c



is an umbrella term that refers to any source of usable energy intended to

replace fuel sources without the undesired consequences of the replaced fuels.[1]

The term "alternative" presupposes a set of undesirable energy technologies against which
"alternative energies" are contrasted. As such, the list of energy technologies excluded is an
indicator of what problems that the alternative technologies are intended to address.
Controversies regarding dominant sources of energy and their alternatives have a long history.
The nature of what was regarded alternative energy sources has changed considerably over time,
and today, because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates,
defining some energy types as "alternative" is highly controversial.

In a general sense in contemporary society, alternative energy is that which is produced without
the undesirable consequences of the burning of fossil fuels, such as high carbon dioxide
emissions, which is considered to be the major contributing factor of global warming according
to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Sometimes, this less comprehensive meaning
of "alternative energy" excludes nuclear energy (e.g. as defined in the Michigan Next Energy
Authority Act of 2002).[2]




[hide]

„V 1 Definitions
„V 2 History
uV 2.1 Coal as an alternative to wood
uV 2.2 Petroleum as an alternative to whale oil
uV 2.3 Alcohol as an alternative to fossil fuels
uV 2.4 Coal gasification as an alternative to petroleum
„V 3 Renewable energy vs non-renewable energy
uV 3.1 Ecologically friendly alternatives
„V 4 Relatively new concepts for alternative energy
uV 4.1 Algae fuel
uV 4.2 Biomass briquettes
ÿV 4.2.1 Biogas digestion
uV 4.3 Biological Hydrogen Production
uV 4.4 Floating wind farms
„V - Investing in alternative energy
uV -.1 Alternative energy in transportation
„V D Making Alternative Energy Mainstream
„V r See also
„V ‰ References

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 = 

energy fuelled in ways that do not use up natural resources or harm the
 xford Dictionary
environment.[3]
energy derived from sources that do not use up natural resources or harm
Princeton WordNet
the environment.[4]
Responding to
energy derived from nontraditional sources (e.g., compressed natural gas,
Climate Change
solar, hydroelectric, wind).[-]
200r
Natural Resources energy that is not popularly used and is usually environmentally sound,
Defense Council such as solar or wind energy (as opposed to fossil fuels).[D]
Materials Fuel sources that are other than those derived from fossil fuels. Typically
Management used interchangeably for renewable energy. Examples A** include: wind,
Services solar, biomass, wave and tidal energy.[r]
Torridge District
Energy generated from alternatives to fossil fuel. Need not be renewable.[‰]
Council

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Historians of economies have studied the key transitions to alternative energies and regard the
transitions as pivotal in bringing about significant economic change.[9][10][11] Prior to shift to an
alternative energy, supplies of the dominant energy type became erratic, accompanied by rapid
increases in energy prices.

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Historian Norman F. Cantor describes how in the late medieval period, coal was the new
alternative fuel to save the society from overuse of the dominant fuel, wood:

"Europeans had lived in the midst of vast forests throughout the earlier medieval
centuries. After 12-0 they became so skilled at deforestation that by 1-00 AD they were
running short of wood for heating and cooking... By 1-00 Europe was on the edge of a
fuel and nutritional disaster, [from] which it was saved in the sixteenth century only by
the burning of soft coal and the cultivation of potatoes and maize."[12]

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Whale oil was the dominant form of lubrication and fuel for lamps in the early 19th century, but
the depletion of the whale stocks by mid century caused whale oil prices to skyrocket setting the
stage for the adoption of petroleum which was first commercialized in Pennsylvania in 1‰-9.[13]

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Main article: Ethanol fuel

In 191r, Alexander Graham Bell advocated ethanol from corn and other foodstuffs as an
alternative to coal and oil, stating that the world was in measurable distance of depleting these
fuels. For Bell, the problem requiring an alternative was lack of renewability of orthodox energy
sources.[14] Since the 19r0s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the
country to become the world's second largest producer of ethanol (after the United States) and
the world's largest exporter.[1-] Brazil¶s ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap
sugar cane as feedstock, and the residual cane-waste (bagasse) is used to process heat and
power.[1D] There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of
200‰ there were 3-,000 filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump.[1r]

Cellulosic ethanol can be produced from a diverse array of feedstocks, and involves the use of
the whole crop. This new approach should increase yields and reduce the carbon footprint
because the amount of energy-intensive fertilizers and fungicides will remain the same, for a
higher output of usable material.[1‰][19] As of 200‰, there are nine commercial cellulosic ethanol
plants which are either operating, or under construction, in the United States.[20]

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In the 19r0s, President Jimmy Carter's administration advocated coal gasification as an

alternative to expensive imported oil. The program, including the Synthetic Fuels Corporation
was scrapped when petroleum prices plummeted in the 19‰0s.

