyer may not have legal representation during court proceedings and police
interrogations.

Bail​ ​and​ ​Remand

Bail:
➢ The temporary, conditional release of an accused person awaiting trial. Applied for in a bail
hearing​ ​(local​ ​court).
➢ Limits​ ​or​ ​restrictions​ ​to​ ​activities​ ​may​ ​apply:​ ​Accused​ ​is​ ​carefully​ ​monitored.
➢ Monetary​ ​bonds​ ​may​ ​be​ ​paid​ ​as​ ​surety:​ ​Ensures​ ​accused​ ​returns​ ​to​ ​court
➢ Conditions​ ​outlined​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Bail​ ​Act​ ​1978​ ​(NSW)
➢ Changes​ ​have​ ​made​ ​obtaining​ ​bail​ ​more​ ​difficult:​ ​Stricter​ ​conditions
➢ Greater protection for community, but undermine individual right for presumption of
innocence
➢ NSW​ ​LRC​ ​Report​ ​(2012)​ ​suggested​ ​onus​ ​should​ ​lie​ ​with​ ​prosecution​ ​for​ ​all​ ​offences
➢ For more serious offences, particularly serious drug offences such as those contained within
the Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act 1985 (NSW) and the Customs Act 1901 (Cwlth), there
is a presumption against bail. Serious crimes against persons, such as homicide, have a similar
presumption. In these cases bail will not be granted unless there are exceptional
circumstances.
➢ Factors​ ​considered​ ​include:
○ Seriousness​ ​of​ ​the​ ​offence
○ Likelihood​ ​of​ ​recidivism
○ Protection​ ​of​ ​community
○ Risks​ ​of​ ​absconding
Remand:
➢ A​ ​period​ ​in​ ​custody​ ​awaiting​ ​trial
➢ Undermines​ ​individual​ ​right​ ​to​ ​assumption​ ​of​ ​innocence
➢ If​ ​imprisoned,​ ​time​ ​in​ ​remand​ ​is​ ​subtracted
Detention​ ​and​ ​Interrogation:​ ​Rights​ ​of​ ​Suspects
LEPRA​ ​(2002)​ ​sets​ ​out​ ​lawful​ ​conditions​ ​of​ ​detention
➢ Maximum​ ​detention​ ​period​ ​of​ ​four​ ​hours
➢ Suspect​ ​must​ ​be​ ​issued​ ​with​ ​a​ ​caution​ ​of​ ​their​ ​rights
➢ Young​ ​offenders​ ​have​ ​additional​ ​rights

➢ Rights​ ​include:
➢ Right​ ​to​ ​legal​ ​representation
➢ Right​ ​to​ s​ ilence

➢ Aim​ ​is​ ​to​ ​balance​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​the​ ​victim,​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​and​ ​society
➢ Critics​ ​condemn​ ​the​ ​shift​ ​away​ ​from​ ​recognizing​ ​the​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​the​ ​victim
Criminal​ ​Trial​ ​Process

Court​ ​Jurisdiction
➢ Jurisdiction:​ ​The​ ​legal​ ​power​ ​or​ ​responsibility​ ​of​ ​a​ ​court
➢ Court Hierarchy: The system of courts within a jurisdiction, from lower courts to intermediate
and​ ​then​ ​higher​ ​courts
➢ Cases usually heard in a Local Court for a preliminary hearing, before proceeding to
appropriate court Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth) gives state courts the power to hear federal
criminal​ ​cases
➢ Original​ ​jurisdiction:​ ​The​ ​authority​ ​for​ ​a​ ​court​ ​to​ ​hear​ ​matters​ ​for​ ​the​ ​first​ ​time
➢ Appellate​ ​jurisdiction:​ ​The​ ​authority​ ​for​ ​a​ ​court​ ​to​ ​review​ ​matters​ ​on​ ​appeal

Lower​ ​Courts​ ​of​ ​NSW

Local​ ​Courts ➢ Governed​ ​by​ ​Local​ ​Court​ ​Act​ ​2007​ ​(NSW)

➢ Hears​ ​summary​ ​criminal​ ​offences
➢ Conducts bail hearings and committal hearings: Determines
if case has enough evidence to proceed to trial in higher
court
➢ Overseen​ ​by​ ​magistrate
➢ Cheaper and faster, but limited in jurisdiction and
sentencing​ ​options

Coroner's​ ​Court ➢ Conducts​ ​coronial​ ​inquests​ ​into​ ​suspicious​ ​circumstances

and​ ​deaths
➢ Evidence​ ​may​ ​warrant​ ​a​ ​criminal​ ​trial
➢ Coroner’s​ ​Act​ ​2009​ ​(NSW)

Children’s​ ​Court ➢ Children’s​ ​Court​ ​Act​ ​1987​ ​(NSW)

➢ Deals​ ​with​ ​young​ ​offenders
➢ Court​ ​is​ ​closed​ ​to​ ​the​ ​public​ ​and​ ​journalists
➢ Presided​ ​over​ ​by​ ​magistrate​ ​and​ ​no​ ​jury

Intermediate​ ​Courts​ ​of​ ​NSW

District​ ​Court ➢ District​ ​Court​ ​Act​ ​1973​ ​(NSW)

➢ Matters​ ​heard​ ​by​ ​judge​ ​and​ ​jury
➢ Can​ ​hear​ ​appeals​ ​from​ ​lower​ ​courts
➢ Hears indictable offences such as manslaughter, sexual
assault,​ ​robbery​ ​etc

