Cathodic protection for corrosion control of
ships and other steel structures in
seawater
by Alan J Seymour, Extra Master. NACE, AMIRINA
As shipowners and shiprepairers will certainly be aware,
costs of steel repairs resulting from corrosion, particularly
in older and more vulnerable vessels such as tankers and
bulk carriers are a significant proportion of the total
maintenance expenditure. The economic problems of
the industry in recent years have inevitably led to
economies in maintenance budgets and, now the market
has improved, the corrosion problems which have
accumulated will have to be dealt with. In general, the
two major techniques for corrosion protection, coatings
and cathodic protection are complementary to one
another and neither, on its own, can provide the
complete answer.
Cathodic protection — A brief history
Cathodic protection was first practically applied in 1825
when soft iron anodes were installed to provide
protection against corrosion of the copper cladding on
the submerged hulls of sailing vessels.
Later, in the early 1900's, when steel began to be used
as a shipbuilding material in preference to naturally
corrosion resistant iron on the grounds of economy and
better mechanical properties, corrosion of ship's hulls
became identified as a serious problem. The area worst
affected was at the after end of a vessel — an area of high
water turbulence and adjacent to the bronze propeller
which creates a galvanic couple causing pitting of the
adjacent steel. This problem was alleviated by the
installation of zinc anodes around the sternframe and on
the rudder — a practice which continues even today.
Initially, results were varied because it was not
appreciated that purity of the zinc in the finished anode
is vital to it's performance. Contamination of the zinc by
iron or copper will cause the anode to passivate and
become useless. It is vitally important that anodes are
acquired from a reputable supplier whose manufacturing
techniques avoid any possibility of contamination and
whose production methods include routine metallurgical
analysis.
Just prior to the second world war, the Canadian Navy
conducted experiments with the use of magnesium as
an anode metal on the underwater external hull plating
of their destroyers. For the first time, proper design
criteria were established so that results of cathodic
protection were predictable and repeatable.
After the war the Shell Company, finding the costs of
steel repairs prohibitive in the cargo/ballast tanks of
their tankers, researched the application of magnesium
anodes in these tanks and the excellent results they
obtained led to the establishment of the cathodic
protection industry as we know it today.
Subsequent to the Shell research and the adoption of
magnesium as an anode material, use of this metal in
cargo/ballast tanks has had to be abandoned due to its
propensity to cause sparks on impact and to it's property
4 ANTI-CORROSION
of evolving excessive quantities of potentially explosive
hydrogen gas in operation.
Research then shifted to the development of new
alloys of zinc and aluminium which have vastly
increased the electrical capacity of these materials as
well as achieving improved reliability and more negative
electrical potentials which greatly improve their per-
formance.
In parallel with the introduction of aluminium alloy
sacrificial anodes in the late 1950's, the idea was
conceived that low voltage D.C. current could be applied
to inert metals so saving the cost of replacing sacrificial
anodes at regular intervals and indeed, so-called
impressed current systems are now in common use not
only for the external hulls of ships, for the internal
surfaces of cooling water systems both at sea and
ashore, but also for many other applications which will
be discussed later.
Basic principles of cathodic protection
The principle of the simple cell which consists of zinc
and copper electrods immersed in a sulphuric acid
electrolyte is well known. When these electrodes are
interconnected by a conductor, electrical current flows
from one electrode to the other and the zinc corrodes
while the copper does not.
When different metals are immersed in a seawater
electrolyte, they develop individual electrical potentials
which can be measured by a device called a reference
cell. The potential of a metal will govern it's position in a
list called the Galvanic Series. A brief list of the metals
which interests us for present purposes is listed below:
Base end (Anodic) Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminium
Mild Steel
Copper
Noble End (Cathodic) Cupro-Nickel
When any two of the above metals are electrically
connected to each other in seawater, the metal higher in
the list will corrode and the metal lower in the list will be
protected.
The further the metals are apart in the list, the stronger
will be the electric current produced and the greater the
corrosion activity at the anode.
