Control Principles 2

Learning Outcomes
This chapter builds upon and extends the basic principles of control systems that are dealt with
in Control Principles 1. On completion you should be able to:
1 Appreciate the different forms of system element, and analogous elements.
2 Identify a range of first-order systems, and describe their response to step disturbance inputs.
3 Distinguish between first-order and second-order systems.
4 Describe the response of second-order systems to both step inputs and forcing functions,
particularly with reference to system damping.
5 Explain the effect of mechanical resonance, and methods of reducing its effects.
6 Understand the concepts of proportional, differential and integral control strategies.

1 System Elements and Analogies

All types of system consist of elements or components that are
interconnected in such a way that the ‘behaviour’ of each element
has an effect on the ‘behaviour’ of the whole system. Some system
elements are capable of storing energy whilst others can only
dissipate energy. Of the energy storage elements, some are associated
with kinetic energy (or its equivalent); the others being associated
with potential energy (or its equivalent). In order to put these
concepts into perspective consider Table 1, which shows the basic

Table 1 Energy storage and dissipative elements

System ‘KE’ storage ‘PE’ storage Dissipative

⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ d s ⎞⎟
Mechanical mass ⎜⎜ mv 2 ⎟⎟⎟ spring ⎜⎜ ks2 ⎟⎟⎟ damper ⎜⎜ R ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ d t ⎟⎠

⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ d q ⎞⎟
Electrical inductor ⎜⎜ LI 2 ⎟⎟⎟ capacitor ⎜⎜ CV 2 ⎟⎟⎟ resistor ⎜⎜ R ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ d t ⎟⎠
122
 Control Principles 2 123

mechanical and electrical elements classified into the three types

mentioned above.
Considering Table 1, the following analogies can be made:

Both the mass and the inductor store energy in a form associated with
movement. In the case of the mass, this will be kinetic energy by virtue
of its velocity. For the inductor, the energy is stored in the magnetic
field produced by the current flowing. Remember, v
ds/dt metre per
second; and I
dq/dt coulomb/second (amp), i.e. the current is the rate
at which charge is displaced.

Both the spring and the capacitor store energy by virtue of position
or potential—that is, potential energy. For example, the further the
spring is displaced the more energy it will store. Similarly, the more
charge placed on the plates of a capacitor the larger its p.d., hence more
energy stored.

Both the damper and the resistor have a ‘slowing down’ effect in their
respective systems. As a result they cause heat energy to be dissipated.

The analogies can now logically be extended to the system variables

and constants such that:

voltage, V
force, F
charge, Q
displacement, s
current, I
vel o city, v
resistance, R
damper coefficient, R
inductance, L
m ass, m
capacitance, C
reciprocal of spring stiffness, 1/ k

2 First-order Systems
A first-order system is one which contains only one of the two possible
types of energy storage element, in combination with the associated
energy dissipative element. For the elements so far considered, the
following combinations form first-order systems:
Mass-damper; spring-damper; inductor-resistor; and capacitor-
resistor. The last two combinations we have already studied in detail
when considering d.c. transients in the book, Further Electrical and
Electronic Principles, ISBN 9780750687478 (Chapter 8). In this
situation the systems (circuits) were subjected to a step input, by
connecting to or disconnecting from a d.c. supply. In each case it was
found that the system response followed an exponential law. Let us
review the salient points regarding the C-R and L-R series circuits,
and see how these results can be translated in terms of the response of
analogous mechanical systems.
124 Control Principles 2

C-R series circuit and spring-damper system

Figure 1 shows a C-R circuit that is subjected to a sudden step input
disturbance when the switch is moved. In this case the capacitor will
charge up until the voltage between its plates is equal to the applied
voltage. The relevant equations for this system are as follows.

R C q

i
VR VC

Fig. 1

E
vR  vC volt
Rdq q
since vR
Ri
; and vC

dt C
Rdq q
then, E
 voolt.................[1]
dt C

The above equation is known as the differential or system equation

for the C-R circuit. We have seen that its solution shows that the
circuit p.d.s, charge, and current vary exponentially with time until the
capacitor reaches its fully-charged state, such that:
vC
E (1  et /
) volt; i
I o et/
amp
q
Q(1  et/
) coulomb; and

CR seconds

S
k

F2
R
F
F1

Fig. 2

The spring-damper arrangement shown in Fig. 2 is subjected to a step

input by suddenly applying a force F to it. The spring has a stiffness of
k newton/metre, and the system will displace until the reaction force of
the spring (F2) is equal to the applied force. The damper has a damping
coefficient of R newton per metre/second, and will exert a reaction
force (F1) only whilst the system is in motion. This may be compared
to a resistor producing a p.d. only whilst charge is moving through it,
 Control Principles 2 125

i.e. whilst carrying current. Combining the forces in this mechanical

system results in the following differential equation:
F
F1  F2 newton
Rds
where F1
Rv
; and F2
ks
dt
Rds
so, F
 ks newton ...............[2]
dt
Comparing eqn [1] and [2] we can conclude that the displacement,
s, of the system will increase, and the velocity, ds/dt, will decrease
exponentially with time. Thus:
F
s
(1  et/
) metre,
k
F
where
final displacement
k
F
v
et/
met re/second,
R
F
where
initial velocity
R
and system time constant,
R


seconds
k
1 1
Note: C
or k
as stated in Section 1
k C

If the switch in the C-R circuit is now returned to its original position
then the capacitor will discharge exponentially. Similarly, if the applied
force is now removed from the spring, it will return to its normal
length. This displacement will also be exponential in form.