Superior​ ​Courts​ ​of​ ​NSW

Supreme​ ​Court​ ​of​ ​NSW Supreme​ ​Court​ ​Act​ ​1970​ ​(NSW)

Cases​ ​can​ ​be​ ​heard​ ​by​ ​judge​ ​or​ ​judge/jury
Hears most serious matters, including murder, treason, attempted
murder,​ ​sexual​ ​assault​ ​in​ ​company​ ​etc
 Court​ ​of​ ​Criminal​ ​Appeal Appellate​ ​branch​ ​of​ ​Supreme​ ​Court
Highest​ ​court​ ​of​ ​appeal​ ​in​ ​NSW​ ​(other​ ​than​ ​high​ ​court)

Land​ ​and​ ​Environment Interprets​ ​and​ ​enforces​ ​environmental​ ​and​ ​property​ ​law
Court Heard​ ​by​ ​judge​ ​only

Federal​ ​Courts

High​ ​Court​ ​of​ ​Australia
➢ Prosecuted​ ​by​ ​a​ ​Commonwealth​ ​DPP​ ​in​ ​a​ ​state​ ​court
➢ Includes​ ​drug​ ​importation,​ ​money​ ​laundering​ ​etc
➢ Cases classified as summary/indictable and sent to relevant
court
➢ s71​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Constitution​ ​and​ ​Judiciary​ ​Act​ ​1903​ ​(Cth)
➢ Original jurisdiction for constitutional interpretation and
some​ ​Cth​ ​matters
➢ Special​ ​leave​ ​can​ ​be​ ​granted​ ​to​ ​appeal

Adversary​ ​System
“A​ ​system​ ​of​ ​law​ ​where​ ​two​ ​opposing​ ​sides​ ​present​ ​their​ ​cases​ ​to​ ​an​ ​impartial​ ​judge​ ​and/​ ​or​ ​jury.”
➢ An​ ​impartial​ ​mediator​ ​determines​ ​result​ ​based​ ​on​ ​evidence​ ​presented
➢ Inherited​ ​from​ ​English​ ​common​ ​law​ ​system
➢ Supporters​ ​argue​ ​it​ ​ensures​ ​each​ ​party​ ​is​ ​heard,​ ​and​ ​bias​ ​is​ ​reduced
➢ Critics argue that the skill of legal personnel impacts on cases, as does the lack of legal
knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​jury
➢ The​ ​inquisitorial​ ​system​ ​is​ ​centered​ ​around​ ​the​ ​judge
➢ Judge​ ​directs​ ​case​ ​and​ ​can​ ​request​ ​evidence
➢ Present​ ​in​ ​the​ ​form​ ​of​ ​coronial​ ​inquests​ ​and​ ​royal​ ​commissions

Legal​ ​Personnel​ ​in​ ​Criminal​ ​Trial

Magistrates ➢ Judicial​ ​officers​ ​who​ ​preside​ ​over​ ​cases

➢ Presides over a local court and are appointed by the chief
magistrate, who is independent of the government. In
summary cases, they must determine whether the accused is
guilty,​ ​and​ ​if​ ​so,​ ​pass​ ​a​ ​sentence

Judges ➢ Conducts trials according to the rules and principles of the

law. Is usually appointed to the judiciary after years of
service as a successful barrister, although other legal
experts such as law academics may also be appointed to the
judiciary. Their rulings must be based on law and the facts
that​ ​the​ ​prosecution​ ​and​ ​the​ ​defence​ ​present​ ​to​ ​them.

Prosecutors ➢ Represent the state (and therefore society) before the court.
Prove that the accused is guilty. Once a conviction has been
gained, the prosecution will present arguments and
evidence​ ​in​ ​favour​ ​of​ ​a​ ​harsh​ ​penalty.
 ➢ Police prosecutors (trained officer) operate in the Local
Court
➢ Public prosecutors (DPP) operate in higher courts: Director
of Public Prosecutions: Criminal lawyer who is appointed
by Parliament to be responsible for the Office of the DPP
(or ODPP): it has a team of highly trained criminal lawyers,
known​ ​as​ ​Crown​ ​prosecutors,​ ​who​ ​act​ ​as​ ​prosecutors
➢

Barristers/Solicitors ➢ Legal personnel responsible for representing their party in

court

Plea​ ​and​ ​Negotiation

Pleas:
➢ Formal​ ​statement​ ​of​ ​guilt​ ​or​ ​innocence​ ​by​ ​the​ ​accused
➢ Entered​ ​at​ ​beginning​ ​of​ ​trial​ ​process
➢ A​ ​guilty​ ​plea​ ​will​ ​result​ ​in​ ​immediate​ ​sentencing
➢ A​ ​not​ ​guilty​ ​plea​ ​will​ ​have​ ​the​ ​case​ ​heard​ ​in​ ​court​ ​on​ ​a​ ​set​ ​date

Negotiation:
➢ An agreement between the DPP and the accused that involves the acceptance of a guilty plea
in​ ​exchange​ ​for​ ​a​ ​lesser​ ​charge​ ​or​ ​other​ ​conditions
➢ Reduces​ ​administrative​ ​burdens​ ​and​ ​guarantees​ ​a​ ​conviction
➢ Prevents​ ​full​ ​extent​ ​of​ ​law​ ​being​ ​achieved,​ ​may​ ​‘force’​ ​a​ ​guilty​ ​plea

CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​Thomas​ ​Kelly​ ​Case​ ​(2013)​ ​R​ ​v​ ​Loveridge​ ​2013