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Main article: Renewable energy

Renewable energy is generated from natural resources²such as sunlight,[21] wind, rain, tides and
geothermal heat²which are renewable (naturally replenished). When comparing the processes
for producing energy, there remain several fundamental differences between renewable energy
and fossil fuels. The process of producing oil, coal, or natural gas fuel is a difficult and
demanding process that requires a great deal of complex equipment, physical and chemical
processes.  n the other hand, alternative energy can be widely produced with basic equipment
and naturally basic processes. Wood, the most renewable and available alternative energy, burns
the same amount of carbon it would emit if it degraded naturally.[22]

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Renewable energy sources such as biomass are sometimes regarded as an alternative to

ecologically harmful fossil fuels. Renewables are not inherently alternative energies for this
purpose. For example, the Netherlands, once leader in use of palm oil as a biofuel, has suspended
all subsidies for palm oil due to the scientific evidence that their use "may sometimes create
more environmental harm than fossil fuels".[23] The Netherlands government and environmental
groups are trying to trace the origins of imported palm oil, to certify which operations produce
the oil in a responsible manner.[23] Regarding biofuels from foodstuffs, the realization that
converting the entire grain harvest of the US would only produce 1D of its auto fuel needs, and
the decimation of Brazil's C 2 absorbing tropical rain forests to make way for biofuel production
has made it clear that placing energy markets in competition with food markets results in higher
food prices and insignificant or negative impact on energy issues such as global warming or
dependence on foreign energy.[24] Recently, alternatives to such undesirable sustainable fuels are
being sought, such as commercially viable sources of cellulosic ethanol.

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Algae fuel is a biofuel which is derived from algae. During photosynthesis, algae and other
photosynthetic organisms capture carbon dioxide and sunlight and convert it into oxygen and
biomass. The benefits of algal biofuel are that it can be produced industrially, thereby obviating
the use of arable land and food crops (such as soy, palm, and canola), and that it has a very high
oil yield as compared to all other sources of biofuel.

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Biomass briquettes are being developed in the developing world as an alternative to charcoal.
The technique involves the conversion of almost any plant matter into compressed briquettes that
typically have about r0 the calorific value of charcoal. There are relatively few examples of
large scale briquette production.  ne exception is in North Kivu, in eastern Democratic Republic
of Congo, where forest clearance for charcoal production is considered to be the biggest threat to
Mountain Gorilla habitat. The staff of Virunga National Park have successfully trained and
equipped over 3-00 people to produce biomass briquettes, thereby replacing charcoal produced
illegally inside the national park, and creating significant employment for people living in
extreme poverty in conflict affected areas. [2-]

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Biogas digestion deals with harnessing the methane gas that is released when waste breaks down.
This gas can be retrieved from garbage or sewage systems. Biogas digesters are used to process
methane gas by having bacteria break down biomass in an anaerobic environment. [2D] The
methane gas that is collected and refined can be used as an energy source for various products.

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Hydrogen gas is a completely clean burning fuel; its only by-product is water.[2r] It also contains
relatively high amount of energy compared with other fuels due to its chemical structure.[2‰]