L-R series circuit and mass-damper system

From Chapter 8 we know that when an L-R circuit is connected
/disconnected to/from a d.c. supply, that the current will increase/
decrease exponentially. The analogous mechanical system is the mass-
damper subjected to a suddenly applied force, as shown in Fig. 3.

m
F1

F2
R

Fig. 3
126 Control Principles 2

Since we have an analogous system we can conclude that the mass

will accelerate until the reaction force of the damper causes the speed
to stabilise at some constant value. The reason for this particular
conclusion is that electrical current is analogous to velocity, and in
the L-R circuit the current builds up to some steady value limited by
the circuit resistance. The system differential equation for the mass-
damper will be as follows:

F
F1  F2 newton
where, F1
mass  acceleration
dv

ma newton
m neewton
dt
and F2
Rv newton
dv
therefore, F
m  Rv newton
dt

F
Hence, v
(1  et/(
) ) metre/second;
R
m
and

seconds
R

where F/R is the final velocity.

The system equation for the L-R circuit is:

di
V
L  Ri volt
dt

The concept of first-order systems is not confined to the electrical

and linear mechanical examples so far considered. Rotary mechanical
systems, involving angular acceleration (), angular velocity (),
angular displacement () and applied torque (T), will react in a similar
manner. So too will the equivalent hydraulic and thermal systems.
Thus the behaviour of any first-order system in response to a step input
disturbance may be summarised as follows.
System equation of the form

dx
Y
A  Bx
dt

the system variable, x, will respond exponentially such that

Y
x
(1  et/
) for exponential growth
B
Y
x
et/
for exponent i al decay;
B
A
and

seconds
B
 Control Principles 2 127

Worked Example 1
Q A spring-damper system as shown in Fig. 4 is subjected to a force of 25 N. The spring stiffness is 200 N/
m and the damper coefficient is 600 Ns/m. If this force is suddenly removed, determine (a) the system
time constant, (b) the time taken for the system to move 50 mm from its initial starting point, and (c)
the time taken for the spring to return to its ‘normal’ uncompressed length.

A
F
25 N; k
200 N/m; R
600 Ns/m

F
25 N

R
600 Ns/m k
200 N/m

Fig. 4

R 600
(a)

seconds

k 200
therefore

3 s Ans
(b) In order to determine details of how the spring will return to its unstressed
length, we firstly have to determine the distance the applied force will
initially displace it.
Initial displacement,

F 25
si
metre

125 mm
k 200

Comparing this system with its electrical analogue, we can say that this
displacement corresponds to the initial charge placed on a capacitor. When
the force is released it will be equivalent to starting the discharge process
for the capacitor. Thus the displacement for which the time is required to be
calculated involves a decaying exponential function.

s
si et/
metre
s

et/

si
t s

ᐉn

si
t 50

ᐉn
0.9163
3 125
hence t
2.75 s Ans

(c) The system will take approximately five time constants to reach its new
steady state, so time taken for spring to unstretch
15 s Ans
128 Control Principles 2

3 Ideal Second-order Systems

A second-order system is one which contains both forms of energy
storage element (one for ‘KE’ and one for ‘PE’). Let us firstly consider
an ideal second-order system. This is one in which there is no loss or
dissipation of energy, hence the energy dissipative element is absent.
Such an ideal is impossible to achieve in practice since it would result
in ‘perpetual motion’. However, we need to study the behaviour of
such a system in order to appreciate the behaviour of a ‘real’ second-
order system. Consider a mass-spring system as in Fig. 5, which is free
from all damping effects, such as friction etc. Figure 5(a) illustrates the
setting of the initial conditions, whereby the system is given an initial
displacement by the application of a force.