➢ The​ ​accused​ ​caused​ ​the​ ​death​ ​of​ ​the​ ​victim​ ​after​ ​a​ ​‘king​ ​hit’
➢ A guilty plea was entered for manslaughter, and the accused received a sentence of
minimum​ ​five​ ​years
➢ Many​ ​argue​ ​this​ ​sentence​ ​was​ ​too​ ​lenient,​ ​and​ ​that​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​should
➢ Have​ ​been​ ​charged​ ​with​ ​murder

Legal​ ​Aid​ ​NSW

➢ Differences in financial capability translates into differences in skill between public defenders
and​ ​firm​ ​based​ ​barristers
➢ Legal Aid Commission Act 1979 (NSW) provides legal assistance to socioeconomically
disadvantaged​ ​individuals​ ​•​ ​Ensures​ ​proper​ ​access​ ​to​ ​the​ ​legal​ ​system:​ ​Justice​ ​is​ ​maintained.
➢ The Legal Aid Commission (LAC) was established in 1979 to ensure that people unable to
afford​ ​legal​ ​representation​ ​have​ ​access​ ​to​ ​a​ ​lawyer.
➢ Legal aid is funded by the NSW government and administered by the LAC. The LAC offers
anyone free legal advice for fifteen minutes on any legal issue, including civil and
Commonwealth​ ​law.
Burden​ ​and​ ​Standard​ ​of​ ​Proof
➢ Accused​ ​is​ ​assumed​ ​innocent​ ​until​ ​proven​ ​guilty
➢ Onus​ ​lies​ ​with​ ​prosecution​ ​to​ ​prove​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​committed​ ​the​ ​offence
➢ Standard​ ​of​ ​proof​ ​in​ ​criminal​ ​cases​ ​is​ ​beyond​ ​reasonable​ ​doubt
➢ Ensures​ ​justice​ ​is​ ​achieved​ ​through​ ​proper​ ​sentencing​ ​procedures
➢ DPP​ ​only​ ​brings​ ​cases​ ​to​ ​court​ ​when​ ​the​ ​standard​ ​of​ ​proof​ ​can​ ​be​ ​met

Use​ ​of​ ​Evidence​ ​(inc.​ ​Witnesses)

➢ Evidence​ ​Act​ ​1995​ ​(NSW)
➢ Must​ ​be​ ​obtained​ ​lawfully​ ​by​ ​police​ ​to​ ​be​ ​admissible​ ​in​ ​court
➢ Confusing​ ​or​ ​unlawfully​ ​obtained​ ​evidence​ ​is​ ​inadmissible
➢ Can​ ​take​ ​many​ ​forms,​ ​including​ ​witness​ ​testimony
➢ Witnesses​ ​undergo​ ​examination​ ​in​ ​chief​ ​and​ ​cross​ ​examination
➢ Procedure​ ​must​ ​be​ ​followed:​ ​Protects​ ​witnesses
➢ May​ ​include​ ​expert​ ​witnesses

Defences​ ​to​ ​Criminal​ ​Trial

Allow courts to consider mitigating circumstances which may justify actions of the Accused. May
reduce​ ​liability,​ ​but​ ​are​ ​controversial

Complete​ ​Defence

Mental​ ​Illness Accused​ ​was​ ​mentally​ ​incapacitated​ ​while​ ​committing​ ​the​ ​crime.

Automatism Accused​ ​was​ ​not​ ​in​ ​control​ ​of​ ​their​ ​own​ ​actions​ ​at​ ​the​ ​time​ ​they
committed​ ​the​ ​crime.

Necessity The​ ​crime​ ​was​ ​necessitated​ ​by​ ​external​ ​factors

Mistake Actions​ ​were​ ​a​ ​reasonable,​ ​honest​ ​mistake

Self​ ​Defence Accused committed the crime in the act of defending themselves or
others​ ​with​ ​reasonable​ ​force​ ​depending​ ​on​ ​circumstance

Duress Accused committed the crime against their own free will, unlawful
pressure​ ​was​ ​applied​ ​to​ ​them.

Consent The​ ​victim​ ​consented​ ​to​ ​the​ ​act​ ​(sexual​ ​offences)

Partial​ ​Defence

Provocation Accused was not in control of their actions due to the actions of
another. Controversial, implies victim was responsible (reduces
murder​ ​to​ ​manslaughter).

Diminished​ ​Responsibility A​ ​mental​ ​abnormality​ ​influenced​ ​the​ ​action​ ​(excluding

 intoxication

CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​Case:​ ​Singh​ ​v​ ​R​ ​(2009)

➢ Victoria​ ​abolished​ ​the​ ​defence​ ​in​ ​2009​ ​and​ ​restricted​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​provocation
➢ Under​ ​section​ ​23​ ​of​ ​NSW​ ​Crimes​ ​Act
➢ Extreme​ p​ rovocation​ ​can​ ​still​ ​be​ ​used​ ​if:
○ Act​ ​was​ ​done​ ​in​ ​response​ ​to​ ​conduct​ ​of​ ​the​ ​deceased​ ​toward​ ​or​ ​affecting​ ​accused
○ Act​ ​done​ ​by​ ​the​ ​deceased​ ​was​ ​serious,​ ​indictable​ ​offence
○ Act​ ​caused​ ​accused​ ​to​ ​lose​ ​self-control
○ Act​ ​could​ ​have​ ​caused​ ​ordinary​ ​person​ ​to​ ​lose​ ​self​ ​control