2H2 +  2 ²ĺ 2H2  + High Energy

High Energy + 2H2  ²ĺ 2H2 +  2

This requires a high-energy input, making commercial hydrogen very inefficient.[29] Use of a
biological vector as a means to split water, and therefore produce hydrogen gas, would allow for
the only energy input to be solar radiation. Biological vectors can include bacteria or more
commonly algae. This process is known as biological hydrogen production.[30] It requires the use
of single celled organisms to create hydrogen gas through fermentation. Without the presence of
oxygen, also known as an anaerobic environment, regular cellular respiration cannot take place
and a process known as fermentation takes over. A major by-product of this process is hydrogen
gas. If we could implement this on a large scale, then we could take sunlight, nutrients and water
and create hydrogen gas to be used as a dense source of energy.[31] Large-scale production has
proven difficult. It was not until 1999 that we were able to even induce these anaerobic
conditions by sulfur deprivation.[32] Since the fermentation process is an evolutionary back up,
turned on during stress, the cells would die after a few days. In 2000, a two-stage process was
developed to take the cells in and out of anaerobic conditions and therefore keep them alive.[33]
For the last ten years, finding a way to do this on a large-scale has been the main goal of
research. Careful work is being done to ensure an efficient process before large-scale production,
however once a mechanism is developed, this type of production could solve our energy
needs.[34]

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Floating wind farms are similar to a regular wind farm, but the difference is that they float in the
middle of the ocean.  ffshore wind farms can be placed in water up to 40 metres (130 ft) deep,
whereas floating wind turbines can float in water up to r00 metres (2,300 ft) deep.[3-] The
advantage of having a floating wind farm is to be able to harness the winds from the open ocean.
Without any obstructions such as hills, trees and buildings, winds from the open ocean can reach
up to speeds twice as fast as coastal areas.[3-] A Norwegian energy company, StatoilHydro, will
launch the first test period for the floating wind farms in autumn 2009.[3D]

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 ver the last three years publicly traded alternative energy have been very volatile, with some
200r returns in excess of 100 , some 200‰ returns down 90 or more, and peak-to-trough
returns in 2009 again over 100 .[O

] In general there are three subsegments of
³alternative´ energy investment: solar energy, wind energy and hybrid electric vehicles.
Alternative energy sources which are renewable, free and have lower carbon emissions than what
we have now are wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, and bio fuels. Each of these four
segments involve very different technologies and investment concerns.

For example, photovoltaic solar energy is based on semiconductor processing and accordingly,
benefits from steep cost reductions similar to those realized in the microprocessor industry (i.e.,
driven by larger scale, higher module efficiency, and improving processing technologies). PV
solar energy is perhaps the only energy technology whose electricity generation cost could be
reduced by half or more over the next - years. Better and more efficient manufacturing process
and new technology such as advanced thin film solar cell is a good example of that helps to
reduce industry cost.[3r]

The economics of solar PV electricity are highly dependent on silicon pricing and even
companies whose technologies are based on other materials (e.g., First Solar) are impacted by
the balance of supply and demand in the silicon market.[O

] In addition, because some
companies sell completed solar cells on the open market (e.g., Q-Cells), this creates a low barrier
to entry for companies that want to manufacture solar modules, which in turn can create an
irrational pricing environment.

In contrast, because wind power has been harnessed for over 100 years, its underlying
technology is relatively stable. Its economics are largely determined by siting (e.g., how hard the
wind blows and the grid investment requirements) and the prices of steel (the largest component
of a wind turbine) and select composites (used for the blades). Because current wind turbines are
often in excess of 100 meters high, logistics and a global manufacturing platform are major
sources of competitive advantage. These issues and others were explored in a research report by
Sanford Bernstein. Some of its key conclusions are shown here.[23]

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Due to steadily rising gas prices in 200‰ with the US national average price per gallon of regular
unleaded gas rising above $4.00 at one point,[3‰] there has been a steady movement towards
developing higher fuel efficiency and more alternative fuel vehicles for consumers. In response,
many smaller companies have rapidly increased research and development into radically
different ways of powering consumer vehicles. Hybrid and battery electric vehicles are
commercially available and are gaining wider industry and consumer acceptance worldwide.[39]

For example, Nissan USA introduced the world's first mass-production Electric Vehicle "Nissan
Leaf".[40]

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"

Before alternative energy becomes main-stream there are a few crucial obstacles that it must
overcome: First there must be increased understanding of how alternative energies work and why
they are beneficial; secondly the availability components for these systems must increase and
lastly the pay-off time must be decreased.