s
k
m PEmax
(a)
KEzero

k
(b) m PEzero
KEmax
s
k

(c) m PEmax
KEzero

datum

Fig. 5

Under these initial conditions the system displacement will be at its

maximum value, and the energy input to the system will be stored as
PE in the spring (0.5 ks2 joule). No energy will be stored in the mass
at this stage since it will be stationary. At some time t
0, the system
is released by removing the applied force. The spring will assert itself
and drive the mass back towards its normal datum position. In so
doing the spring gives up energy to the system. Since the mass is being
accelerated, then it is gaining KE (0.5 mv2 joule). This energy can only
have been obtained from the spring. Thus, the PE in the spring is being
transferred into KE in the mass.
Figure 5(b) shows the instant in time where the system has reached its
normal datum point (i.e. zero displacement). At this time the spring
will have transferred all of its energy to the mass, so the mass will
have reached its maximum velocity. The inertia of the mass will now
cause it to continue beyond the datum point. As it does so the spring
 Control Principles 2 129

will begin to stretch. Thus the mass will now be transferring energy
back to the spring. Figure 5(c) shows the instant that the mass comes
to rest, at the system maximum displacement on the other side of the
datum. At this point all of the energy will once more be stored in the
spring. The whole sequence will then be repeated, and the system will
oscillate back and forth with a constant amplitude of s metre. Since no
energy is lost from the system, then these oscillations would continue
indefinitely—perpetual motion! In exactly the same way as was used in
the first-order systems, we can deduce the system differential equation
for this system by equating the forces involved, as follows.

Inertia force due to the mass
ma

dv

m newton
dt
and stiffness force due to spring
ks newton
dv
therefore, F
m  ks newton
dt
ds
and since v
; then dv/dt
d 2 s /dt 2
dt
d2 s
so, F
m 2  ks newt on
dt
and at time t
0, F
0, so equation becomes:
d2 s
0
m 2  ks
dt

The above equation describes simple harmonic motion, and the

solution to such an equation is a cosine waveform. This means that a
graph of displacement will be a cosine waveform, as shown in Fig. 6.
If the mass is large and the spring ‘soft’, then the frequency of
oscillation will be relatively low. On the other hand, a ‘stiff ’ spring and
small mass would result in a relatively high frequency of oscillation.
In general we can conclude that the frequency of oscillation is in
some way directly proportional to the spring stiffness k, and inversely
proportional to the mass m. This frequency of oscillation is known as
the natural frequency, fn, for the system, and it may be calculated from:

s(m)
S

0
t(s)

S

Fig. 6
130 Control Principles 2

k
n
rad/s
m (1)

1 k
so, fn
hertz
2 m (2)

‘1’ ‘2’

E L
C

Fig. 7

It may occur to you that these equations seem vaguely familiar. That
is as it should be, since the equivalent electrical system is the L-C
circuit shown in Fig. 7. In this circuit, the capacitor would initially be
charged with the switch in position ‘1’. When the switch is moved to
position ‘2’ the energy stored in C will drive a current through L, thus
transferring energy to the magnetic field of the inductor. The result will
be a continuous oscillation of current and energy between the capacitor
and inductor (assuming zero resistance). The frequency of oscillation
would be:
1 1
n
rad/s; or fn
hertz
LC 2 LC

You should recognise the above equations as those for the resonant
frequency for a series L-C circuit, or, for a parallel resonant circuit
where the resistance is zero. Bearing in mind that according to our
analogies C
1/k, then it may be seen that the resonant or natural
frequency equation for the electrical circuit corresponds directly with
that for the mechanical system shown.

4 Practical Second-order Systems

Even if a damper element is not included in a mechanical system,
there will always be some unavoidable damping effect due to friction.
Similarly, in an electrical circuit, the connecting wires and inductors
will have some resistance. Since any form of damping dissipates
energy, then the oscillations induced into a practical second-order
system must die away with time. Consider a practical mechanical
second-order system that is given an initial displacement, and is then
released. The system is represented in Fig. 8. The reaction forces of
 Control Principles 2 131

the three elements are shown as F1 to F3, and the system differential
equation will be:

F
F1  F2  F3 newton
m d s2  Rds
2

 F 
 d t 
 dt
 ks


step input disturbance
‘inertii a’ term ‘damping’ term ‘stiffn ess’ term

The solution of second-order differential equations is beyond the scope

of the mathematics required for the course of study being undertaken,
so the general solution is shown below.

s
Aet sin  d t metre

k
F3

F1
m F

F2

R Si

Fig. 8

Analysing this equation shows that there is an oscillatory component

(sin dt), the amplitude of which (Aet) is a decaying exponential.
Thus the system will oscillate at a frequency of d rad/s (fd
d/2
hertz), and these oscillations will decay exponentially with time.
The response of the system, when the force F is removed, is shown
in Fig. 9.

