3/31/2019 Problem 1269 Solution

Problem 1269 Solution

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3/31/2019 Problem 1269 Solution
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Problem 1269; Solution

Problem 1269 Integers from Integer Polynomials

(a) Is there a polynomial P(x) with integer coefficients such that

P(1)=1, P(2)=2, and P(3)=2018?

(b) Is there a polynomial P(x) with integer coefficients such that

P(1)=1, P(2)=2, and P(3)=2019?

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Solution. I received solutions from Stephen Meskin, Bruce Torrence,
Patrick LoPresti, Dan Velleman, John Guilford, Pierre Fondanache,
Joseph DeVincentis, and a group of three Macalester students: Travis
Ahrenhoerster, Tate Munnich, and Simon Wang. The problem is not
very difficult but it is a special case of a very nice theorem that I will
mention below.

Solution by the Macalester trio: In both parts, P(x)-x must be divisible

by (x-1)(x-2), and by the polynomial division algorithm, since (x-1)(x-
2) is monic, the quotient must be an integer polynomial Q(x). Plugging
in x=3, we have, in part (a), 2 Q(3)=2015, contradiction. For (b),
2Q(3)=2016, so Q(3)=1008. An explicit example of a polynomial P(x)
that works for part (b) is P(x)=x+1008(x-1)(x-2).

Lagrange interpolation is the key to the general problem. That can

solve any specific case, as in (b); in Mathematica

ans = InterpolatingPolynomial[{1, 2, 2019}, x]

Expand[ans]

1 + (1 + 1008 (-2 + x)) (-1 + x)

2016 - 3023 x + 1008 x^2

Here is the very nice general theorem of Cornelius and Schultz (see
their paper for proof, which relies heavily on Lagrange interpolation):

Theorem. An integer sequence (a(i): i = 1, 2, ..., n) occurs as the

values P(i) of an integer polynomial if and only if, for
k = 0, 1, ..., n-1,

Sum[ (-1)^(k + j) * a(j + 1) / ( j! * (k - j)! ), {j, 0, k}]

is an integer.

Cornelius and Schultz also prove that the chance of an integer

sequence of length n being realizable by a polynomial's values at 1
through n is 1/(2! 3! ... (n-1)!)

Using their criterion, one can do experiments and presumably prove

some of the patterns that arise. For example, suppose we wish to
understand all realizable sequences of the form (1,2,3,...,n, W). The
answer appears to be that W = {n+1 + j n! : j = 0, 1, 2...}.

Here is Mathematica code for the W-experiment above:

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3/31/2019 Problem 1269 Solution

criterion[a_] := And @@ Table[

IntegerQ[Sum[((-1)^(k + j)*a[[j + 1]])/(j!*(k - j)!), {j, 0, k}]],
{k, 0, Length[a] - 1}]

a2 = Select[Range[3, 40], criterion[{1, 2, #1}] & ]

a3 = Select[Range[4, 100], criterion[{1, 2, 3, #1}] & ]
a4 = Select[Range[5, 200], criterion[{1, 2, 3, 4, #1}] & ]
a5 = Select[Range[6, 1000], criterion[{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, #1}] & ]
a6 = Select[Range[7, 5000], criterion[{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, #1}] & ]

{3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, 37, 39}

{4, 10, 16, 22, 28, 34, 40, 46, 52, 58, 64, 70, 76, 82, 88, 94, 100}

{5, 29, 53, 77, 101, 125, 149, 173, 197}

{6, 126, 246, 366, 486, 606, 726, 846, 966}

{7, 727, 1447, 2167, 2887, 3607, 4327}

The pattern is clear. All differences are factorials.

Differences[a2]
Differences[a3]
Differences[a4]
Differences[a5]
Differences[a6]

{2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2}
{6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6}
{24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24}
{120, 120, 120, 120, 120, 120, 120, 120}
{720, 720, 720, 720, 720, 720}

Here are one hundred thousand trials from [50]. The predicted
probability is 1/12. It takes only three seconds for 10^5 trials.

n = 4; t = 10^5;
N[Count[Table[
criterion[Sort[RandomSample[Range[50], 4]]], t], True]/ t]
1./Times @@ (Range[2, n - 1]!)
1/Times @@ (Range[2, n - 1]!)

{3.09204, 0.08377}
0.0833333
1/12

Reference: E. F. Cornelius Jr. and Phill Schultz, Sequences generated

by polynomials, American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 115, No. 2 (Feb.,
2008), pp. 154-158.

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27642423.

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This is the Problem of the Week from Stan Wagon, Professor Emeritus at Macalester College
in St. Paul, Minnesota, and resident in Silverthorne, Colorado; wagon@macalester.edu.
This Macalester tradition was started by the late Joe Konhauser in 1968 and has continued unbroken since then.
I do not necessarily wish to receive e-solutions unless:
(a) you have an interesting nonstandard approach to a solution;
(b) you have a variation or extension that might be worthy of dissemination;
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3/31/2019 Problem 1269 Solution
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