For example, electric vehicles (EV) and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) are on the rise.
These vehicles depend heavily on an effective charging infrastructure such as a smart grid
infrastructure to be able to implement electricity as mainstream alternative energy for future
transportations.[41][÷ 
÷O]

i
= 
„V Alternative Energy Index
„V Energy development
uV Fuel cell
uV Fischer-Tropsch process
uV Hydrogen economy
„V Green energy
 „V Greasestock
„V Sustainable energy

i
 
1.V ß  n site renewable energy options
2.V ß "MICHIGAN NEXT ENERGY AUTH RITY ACT (EXCERPT) Act -93 of 2002".
Michigan Legislature.
http://www.legislature.mi.gov/(S(j330pfzek1l2av2zkh3pxa--))/mileg.aspx?page=GetMC
LDocument&objectname=mcl-20r-‰22. Retrieved 200‰-12-14.
3.V ß Concise  ED Alternative Energy. Accessed May 2, 200‰.
4.V ß WordNet. Alternative Energy entry.
-.V ß RICC 200r. Term Glossary.
D.V ß NRDC. Glossary.
r.V ß MMS. Definitions.
‰.V ß Torridge District Council. TDLP PART 1 - GL SSARY.
9.V ß Gregory Clark (University of California, Davis, Economics); David Jacks (Simon
Fraser University, Economics) (200r-04). "Coal and the Industrial Revolution, 1r00-
1‰D9" (pdf). ð÷  ðO O 
 (European Historical Economics
Society). http://gpih.ucdavis.edu/files/Clark_Jacks.pdf. Retrieved 200‰-12-14. Lay
summary. Clark and Jacks specifically refer to 1‰th century "alternative energy"
10.Vß Dr Roger White, Institute of Archaeology and Antiquity, University of Birmingham
(200D-0--13). "Trees and Woods: Myths and Realities" (doc). >O
÷ð
 
 
 
 (Commonwealth Forestry Association).
http://www.cfa-international.org/Trees 20and 20Woods 20by 20R 20White.doc.
Retrieved 200‰-12-14. Note: Dr. White specifically refers to coal as a 1rth century
alternative fuel in this paper.
11.Vß Dr. Douglas B. Reynolds (economics) (doc). ð 
 OðO O

. Hubbert Peak of  il Production website.
http://www.hubbertpeak.com/Reynolds/EnergyGrades.htm. Retrieved 200‰-12-14.
12.Vß Norman F. Cantor (1993).   

  > !

  
. Harper Collins. p. -D4. ISBN 9r‰-00D092--3D.
13.Vß "From  ld Dartmouth to New Bedford, Whaling Metropolis of the World".  ld
Dartmouth Historical Society.
http://www.whalingmuseum.org/library/old_nb/old_nb_index.html. Retrieved 200‰-12-
14.
14.Vß Alexander Graham Bell (191r).  

"



" ÷
. National Geographic Society. p. 133.
http://books.google.com/?id=qBYSAAAAYAAJ. Retrieved 200‰-12-14. Lay summary.
"In relation to coal and oil, the world's annual consumption has become so enormous that
we are now actually within measurable distance of the end of the supply. What shall we
do when we have no more coal or oil! .... There is, however, one other source of fuel
supply which may perhaps this problem of the future. Alcohol makes a beautiful, clean
and efficient fuel, and where not intended for human consumption can be manufactured
very cheaply ... from corn stalks and in fact from almost any vegetable matter capable of
fermentation."
1-.Vß "Industry Statistics: Annual World Ethanol Production by Country". Renewable Fuels
Association. Archived from the original on 200‰-04-0‰.
http://web.archive.org/web/200‰040‰091334/http://www.ethanolrfa.org/industry/statistic
s/#E. Retrieved 200‰-0--02.
1D.Vß Macedo Isaias, M. Lima Verde Leal and J. Azevedo Ramos da Silva (2004).
"Assessment of greenhouse gas emissions in the production and use of fuel ethanol in
Brazil" (PDF). Secretariat of the Environment, Government of the State of São Paulo.
http://www.eners.ch/plateforme/medias/macedo_2004.pdf. Retrieved 200‰-0--09.
1r.Vß Daniel Budny and Paulo Sotero, editor (200r-04). "Brazil Institute Special Report: The
Global Dynamics of Biofuels" (PDF). Brazil Institute of the Woodrow Wilson Center.
http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/Brazil_SR_e3.pdf. Retrieved 200‰-0--03.
1‰.Vß Biofuels look to the next generation
19.Vß Cellulosic Ethanol: Not Just Any Liquid Fuel
20.Vß Building Cellulose
21.Vß Including solar and radiant energy.
22.Vß http://www.whichwoodburningstoves.co.uk
23.V^ Y
Elisabeth Rosenthal (200r-01-31).  O!÷ #    $ðO%
& 
. New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/200r/01/31/business/worldbusiness/31biofuel.html. Retrieved
200‰-12-14.
24.Vß Lester R. Brown (200r-0D-13). "Biofuels Blunder:Massive Diversion of U.S. Grain to
Fuel Cars is Raising World Food Prices, Risking Political Instability". 