S(m)

Si
exponential
‘envelope’

0
t(s)

Fig. 9

The term  in the decay component of the above equation is a direct

function of the system damping. Thus the greater the damping, the
132 Control Principles 2

more rapidly will the oscillations die away. Indeed, if the damping is
increased sufficiently, a point will be reached where the oscillations
are just prevented from occurring. This degree of damping is known as
critical damping Rcrit. Under this condition the response of the system
will be approximately exponential.
Although the system will have a specific value of damping coefficient
R, the overall damping is normally referred to in terms of the system
damping ratio  (Greek letter zeta). Damping ratio is defined as the
ratio of the damping present to that required to just prevent oscillations.
In the form of an equation this is:

R

(3)
Rcrit

The degree of damping present also affects the frequency of any

oscillations. Since the system contains both mass and spring stiffness,
then the system will have a natural frequency of oscillation, fn. As the
damping is increased so the frequency of oscillation is decreased, so
the damped frequency fd is always less than the natural frequency. The
relationship is given by:

fd
fn 1  2 hertz (4)

The equivalent electrical circuit is shown in Fig. 10, and the relevant
system equations are listed below.
E
vL  vR  vC volt
d2 q dq q
so, E
L R  volt
dt 2 dt C

R L C

i VR VL VC

‘2’ ‘1’
E

Fig. 10

1 1
n
rad/s; fn
hertz
LC 2 LC
 d
 n 1  2 rad/s;
fd
fn 1  2 hertz
 Control Principles 2 133

In this circuit, when the switch is moved from position ‘1’ to ‘2’ the
charge in the system will increase from zero to its final steady value,
whilst the circuit current will decrease from its initial value, to zero.
The graphs of these variations are illustrated in Fig. 11. Returning the
switch to position ‘1’ would be equivalent to releasing the mass-spring-
damper as previously described.

q (C)

0 t (s)
i (A)
o

0
t (s)

Fig. 11

The effect of damping ratio  on the response of any second-order

system can be determined from a set of generalised response curves,
an example of which is shown in Fig. 12. An alternative approach is to
use a generalised form of the system differential equation. Consider the
above electrical system:

E
Lq  Rq  q/ C
where q
d 2 q/dt 2 and q
dq /dt

and dividing through by the coefficient L:

E Rq q

q  
L L LC

The coefficient of the last term is 1/LC
n2. It is found that the
coefficient of the second term, R/L
2n. Thus, if any second-order
system has an equation of the form
Y
ax  bx  cx
Y bx cx
then

x 
a a a
Y
and

x  2 n x  2n x
a (5)
134 Control Principles 2

1.6

ζ
0.3
1.4

ζ
0.5

1.2
ζ
0.7

1.0
θo /θi

0.8

ζ
1.3
ζ
1
0.6

0.4

0.2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
ζωnt

Fig. 12

Worked Example 2
Q A linear mechanical system has a total mass of 15 kg, an effective spring stiffness of 10 N/m, and a
damping coefficient of 20 Ns/m. If this system is subjected to a sudden applied force of 25 N, write
down the system differential equation and hence determine (a) the natural frequency, and (b) the
system damping ratio.

A
m
15 kg; k
10 N/m; R
20 Ns/m; F
25 N

F
ms  Rs  ks newton

so 25
15s  20 s  10 s Ans


(a) hence, 25
s  20 s  10 s
15 15 15
and comparing coefficients with the general equation (5)
10
n

0.816 rad/s
15
0.816
so fn

0.13 Hz Ans
2
 Control Principles 2 135

20
(b) 2n

1.3333
15
1.333
therefore n

0.817 Ans
2  0.816

5 Driven Damped Systems

A driving or forcing function input may have a waveshape that is
sinusoidal, rectangular, triangular, or indeed any other waveshape.
For mechanical systems, such a forcing function may be the result of
vibration. In this case the waveshape will be approximately sinusoidal.
Figure 13 represents a mechanical system subjected to a sinusoidal
forcing function.

s.h.m
m

Fig. 13

This system will have a natural frequency of oscillation fn hertz, or n

rad/s. Provided that the forcing input has a frequency  that is very
much less than the system n, then the mass in the system will closely
follow the forcing input motion. This may easily be confirmed by the
following simple test. Hold one end of a reasonably ‘soft’ spring which
has a mass suspended from the other end. Now move your hand up
and down very slowly, and you should find that the mass and spring
move in sympathy with the input displacement. As the input forcing
frequency is increased (gradually increase the speed of the up-and-
down movement of your hand) it will be found that the displacement
of the mass starts to become out-of-step with the input. In addition it
will be found that the amplitude of mass displacement also increases.
At a particular input frequency it will be found that the displacement
of the mass is 90° out-of-step with the input, and its amplitude will
be considerably greater than the input displacement. Take care with
your test rig, since under this condition the mass may well detach
itself from the spring and do some damage! This effect occurs at the
resonant frequency fo for the system. If the input frequency is increased
further, then the amplitude of the oscillations of the mass will begin
to decrease, and its angle of lag will continue to increase. There will
come a point when the inertia of the mass is such that the mass cannot
136 Control Principles 2

keep up with the driving function, and its displacement becomes

virtually zero. The relationship between the system displacement to the
frequency of the forcing function is shown in Fig. 14, and the angular
relationship between input and mass displacement is shown in Fig.
15. Note that both of these diagrams are ‘generalised’ (apply to any
system) by making the frequency axes the ratio f/fn in each case, and
the vertical axis of Fig. 14 the amplitude ratio so /si. In the latter case,
si, represents the input displacement, and so represents the system
displacement. Thus at very low input frequencies, so
si (mass in step
with input), so so /si
1.