Role​ ​of​ ​Juries

➢ Role to a reach a verdict in the guilt or innocence of the defendant based on the evidence
presented​ ​at​ ​trial.
➢ Either party can challenge selection of a juror based on either a peremptory challenge or a
challenge​ ​for​ ​a​ ​cause.
➢ Australian citizens 18 years or over are eligible to sit on a jury once enrolled on the electoral
roll.
➢ In NSW, majority verdicts have been permitted since 2006, allowing verdicts of eleven or ten
to​ ​one​ ​where​ ​the​ ​court​ ​is​ ​satisfied​ ​that​ ​unanimous​ ​verdict​ ​will​ ​not​ ​be​ ​reached.
Sentencing​ ​and​ ​Punishment
Sentencing Hearing: a hearing in which a judge/magistrate determines the sentence to be applied to
the accused. Aims to balance rights of victim, offender and society to achieve justice. ALL
MANDATED​ ​BY:​ ​Crimes​ ​(Sentencing​ ​and​ ​Procedure)​ ​Act​ ​1999​ ​(NSW).

Statutory​ ​and​ ​Judicial​ ​Guidelines

Judicial​ ​Guidelines:
- Reduce inconsistency in the judgements of trial judges, who are given considerable discretion
in deciding sentences. To ensure that like cases are treated alike. Too great an inconsistency in
sentencing​ ​between​ ​the​ ​decisions​ ​of​ ​different​ ​judges​ ​is​ ​an​ ​injustice.
- As trial judges have considerable discretion (flexibility) in reaching a sentencing, judicial
guidelines are used by courts higher in the hierarchy over lower courts. This can be in the
form​ ​of​ ​‘rules’​ ​about​ ​how​ ​certain​ ​matters​ ​should​​ ​be​ ​addressed​ ​by​ ​trial​ ​judges.
Statutory​ ​Guidelines:
- Set out guidelines for the courts to use in sentencing offenders. However, the degree of weight
placed on mitigating and aggravating factors will be for the court to determine in individual
cases.
- Further​ ​consistency
- Establish​ ​minimum​ ​sentences​ ​for​ ​a​ ​range​ ​of​ ​offences.
- The Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act 1999 sets out the general guidelines for the courts to
use​ ​in​ ​sentencing​ ​offenders.

Purpose​ ​of​ ​Punishment

Deterrence ➢ Passing​ ​a​ ​higher​ ​sentence​ ​to​ ​deter​ ​the​ ​offender​ ​from
reoffending,​ ​or​ ​to​ ​deter​ ​other​ ​offenders
➢ Little​ ​evidence​ ​to​ ​support​ ​effectiveness
➢ ALRC​ ​recommends​ ​deterrence​ ​not​ ​be​ ​considered

Retribution ➢ Morally​ ​correct​ ​punishment​ ​(revenge)

➢ Recognises​ ​harm​ ​to​ ​victim​ ​and​ ​community

Rehabilitation ➢ Punishment​ ​designed​ ​to​ ​reform​ ​the​ ​offender​ ​to​ ​discourage

recidivism
➢ Addresses​ ​factors​ ​which​ ​lead​ ​to​ ​crime
➢ Drug​ ​counseling,​ ​community​ ​outreach​ ​etc.

Incapacitation ➢ Restricts​ ​freedom​ ​of​ ​offender​ ​to​ ​render​ ​them​ ​incapable​ ​of
committing​ ​further​ ​offences
➢ Imprisonment,​ ​home​ ​detention

Factors​ ​Affecting​ ​Decision

Aggravating​ ​Factors ➢ Factors​ ​which​ ​make​ ​offence​ ​more​ ​severe

 ➢ E.g Excessive violence, prejudicial motives, age of the
victim​ ​etc
➢ Results​ ​in​ ​more​ ​severe​ ​sentence
➢

Mitigating​ ​Factors ➢ Factors​ ​which​ ​make​ ​offence​ ​less​ ​severe

➢ e.g.​ ​Remorse,​ ​good​ ​character,​ ​provocation​ ​or​ ​duress,​ ​etc
➢ May​ ​result​ ​in​ ​a​ ​less​ ​severe​ ​sentence

Role​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Victim​ ​in​ ​Sentencing

➢ Crimes​ ​usually​ ​involve​ ​a​ ​victim​ ​who​ ​has​ ​suffered​ ​emotionally,​ ​physically​ ​or​ ​mentally
➢ This is summated in Victim Impact Statements: voluntary submissions detailing impact of
crime​ ​on​ ​victim
➢ This​ ​allows​ ​participation​ ​by​ ​the​ ​victim​ ​in​ ​the​ ​trial​ ​process
➢ Victims​ ​Rights​ ​Act​ ​1996​ ​(NSW)​ ​guarantees​ ​certain​ ​rights​ ​to​ ​victims,​ ​including
➢ protection​ ​and​ ​rehabilitation

Types​ ​of​ ​Penalties

Penalty Definition Advantage Disadvantage

No​ ​Conviction/Record Judicial​ ​officer​ ​passes
the​ ​sentence​ ​with​ ​no
conviction​ ​recorded​ ​or
conviction​ ​recorded
but​ ​no​ ​further​ ​sentence
No​ ​conviction
recorded​ ​recognises
the​ ​damage​ ​that​ ​a
conviction​ ​can​ ​have
on​ ​an​ ​individual’s​ ​life.
Enables​ ​them​ ​to​ ​have
an​ ​effective​ ​second
chance
May​ ​be​ ​an​ ​ineffective
deterrent​ ​–​ ​May​ ​not
achieve​ ​any​ ​of​ ​the
major​ ​purposes​ ​of
punishment​ ​–​ ​‘Slap​ ​on
the​ ​wrist’​ ​that​ ​may
rattle​ ​public
confidence​ ​in​ ​the
enforcing​ ​of​ ​the​ ​law
by​ ​judiciary