'("("


ð 
÷
O). http://www.earth-
policy.org/Transcripts/SenateEPW0r.htm. Retrieved 200‰-12-20.
2-.Vß "Biomass Briquettes". 2r August 2009. http://gorillacd.org/2009/02/19/briquette-
production-the-beginning-of-an-alternative-source-of-fuel-around-virunga/. Retrieved 19
February 2009.
2D.Vß "Biogas Technology". 2r March 2009.
http://www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/RENEW/Biomass/biogas.shtml. Retrieved 24 June
2009.
2r.Vß Hijikata, Tsuneo. 2001. Research and Development of International Clean Energy
Network Using Hydrogen Energy. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy; 2r: 11--
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2‰.Vß P. 12, BMW Group Clean Energy ZEV Symposium, September 200D
29.Vß Ghirardi ML, Togasaki RK, Seibert M (199r). " xygen Sensitivity of Algal H2-
Production".  $ O 
$ 
O  D : 141±-1.
doi:10.100r/BF02920420. PMID 1‰-rD0rr.
30.Vß Radmer R, Kok B (19rr). "Photosynthesis: Limited Yields, Unlimited Dreams".
$ O O ¢ : -99±D0-.
31.Vß Gaffron H, Rubin J (1942). "Fermentative and Photochemical Production of Hydrogen
in Algae". †÷     ¢D (2): 219±240. doi:10.10‰-/jgp.2D.2.219.
PMID 19‰r3339.
32.Vß Melis A, Neidhardt J, Benemann JR (1999). "!÷    (Chlorophyta) with
Small Chlorophyll Antenna Sizes Exhibit Higher Photosynthetic Productivities and
Photon Use Efficiencies Than Normally Pigmented Cells". †÷  O 
— : -1-±-2.
 33.Vß Melis A, Happe T (2001). "Hydrogen Production ² Green Algae as a Source of
Energy".  
   —¢
(3): r40±‰. doi:10.1104/pp.01049‰. PMID 11r0D1-9.
PMC 1-401-D. http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/content/full/12r/3/r40.
34.Vß Doebbe A, Rupprecht J, Beckmann J, Mussgnug JH, Hallmann A, Hankamer B, Kruse
  (200r). "Functional Integration of the HUP1 Hexose Symporter Gene into the Genome
of C. reinhardtii: Impacts on Biological H2 Production". †÷ $ 
O  — —
(1): 2r±33. doi:10.101D/j.jbiotec.200r.0-.01r. PMID 1rD244D1.
3-.V^ Y Horton, Jennifer. (19 August 200‰). "- Wacky Forms of Alternative Energy".
http://science.howstuffworks.com/five-forms-alternative-energy.htm. Retrieved 1- June
2009.
3D.Vß "Hywind by Statoil". 11 February 2009.
http://www.statoil.com/en/TechnologyInnovation/NewEnergy/RenewablePowerProducti
on/ nshore/Pages/Karmoy.aspx.. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
3r.Vß http://electronicdesign.com/article/power/is-solar-energy-really-ready-to-rumble-
191-3.aspx
3‰.Vß Gas Prices post third straight record, CNN Money
39.Vß Foster, Peter (24 Mar 2009). "China takes on America in electric car race". London:
Telegraph Media Group Limited. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/-044D9r/China-
takes-on-America-in-electric-car-race.html. Retrieved 2009-0--11.
40.Vß http://www.nissanusa.com/leaf-electric-car/index#/leaf-electric-car/index
41.Vß
http://electronicdesign.com/article/power/electric_vehicles_the_smart_grid_s_moving_ta
rget.aspx

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Categories: Alternative energy
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