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0 ζ
0.1
So /Si

2.5 ζ
0.2

2.0

ζ
0.3

1.5

ζ
0.4
1.0
ζ
0.5

ζ
0.7
0.5 ζ
1
ζ
2

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

f/fn

Fig. 14

From Fig. 14 it is apparent that if the system is only lightly damped

then the displacement and velocity of the mass can be very large at the
resonant frequency. This could well lead to structural damage, and for
this reason the resonant condition is normally avoided in mechanical
systems. If inputs at or near the resonant frequency are unavoidable,
 Control Principles 2 137

f/fn
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

ξ
0.1
ξ
0.2
45 ξ
0.5

ξ
1
ξ
2

(degrees)
angle φ
90

135

180

Fig. 15

then the system damping must be increased. This will have the effect of
reducing the amplitude of oscillations. From the amplitude/frequency
response curve it may be seen that if   0.7, then the displacement
of the mass will not exceed that of the input. Also, at frequencies in
excess of 1.5fo the displacement of the mass becomes progressively
less and less. A classic example of these effects may be experienced
when driving a car in which the roadwheels are out of balance. In this
case it will be found that at one particular speed the vibrations due to
the imbalance become very noticeable. If the speed is either increased
or decreased from this value it will be found that the vibrations become
much weaker, or even disappear altogether.

6 Control System Strategies

In Control Principles 1 we briefly considered the problem of
controlling the position of a large radio telescope antenna. The initial
solution to this problem involved the use of a very simple closed-loop
control system, the diagram for which is shown in Fig. 16. It will
be helpful at this stage to review the manner in which this system
operates. This is summarised by describing the function of each of the
system elements, as follows.

Proportional control
This control strategy is called proportional control because the
feedback signal is directly proportional to the angular position of the
output.
138 Control Principles 2

Vi error
θi signal  Reference 
A1 A2 supply

Vo P2


P1
Reference Constant
n
 supply  field M LOAD
supply 1
θo


Vo
A3
Positional (proportional) feedback

Fig. 16

P1 and P2
These are the input and output potentiometers (transducers) which
provide the electrical signals (Vi and Vo) that are proportional to the
input or demanded displacement and the actual output displacement, i
and θo respectively.

A1
This is the error detector, in the form of a summing operational amplifier.
The output of this device will be the error signal, equal to ViVo.

A2
This is a power or servo amplifier which provides a much amplified
error signal to the drive motor.

M
This is a separately excited d.c. driving motor.

n
This is a step-down gearbox to provide the large torque required by
the load.

A3
This is an inverting operational amplifier to ensure that the feedback
signal Vo is in opposition to the input Vi. This ensures that negative
feedback is applied.
In addition to the mass of the load are the masses of motor armature,
drive shafts, gearbox etc. Therefore the total mass, and hence inertia,
of the system will be large. The ‘stiffness’ of the system is contributed
 Control Principles 2 139

by the drive shafts and gearbox, and the amplification in the system
will have a similar effect to mechanical stiffness. In order to minimise
any steady state error the system gain (amplification) needs to be high.
On the other hand, the friction in the system will be minimal due to
the use of high quality bearings, lubrication etc. The whole system will
therefore be a severely underdamped second-order system which, due
to the high gain, will be very responsive to demanded changes. Thus,
when a step demand input is applied, the system will respond rapidly
with consequent violent oscillations of the antenna about its new
position before finally settling. This oscillatory response is obviously
undesirable, especially since large masses are involved. The solution is
to slow down the system by increasing the damping ratio.
This effect could be achieved by increasing the friction in the system,
perhaps by the use of some form of braking. However, increasing
viscous friction is to be avoided because it wastes energy, it increases
steady state error, and it was initially designed to be minimal anyway!
Thus the slowing down effect of viscous friction needs to be simulated,
without the other adverse effects. This may be achieved by means of
derivative feedback as follows.