Fine Monetary​ ​penalty
imposed​ ​for
infringement​ ​of​ ​a​ ​law
(Penalty​ ​units​ ​are​ ​a
specified​ ​unit​ ​of
money​ ​used​ ​in
legislation​ ​to​ ​describe
the​ ​fine​ ​payable)
Inexpensive​ ​to​ ​impose
–​ ​Raises​ ​revenue​ ​that
can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​by​ ​the
government​ ​in​ ​other
areas​ ​–​ ​Appropriate
for​ ​minor​ ​offences​ ​–
Flexible
May​ ​not​ ​deter​ ​–​ ​May
disadvantage​ ​poor
people​ ​who​ ​have
greater​ ​difficulty​ ​in
finding​ ​the​ ​money​ ​to
pay​ ​the​ ​fine​ ​–​ ​Does
not​ ​rehabilitate

Bond

Suspended​ ​Sentence
A​ ​sentence​ ​of
imprisonment​ ​imposed
but​ ​suspended​ ​on
condition​ ​of​ ​good
behaviour
Saves​ ​the​ ​state​ ​money,
as​ ​imprisonment​ ​is
expensive​ ​–​ ​Deterrent
of​ ​going​ ​to​ ​gaol​ ​hangs
over​ ​offender
Not​ ​retributive​ ​–
offenders​ ​don’t​ ​get
their​ ​‘just​ ​deserts’​ ​–
Reduced​ ​deterrence
for​ ​smaller​ ​scale
offences
 Probation A​ ​type​ ​of​ ​good
behaviour​ ​bond​ ​where
the​ ​offender​ ​is
released​ ​on​ ​condition
of​ ​good​ ​behaviour​ ​but
placed​ ​under​ ​some
form​ ​of​ ​supervision,
such​ ​as​ ​daily​ ​reporting
to​ ​a​ ​probation​ ​officer
Criminal A​ ​notice​ ​issued​ ​by​ ​the
Infringement​ ​Notice police​ ​outside​ ​of​ ​court
alleging​ ​a​ ​criminal
infringement​ ​and
requiring​ ​a​ ​payment​ ​of
a​ ​fine
Penalty​ ​Units
Community​ ​Service The​ ​offender​ ​is
Order, sentenced​ ​to​ ​serve
specified​ ​hours​ ​of
work​ ​in​ ​the
community
Home​ ​Detention Imprisonment
sentence​ ​where​ ​the
offender​ ​is​ ​confined​ ​to
their​ ​home​ ​under
certain​ ​conditions​ ​of
monitoring
Periodic​ ​Detention Imprisonment
sentence​ ​where​ ​the
offender​ ​spends​ ​a
period​ ​of​ ​each​ ​week​ ​or
month​ ​in​ ​prison​ ​and
the​ ​rest​ ​of​ ​the​ ​time​ ​at
home
Offender​ ​has​ ​to​ ​adhere
strictly​ ​to​ ​the
conditions​ ​of​ ​the​ ​bond
or​ ​be​ ​returned​ ​to​ ​the
court​ ​and​ ​risk​ ​facing​ ​a
higher​ ​sentence​ ​–​ ​Can
be​ ​used​ ​when​ ​an​ ​order
for​ ​detention​ ​would​ ​be
too​ ​severe
Saves​ ​on​ ​court​ ​time
and​ ​resources​ ​–​ ​The
notices​ ​are​ ​not​ ​final
and​ ​offenders​ ​can
elect​ ​to​ ​have​ ​the
matter​ ​heard​ ​in​ ​court
Assists​ ​the​ ​general
community​ ​–​ ​society
is​ ​compensated​ ​–
Suitably​ ​retributive​ ​as
offender​ ​can​ ​correct
their​ ​actions​ ​e.g.​ ​clean
up​ ​graffiti​ ​–
Inexpensive
Appropriate​ ​for​ ​those
convicted​ ​of
non-violent​ ​crime​ ​–
Decreases​ ​prison
population​ ​–​ ​Enables
people​ ​with​ ​family
responsibilities​ ​to​ ​stay
at​ ​home​ ​–​ ​Offenders
are​ ​assessed​ ​for
suitability
Only​ ​available​ ​to
offenders​ ​who​ ​would
otherwise​ ​receive
maximum
imprisonment​ ​of​ ​3
years​ ​–​ ​appropriate​ ​for
some​ ​offences​ ​–
May​ ​not​ ​be​ ​an
effective​ ​deterrent
(specific​ ​or​ ​general).
Could​ ​lead​ ​to
recidivism​ ​–​ ​Takes​ ​up
police​ ​time​ ​which
could​ ​be​ ​better​ ​spent
on​ ​other​ ​ ​matters
Increase​ ​in​ ​police
powers​ ​and​ ​police
discretion​ ​–​ ​If
offender​ ​challenges
and​ ​loses​ ​in​ ​court​ ​they
are​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​be
punished​ ​more,​ ​is​ ​this
fair?​ ​–​ ​may​ ​be​ ​too
lenient​ ​(not
retributive)​ ​–​ ​not​ ​deter
May​ ​not​ ​deter​ ​(both
specific​ ​and​ ​general)​ ​–
Offender​ ​has
opportunity​ ​to
re-offend​ ​–​ ​May​ ​not
rehabilitate
Mainly​ ​available​ ​in
city​ ​court​ ​areas​ ​–​ ​Can
discriminate​ ​against
lower​ ​socio-economic
groups​ ​who​ ​may​ ​not
have​ ​regular
accommodation​ ​–
May​ ​not​ ​rehabilitate
May​ ​not​ ​be​ ​an
effective​ ​deterrent​ ​–
Offender​ ​has
opportunity​ ​to
re-offend​ ​as​ ​they​ ​are
only​ ​detained​ ​for​ ​short
periods