Derivative control
The original positional (proportional) feedback must be retained since
this forms the basic closed-loop control which ensures that the system
is error-actuated. The derivative feedback may be achieved by several
means, one of which is by the use of a tachogenerator mounted on the
motor driveshaft as shown in Fig. 17.
The output of the tachogenerator is directly proportional to the speed
at which it rotates, so it is proportional to the rate of change of output
position, i.e. Vd  dθo /dt, so the tacho voltage is the derivative of the
output position. This feedback signal is also of the opposite polarity

Vi  Reference 
θi A2 supply
Vo A1
P2
Vd 
P1
Reference Constant n
 supply  field M T.G. LOAD
1 θo
supply


P3
Derivative (velocity) feedback
Vo
A3
Proportional (position) feedback

Fig. 17
140 Control Principles 2

to the demand signal, so the total error signal will now be given by
Vi(VoVd) volt. The major advantage of tachogenerator feedback
is that it will be at its greatest when the output shaft is travelling at
its fastest (through the oscillatory ‘cross-over’ points on the response
graph), and will be zero when the shaft is stationary. This means that
the damping effect of this feedback is present only when it is required
and will, unlike friction, not affect the steady state error in the shaft
position. In addition, the degree of damping produced can very simply
be adjusted by means of the associated potentiometer, P3.
Although the use of a tachogenerator would seem to be the ideal
solution to the problem of oscillatory instability in a positional control
system, it can have an adverse effect in a velocity control system, or a
positional control system subjected to a ramp input demand.

Velocity lag
A ramp input is simply a step velocity input, as illustrated in Figs. 18(a)
and (b). This type of input would apply to a positional control system
when it is required to rotate at some constant velocity. For example,
this would apply to a radar antenna when it is required for the antenna
to lock on to and follow a ‘target’. Since the system has to be error-
actuated, then to keep the motor driving there has to be some difference
between o and i, to provide the necessary error signal. Consider the
antenna rotating at the appropriate speed to match that of the ‘target’
(o
i). In order to provide the error signal to maintain this velocity
there will be an angular misalignment between the actual instantaneous
position of the antenna and the desired position. This means that the
antenna angular position will be ‘lagging behind’ the target. This
angular difference is called the velocity lag, and from Figs. 19(a) and
(b) it may be seen that velocity lag (steady state error) increases with
damping. Hence if a tachogenerator is used, the damping signal that it
produces whilst rotating will increase the velocity lag. This problem
may be avoided if the velocity feedback is produced by passing the
error signal through either a passive C-R differentiating network, or a
differentiating operational amplifier. The differentiator and the error
detector usually form parts of an element called a controller. Thus a

demand demand
θi dθi
ωi

dt

t (s) t (s)
ramp displacement step velocity
(a) (b)

Fig. 18
 Control Principles 2 141

θ θ
θi θi
θo
θo θss
θss

t (s) t (s)
(a) overdamped (b) underdamped

Fig. 19

system that employs both proportional and derivative feedback is said

to have a two-term controller.

Integral control
The differentiating network mentioned above is satisfactory for low-
power systems in which the load on the motor is relatively small
and constant. However, where there is significant ‘stiction’ (static
or coulomb friction, independent of velocity) in the system, then
steady state errors can still be significant, since stiction increases the
dead-band. As the load approaches the desired alignment position
(o
i), the error voltage becomes progressively smaller. Figure
20 illustrates this point and shows the dead-band. In this context, the
dotted lines represent the minimum error voltage required to overcome
the stiction. Thus, due to its inertia, the load could come to rest at
any position between points (a) and (b). The system dead-band could
be reduced by increasing the system gain, but too much gain tends
to produce instability, in the form of oscillations. The solution to the
problem is the use of integral feedback, either in the form of a passive
C-R integrating network or an integrating operational amplifier. In
either case, a p.d. is built up across the capacitor whilst the load is
approaching alignment. This p.d. is sufficient to supplement the error
signal to the extent that sufficient error voltage will now be present
to overcome the dead-band. With careful adjustment it is possible to
eliminate the steady state error. The arrangement for a three-term or
PID controller is shown in Fig. 21.

error

0 dead-band

(a) (b)


Fig. 20
142 Control Principles 2

Vi

error
 Vi  Vo

P 
 to servo
Vo amplifier

Fig. 21

7 Computer Control of Systems

Increasingly the control of modern systems is achieved by
microprocessors and microcomputers. One example is the
microprocessor in a washing machine, which determines the sequence
and timing of the various operations. In order to achieve this the
processor acts on information provided by sensors (transducers)
that monitor such variables as water level, temperature, drum speed,
programme selection, etc. An example of the use of a computer would
be the control of a manufacturing process, which could involve the
control of, and response to, a large number of variables, including
material position and availability, temperature, flowrate, pressure, tool
position, velocity, safety features, etc. The information regarding all
the variables will also be supplied by appropriate transducers. A block
diagram for a typical system is shown in Fig. 22.
input demand
θi

digital analogue
Computer/ error error
DAC Controller System
µprocesser
output
θo

analogue
digital feedback
feedback Vo
ADC Transducer

Fig. 22
 Control Principles 2 143

The variables to be sensed and controlled are analogue quantities,

whereas the computer or microprocessor is a digital device. For
this reason the information fed back from the transducers has to be
converted into binary data which can be processed by the computer.
This is achieved by a device known as an analogue to digital converter
(ADC). Similarly, the control signals generated by the computer have
to be converted from digital to analogue signals. This is achieved by a
digital to analogue converter (DAC).
The control strategies described in the previous section may be
achieved by a computer or microprocessor. The manner in which
specific control actions are achieved will not be dealt with here, since
such details form part of the modules (units) covering computer
applications and microelectronic systems.

Summary of Equations
First-order systems:
dx
General system equation, Y
A  Bx
dt
A
Time constant,

second
B
Y
Instantaneous value for growth, x
(1  et/
)
B
Y t/

Instantaneous value for decay, x
e
B

Ideal second-order:
General equation (SHM), Y
ax  bx
1 b
Natural frequency, fn
hertz
2 a

Practical second-order:
Y bx cx
General equation,

x  
 x  2ζvn x  vn2 x
a a a
1 c
Natural frequency, vn
rad/second
2π a
R
Damping ratio, ζ

Rcrit

Damping frequency, fd
fn 1  z 2 hertz

144 Control Principles 2
Assignment Questions
1 Deduce the electrical analogues for
torque, inertia, angular velocity, angular
displacement, and a torsion bar.
2 A spring of stiffness 1.5 kN/m is attached
to a mass of 20 kg. What will be the natural
frequency of oscillation of this system when
disturbed?
3 A mass-spring system has a natural frequency
of 1.5 Hz. If the mass is 4 kg determine the
value of spring stiffness.
4 A mass-spring system has a natural frequency
of 0.5 Hz. If it is then damped by a device
having a damping ratio of 0.65, determine the
damped frequency of oscillation.
5 Explain the difference between first-order and
second-order systems, quoting examples of
each.
6 A mass of 63 kg is attached to a damper of
coefficient 30 Ns/m. This system is subjected
to a suddenly applied force of 100 N. Write
down the system differential equation and
hence determine (a) the initial acceleration,
(b) the time constant, and (c) the final
velocity.
7 A system comprises a 2.4 kg mass, a spring
of stiffness 9.6 N/m, a damper of coefficient
3.2 Ns/m, and is subjected to a step input force
of 0.5 N. Determine the system differential
equation and hence, or otherwise, calculate
(a) the natural frequency, (b) the damping
ratio, (c) the damped frequency, (d) the final
displacement, and (e) the value of damper
coefficient that will just prevent oscillations.
8 Explain why resonance in mechanical
systems is normally avoided, and if it cannot
be avoided, how the adverse effects are
minimised.
9 Explain what a tachogenerator is and why
it may be employed in a positional control
system.
10 (a) Explain what is meant by the term velocity
lag, as applied to control systems, and how
it may be reduced, (b) What is a three-term
controller?
 Control Principles 2 145

Supplementary Worked Examples

Supplementary Worked Example 1

Q A 4.5 kg mass moves with a velocity of 8 m/s. If all of the kinetic energy stored by this mass is
transferred to a spring of stiffness coefficient 55 kN/m, calculate (a) the total displacement of the
spring, and (b) the value of capacitor that would be equivalent to this spring.

A
m
4.5 kg; v
8 m/s; k
55  103 N/m

For the mass, KE
0.5 mv 2 joule
0.5  4.5  82

KE
144 J

(a) When this energy is transferred to the spring it will be stored as potential
energy because the spring will be displaced (compressed or stretched), and

PE
0.5 ks2 joule, where s is the resulting displacement

144
0.5  55  103  s2
144
s
metre
0.5  55  103
s
72.4 mm Ans

(b) Since capacitance is equivalent to reciprocal of spring stiffness

1 1
then C
farad

k 55  103
so C
18.2 µF Ans

Supplementary Worked Example 2

Q The buffer on a train carriage has a spring of stiffness coefficient 0.2 MN/m and a damper coefficient
of 300 kNm/s. When it is subjected to an impact force of 20 kN, (a) write down the system differential
equation, and hence, or otherwise, calculate (b) the total displacement of the system, and (c) the
displacement achieved 0.5 s after the impact force is applied.

A
F
2  104 N; k
2  105 Ns/m; R
3  105 Nm/s; t
0.5 s

ds
(a) F
R  ks newton
dt
ds
2  1 0 4
3  1 05  2  1 05 s
dt
ds
so, 2
30  20 s Anss
dt
146 Control Principles 2

R 300 kNm/s

F
20 kN

k 0.2 MN/m

Fig. 23

(b) Total displacement, S, occurs when the system comes to rest, i.e. ds/dt
0,
so putting this condition into the differential equation we have:

2
0  20 s
2
so, S

10 cm Ans
20

R 30
(c) System time constant,

second

k 20

1.5 s
s
S (1  et/
) metre
10 (1  e0.5 /1.5 ) cm
s
2.83 cm Ans

Supplementary Worked Example 3

Q A constant force of 120 N is applied to a 15 kg mass which is at rest at time t
0. The motion of the
mass is resisted by viscous friction of 10 Ns/m. For this system, (a) derive the system differential
equation, (b) calculate the steady-state velocity achieved, and (c) sketch the equivalent electrical
circuit, showing the values of the components used.