Forfeiture​ ​of​ ​Assets Loss​ ​of​ ​rights​ ​to
property​ ​or​ ​assets​ ​as​ ​a
penalty​ ​or​ ​wrongdoing
Imprisonment Most​ ​severe​ ​sentence
that​ ​can​ ​be​ ​imposed​ ​in
Australia.​ ​This
sentence​ ​deprives​ ​a
person​ ​of​ ​their​ ​liberty
and​ ​removes​ ​them
from​ ​the​ ​community​ ​–
into​ ​gaol.
Diversionary An​ ​alternative​ ​to​ ​the
Programs traditional​ ​court
system,​ ​diversionary
programs​ ​focus​ ​on
therapeutic​ ​justice​ ​and
rehabilitation​ ​of
offenders
Enables​ ​offender​ ​to
maintain​ ​life
(working/family)​ ​–​ ​If
offender​ ​breaches​ ​the
conditions​ ​of​ ​their
periodic​ ​detention,​ ​the
court​ ​may​ ​order​ ​them
to​ ​serve​ ​the​ ​sentence
full-time
Applied​ ​effectively​ ​to
organised​ ​crime
matters​ ​–​ ​as
sentencing​ ​itself​ ​won’t
stop​ ​these​ ​offenders
benefiting​ ​from​ ​their
criminally​ ​acquired
assets​ ​–​ ​Gives​ ​the​ ​law
an​ ​avenue​ ​to​ ​target​ ​the
primary​ ​incentive​ ​of
most​ ​criminal
organisations,​ ​money
–​ ​Additional
punishments​ ​can​ ​be
ordered​ ​e.g.
imprisonment
Incapacitates
offenders​ ​so​ ​that​ ​they
cannot​ ​re-offend​ ​–​ ​A
serious​ ​punishment
suitable​ ​for​ ​serious
crimes
Targets​ ​the​ ​causes​ ​of
offending​ ​and​ ​seeks​ ​to
improve​ ​offender’s
future​ ​prospects​ ​by
assisting​ ​individual
needs​ ​i.e.
rehabilitation​ ​–
Devised​ ​to​ ​support
offenders​ ​who​ ​have
committed​ ​crimes​ ​due
to​ ​drug​ ​and​ ​alcohol
abuse​ ​–​ ​Drug​ ​Court​ ​is
an​ ​e.g.​ ​of​ ​a​ ​successful
Difficult​ ​to​ ​relate​ ​to
the​ ​traditional
purposes​ ​of​ ​sentencing
–​ ​Only​ ​truly​ ​effective
if​ ​used​ ​in​ ​conjunction
with​ ​another
punishment
Often​ ​does​ ​not
rehabilitate​ ​offenders
and​ ​may​ ​have​ ​a
negative​ ​effect​ ​on
their​ ​behaviour​ ​–
Imposes​ ​hardship​ ​on
offender’s​ ​family​ ​–
Very​ ​costly,​ ​over​ ​$50
000​ ​per​ ​inmate​ ​per
annum
Is​ ​rehabilitation
focused​ ​on​ ​too​ ​much
in​ ​comparison​ ​with
other​ ​purposes​ ​of
punishment​ ​i.e.
retribution,
incarceration​ ​and
deterrence?​ ​–
Discriminatory,​ ​in​ ​that
it​ ​focuses​ ​heavily​ ​on
offenders​ ​with​ ​drug
and​ ​alcohol​ ​problems
–​ ​Reduces​ ​personal
 diversionary​ ​program
which​ ​has​ ​attracted
international​ ​acclaim
for​ ​its​ ​success​ ​in
breaking​ ​long-term
cycles​ ​of​ ​crime​ ​and
drug​ ​abuse​ ​in
individuals
accountability​ ​for
criminal​ ​behaviours
by​ ​focusing​ ​more​ ​on
the​ ​causes​ ​of
criminality​ ​and​ ​not​ ​its
impacts/results​ ​–
Offenders​ ​seemingly
more​ ​significant​ ​factor
than​ ​victims​ ​and
society​ ​in​ ​this​ ​form​ ​of
punishment

Alternative​ ​Methods​ ​of​ ​Sentencing

➢ Circle sentencing is conducted in a circle consisting of legal representatives, the victim, the
offender,​ ​and​ ​their​ ​communities
➢ Based​ ​on​ ​indigenous​ ​customary​ ​law,​ ​tailors​ ​sentence​ ​to​ ​needs​ ​of​ ​community​ ​and​ ​Offender
➢ Restorative justice involves voluntary conferences between the offender and victim e.g youth
conferences.

Post​ ​Sentencing​ ​Considerations

Security​ ​Classification ➢ Three levels of security for prisoners in NSW (max, med,
min)
➢ Classified based on the nature of the crime and prospects
of​ ​rehabilitation

Protective​ ​Custody ➢ Provided to prisoners vulnerable to attack by other

prisoners
➢ Correctional​ ​centres​ ​have​ ​a​ ​duty​ ​of​ ​care

Parole ➢ Conditional​ ​release​ ​of​ ​a​ ​prisoner​ ​from​ ​custody

➢ Incentive​ ​for​ r​ ehabilitation​ ​and​ ​good​ ​behaviour

Preventative​ ​Detention ➢ Incapacitation of a potential offender without charge as a

precaution​ ​to​ ​the​ ​community
➢ Controversial,​ ​removes​ ​legal​ ​rights​ ​without​ ​due​ ​process
➢

Sexual​ ​Offender’s ➢ Databases​ ​exist​ ​for​ ​offender’s​ ​committed​ ​of​ ​certain​ ​crimes
Registration ➢ Child Protection (Offenders Registration) Act 2000
(NSW)

Deportation ➢ Migration​ ​Act​ ​1958​ ​(Cth.)