A
F
120 N; m
15 kg; R
10 Ns/m

F1
m
F
R
F2

Fig. 7.24

d2 s
(a) The inertia force due to the mass, F1
m
ms newton
dt 2
 Control Principles 2 147

ds
The damping force due to friction, F2
R
Rs newton
dt

and F
F1  F2 newton
so, F
ms  Rs newton
120
15s  10 s
120 10 s

s 
15 15
and, 8
s  0.67 s newton Ans

(b) Steady-state velocity occurs when the acceleration ceases, i.e. s
0, so
from the differential equation:

8
0  0.67 s
8
s
metre/second
12 m/s Ans
0.67

(c) The electrical equivalents of mass, damping and force are inductance,
resistance and emf, respectively, so:
L
15 H; R
10 ; E
120 V

R L

10 Ω 15 H

E
120 V

Fig. 25

Also, since a series electrical system is analogous to a parallel mechanical

system, the electrical equivalent will be as shown in Fig. 25.

When the switch is closed at time t
0, the current will grow to some steady
value, which is limited only by the resistance of the circuit.

dq
I

q amp
dt
120
so, q

12 A
10

Supplementary Worked Example 4

Q The response of a second-order system to a step-input disturbance is described by the following
differential equation

10
5θ  6θ  4θ

Using this equation, determine:

(a) the system’s natural undamped frequency;
148 Control Principles 2

(b) the system damping ratio; and

(c) the damped frequency of oscillation.

(a) 10
5  6  4

10  6 4

 
5 5 5
2

  1.2  0.8

The standardised general form of differential equation for such a system is

Y
a


x  2n x  2n x , and comparing coefficients we can say that

2n
0.8
n
0.8
0.8944 rad/s
0.8944
fn
hertz
2
fn
0.142 Hz Ans

(b) 2n
1.2

1.2 1.2



2n 2  0.142

0.671 Ans

(c) fd
fn 1  2
0.142 1  0.6712

fd
0.105 Hz Ans

Supplementary Worked Example 5

Q The switch in the circuit of Fig. 26 is left in position ‘1’ until the capacitor becomes fully discharged.
Some time later, at time t ⴝ 0, the switch is moved to position ‘2’. (a) Write down the system
differential equation and hence, or otherwise, calculate (b) the system natural frequency, (c) the
damping ratio, and (d) the actual damped frequency of oscillation.

R L C

59.6 mH 68 nF
1.5 kΩ

‘1’

E
24 V

Fig. 26
 Control Principles 2 149

A
R
1500 ; L
0.0596 H; C
68  109 F; E
24 V

(a) This is a second-order system in which the charge (q) will increase from zero
to its final steady-state value, with an oscillatory component.

d2q dq q
E
L 2
R  volt
dt dt C
E d2q R dq q

 
L dt 2 L dt LC
24 d2q 1500 dq q

2  
0.0596 dt 0.0596 dt 0.0596  68  109
d2q dq
402.68
2
 25 167.8  2.467  108 q Ans
dt dt

(b) The general form of equation for a damped second-order system is:

Y d2 x dx

2  2n  2n x
a dt dt

and comparing coefficients with the system equation:

2n
2.467  108

n
15 706.7 rad/s
n 15 706.7
fn
hertz

2 2
fn
2.5 kHz Ans

(c) Again comparing coefficients:

2n
25 167.8
25 167.8


2  15 706.7

0.8 Ans

(d) fd
fn 1   hertz
2

2.5 1  0.82 kHz

fd
1.5 kHz Ans

Supplementary Worked Example 6

Q The second-order system illustrated in Fig. 27 has a mass of 25 kg, a damper coefficient of 22 Ns/
m, and a spring stiffness coefficient of 12 N/m. Calculate (a) the system natural frequency, (b) the
increase of damper coefficient required to just prevent oscillations (critical damping), and (c) the
actual damped frequency of oscillation.
150 Control Principles 2

R
k

Fig. 27

A
m
25 kg; R
22 Ns/m; k
12 N/m
(a) F
ms  Rs  ks newton

25s  22 s  12 s
F 22 12

s  s  s
25 25 25
F

s  0.88 s  0.48 s
25
Y

x  2n x  2n x and comparing coefficientts
a
2n
0.48
n
0.6928
0.6928
fn

2
fn
0.11 Hz Ans

(b) 2n
0.88

0.88


0.635
2  0.6928
R
but 

Rcrit
R 22
so Rcrit
newtonn second/metre

 0.635
Rcrit
34.64 Ns/m

and increase of damping required
34.64  22
12.64 Ns/m Ans

(c) fd
fn 1  2 hertz

0.11 1  0.6352
fn
0.085 Hz Ans