➢ Offender can be deported if they have not been a citizen
for​ ​more​ ​than​ ​10​ ​years
Young​ ​Offenders
➢ Young​ ​Offenders​ ​are​ ​treated​ ​differently​ ​than​ ​adults​ ​•
➢ This​ ​area​ ​of​ ​law​ ​is​ ​called​ ​juvenile​ ​justice
Reasons​ ​for​ ​juvenile​ ​involvement​ ​in​ ​criminal​ ​activity​ ​include:
➢ Lack​ ​of​ ​supervision
➢ Substance​ ​abuse
➢ Domestic​ ​violence
➢ Negative​ ​peer​ ​associations
Welfare​ ​model:​ ​aims​ ​to​ ​protect​ ​young​ ​people​ ​from​ ​causes​ ​of​ ​crime​ ​and​ ​promote​ ​rehabilitation
Justice​ ​model:​ ​aims​ ​to​ ​deter​ ​young​ ​offenders​ ​with​ ​harsh​ ​penalties.

Age​ ​of​ ​Criminal​ ​Responsibility

Doli incapax: The legal presumption that children under a certain age cannot be held legally
responsible​ ​for​ ​their​ ​actions,​ ​due​ ​to​ ​a​ ​lack​ ​of​ ​adequate​ ​mens​ ​rea.
Children’s​ ​(Criminal​ ​Proceedings)​ ​Act​ ​1987​ ​(NSW)​ ​and​ ​Young​ ​Offender’s​ ​Act​ ​1997

Age​ ​(Inclusive) Criminal​ ​Responsibility

0-9​ ​years​ ​old Cannot be charged with criminal offence. Children under 10 are not
seen​ ​as​ ​mature​ ​enough​ ​to​ ​commit​ ​criminal​ ​offences.

10-13​ ​years​ ​old Rebuttable presumption of doli incapax. Presumed not capable of
committing an offence, but prosecution may show the child knew
what​ ​they​ ​did​ ​was​ ​‘seriously​ ​wrong,’​ ​not​ ​just​ ​‘naughty.’

14-15​ ​years​ ​old Criminally responsible for any offence committed, but no
conviction​ ​can​ ​be​ ​recorded​ ​until​ ​it​ ​is​ ​a​ ​serious​ ​offence.

16-17​ ​years​ ​old Criminally responsible for any offence committed and a conviction
may be recorded, but the case will still be heard in a children's’
court.

18​ ​years​ ​or​ ​older Full adult criminal responsibility, with case to be heard in adults
court. IF the offence was committed before the accused’ 18th
birthday, it an still be heard in the Children's court until the accused
turns​ ​21.

CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​Corey​ ​Davis​ ​Case​ ​(1999)

➢ The offender, a 10 year old boy, pushed a 6 year old into the river who subsequently
drowned
➢ Prosecution​ ​could​ ​not​ ​prove​ ​criminal​ ​intent​ ​beyond​ ​reasonable​ ​doubt
➢ Offender​ ​was​ ​found​ ​guilty​ ​of​ ​manslaughter
Rights​ ​of​ ​Children​ ​when​ ​questioned/arrested
Australia must protect rights of children: Convention on the Rights of the Child. LEPRA includes
special​ ​provisions​ ​for​ ​children.

Approach​ ​and​ ​Questioning ➢ Most​ ​police​ ​powers​ ​apply​ ​equally

➢ Children​ ​have​ ​the​ ​same​ ​rights​ ​as​ ​adults,​ ​plus​ ​additions
➢ A responsible adult must be present to obtain admissible
evidence
➢ Limitations​ ​on​ ​strip​ ​searches​ ​are​ ​in​ ​place

Arrest​ ​and​ ​Interrogation ➢ Young​ ​people​ ​must​ ​be​ ​separated​ ​from​ ​adult​ ​criminals
➢ No DNA samples or fingerprints can be taken (without
court​ ​order)

Children’s​ ​Court:​ ​Procedures​ ​and​ ​Operations

➢ Children​ ​(Criminal​ ​Proceedings)​ ​Act​ ​1987​ ​(NSW)
➢ Hears​ ​most​ ​charges​ ​against​ ​those​ ​under​ ​18
➢ Closed​ ​court:​ ​Identity​ ​of​ ​offender​ ​not​ ​disclosed
➢ Similar​ ​to​ ​summary​ ​hearings:​ ​Specialist​ ​magistrate
➢ No​ ​conviction​ ​recorded

Penalties​ ​for​ ​Children

Children​ ​(Criminal​ ​Proceedings)​ ​Act​ ​1987​ ​(NSW)​ ​outlines​ ​basic​ ​principles:
➢ Education​ ​uninterrupted​ ​where​ ​possible
➢ Not​ ​removed​ ​from​ ​home
➢ Less​ ​than​ ​or​ ​equal​ ​to​ ​punishment​ ​applicable​ ​to​ ​an​ ​adult

Similar​ ​sentencing​ ​options​ ​to​ ​adults,​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as:

➢ Referral​ ​to​ ​a​ ​Youth​ ​Justice​ ​Conference​ ​or​ ​Youth​ ​Drug​ ​and​ ​Alcohol​ ​Court
➢ Dismissal​ ​with​ ​caution,​ ​community​ ​service​ ​orders​ ​etc

Alternatives​ ​to​ ​Court

Young​ ​Offenders​ ​Act​ ​1997​ ​(NSW)
➢ Warnings:​ ​Informal​ ​warnings​ ​w/​ ​name​ ​recorded
➢ Cautions:​ ​Formal​ ​warning​ ​given​ ​with​ ​adult​ ​present
➢ YJC’s:​ ​Conferences​ ​with​ ​the​ ​victim,​ ​the​ ​offender,​ ​and​ ​support​ ​persons​ ​with​ ​a​ ​mediator.
➢ Form​ ​an​ ​agreement​ ​for​ ​rehabilitation​ ​and​ ​reparation.
➢ Youth Drug and Alcohol Court: Implements rehabilitation programs, completed in exchange
for​ ​a​ ​lighter​ ​sentence
International​ ​Crime
➢ Globalisation​ ​has​ ​increased​ ​frequency​ ​of​ ​international​ ​crime
➢ Cooperations​ o​ f​ ​nation​ ​states​ ​(United​ ​Nations)​ ​required​ ​to​ ​punish​ ​offenders
➢ Recently​ ​considered​ ​to​ ​be​ ​a​ ​matter​ ​beyond​ ​domestic​ ​jurisdiction

Categories​ ​of​ ​International​ ​Crime

Crimes​ ​Against​ ​International​ ​Community:
➢ Crimes​ ​considered​ ​as​ ​unlawful​ ​and​ ​immoral​ ​by​ ​the​ ​international​ ​community​ ​(international
➢ customary​ ​law)
➢ A group of extreme crimes deemed serious enough to be punished within an international
forum
➢ Complex​ ​area,​ ​due​ ​to​ ​political​ ​influences​ ​and​ ​differences​ ​in​ ​the​ ​views​ ​of​ ​different​ ​cultures
➢ Includes​ ​war​ ​crimes,​ ​genocide​ ​and​ ​hijacking​ ​an​ ​aircraft
➢ Usually​ ​contained​ ​within​ ​UN​ ​declarations,​ ​conventions​ ​and​ ​treaties
➢ E.g​ ​Convention​ ​on​ ​the​ ​Prevention​ ​and​ ​Punishment​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Crime​ ​of​ ​Genocide
➢ E.g​ ​-​ ​The​ ​Geneva​ ​Conventions
➢ International Criminal Court: Established by Rome Statute (2002) Prosecutes war crimes,
crimes​ ​against​ ​humanity,​ ​and​ ​genocide​ ​concerning​ ​signatory​ ​nation​ ​states

Transnational​ ​Crime
➢ Crimes which occur within state jurisdiction, but across international borders (e.g drug
trafficking)
➢ Acts​ ​have​ ​international​ ​and​ ​domestic​ ​implications
➢ Usually​ ​prosecuted​ ​in​ ​native​ ​country
➢ May​ ​involve​ ​extradition
➢ Causes​ ​of​ ​transnational​ ​crime​ ​include:
➢ Desire​ ​for​ ​prohibited​ ​goods/services
➢ Differences​ ​in​ ​socioeconomic​ ​opportunity
➢ Political​ ​tension
➢ Crimes committed outside jurisdiction: crimes committed in international waters or other
areas​ ​outside​ ​of​ ​any​ ​relevant​ ​state​ ​jurisdiction.​ ​Covered​ ​by​ ​international​ ​treaties.

Dealing​ ​with​ ​International​ ​Crime

Domestic​ ​Measures:
➢ Limited​ ​by​ ​jurisdiction​ ​and​ ​state​ ​sovereignty
➢ Must​ ​involve​ ​cooperation​ ​with​ ​other​ ​nation​ ​states
➢ Ratification of international treaties to promote common ideals Australia has several measures
in​ ​place​ ​to​ ​prevent​ ​transnational​ ​crime:
➢ Australian Federal Police Act 1919 (Cth): Federal police investigate and prosecute
transnational​ ​crime​ ​(e.g-​ ​drug​ ​trafficking)
➢ Australian​ ​Border​ ​Protection:​ ​Protects​ ​Australia's​ ​borders​ ​from​ ​transnational​ ​criminals
➢ Australian​ ​High​ ​Tech​ ​Crime​ ​Centre:​ ​Investigates​ ​multi-jurisdictional​ ​crimes​ ​involving
➢ technology
International​ ​Measures
➢ ICC and Rome Statute evidence international cooperation in the prosecution of international
criminals
➢ Extradition treaties and bilateral agreements between nation states assist in the prosecution of
transnational​ ​criminals
➢ International​ ​Court​ ​of​ ​Justice​ ​(ICJ)​ ​assists​ ​in​ ​multilateral​ ​cooperation
➢ Sanctions imposed on a nation state by the UN encourage obligations under international
customary​ ​law
Limitations
➢ State​ ​sovereignty​ ​proves​ ​a​ ​major​ ​issue​ ​in​ ​prosecuting​ ​international​ ​criminals
➢ International measures are arguably not responsive to a great extent, taking many years to
react
➢ High​ ​cost​ ​of​ ​investigations
➢ Cooperation​ ​between​ ​nation​ ​states​ ​is​ ​essential​ ​in​ ​dealing​ ​with​ ​international​ ​crime