Ship steel, unlike iron which has excellent corrosion
resistance properties, is not an homogenerous material,
being an iron based alloy containing a number of
constituents as well as impurities. Immersed in seawater,
the steel assumes minute potential differences over its
surface with metal loss occurring at the more negative
locations. Thus, tiny corrosion cells are created which
may be aggravated by other factors such as the presence
of mill scale, rust and differences in the level of oxygen in
June 1990
adjacent areas. Once pitting has been initiated, oxygen
concentrations in the electrolyte within the pit will vary
and the corrosion process will accelerate.
Cathodic protection which will halt corrosion of steel
in seawater is achieved by stifling the natural corrosion
cells within the steel. This has been found to occur when
the electrical potential of the steel is shifted by 300 m V in
a negative direction. Against an Ag/Ag CI. reference cell,
unprotected bare steel in seawater will exhibit an elec-
trical potential of about 500 m V when measured by a high
resistance voltmeter connected between the two. If, on
the other hand, the steel is subject to a correct level of
cathodic protection a reading of approximately-800 m V
will be observed.
The desired potential shift could be achieved by
attaching to the submerged steel a suitable quantity of
anodes, which would be made from a metal more base
than steel, such as magnesium, aluminium or zinc.
Alternatively, a similar effect can be obtained by
"Impressed Current", a technique involving the passing
of low voltage DC through an inert material such as
platinum, attached to the steel but insulated from it. The
DC would be derived from a transformer/rectifier
operated from AC mains supply.
In a single piece of steel in seawater, potential
variations leading to corrosion may also occur as a result
of local differences in oxygen availability, temperature,
water velocity and even stress. These variations in
potential can also be suppressed by cathodic protection.
Relative merits of sacrificial/impressed current systems
Impressed current systems involving low voltage DC
being passed through inert, semi-permanent anodes
can be automatically controlled by signals obtained
from reference cells to provide precisely the right
amount of current to achieve protection without
overprotecting. This is useful for the protection of a
ship's outside underwater hull where current demand
will vary with the ship's draft, speed and the salinity/-
conductivity of the sea water. Much more current is
required at speed in warm saline water than would be the
case at slow speed in cold, brackish water and the
surface area requiring protection will be dependent on
the draft.
While zinc and aluminium anodes are capable of some
extent of self-regulating their output, this effect is limited
and impressed current systems may be more effective
and economic than sacrificial anodes for external hull
applications.
A reserve of power can be built into an impressed
current system which might be unwise in a sacrificial
system for fear of possible overprotection which might
damage coatings. The extra power will enable the
impressed current system to compensate for a much
greater coating loss and may prolong intervals between
drydockings.
Sacrificial anodes of aluminium or zinc are re-
commended for protection of the internal surfaces of
seawater ballast tanks in preference to magnesium
which gives off quantities of inflammable gas and is
prone to create incentive sparks on impact. Local over
protection may also give rise to hydrogen enbrittlement
of the steel in areas above and adjacent to anodes.
Impressed current systems are also generally unsuitable
for the inside of tanks since toxic chlorine gas may be
evolved at the anodes when in operation.
A very useful application for magnesium which utilises
its high driving potential is electrolytic de-scaling. This
process employes extruded magnesium ribbon for
removing thick, accumulated rust-scale from the internal
surfaces of ballast tanks. About one metre of strip is
required for every ten square metres of rusted surface.
ANTI-CORROSION June 1990
The material is distributed evenly around the tank
surface and effectively grounded. Seawater ballast is
then introduced and after de-ballasting some five days
later virtually all the scale will have been detached from
the steel. During the de-scaling process hydrogen gas is
produced in quantity so the tank should be well
ventilated and rigorous fire precautions should be
observed.
Cathodic protection systems of all kinds will only
function in the presence of sewater and unless tanks can
be completely topped-up, protection of underdeck areas
will not be achieved. Coatings on deckhead and
adjacent structures are therefore generally to be
recommended.
Another vulnerable area in tanks is the inner bottom
shell plating and adjacent structure where residual water
after de-ballasting, or accumulating from condensation,
will provide an environment conducive to active corro-
sion. Water, settling out from crude oil cargoes in
tankers, probably acidic, compounds the risk of pitting
unless preventative action is taken.
Anodes, probably in conjunction with a coating, can
provide protection provided they are in direct contact
with the shell plating and that electrical resistance
between anodes and steel is kept to a minimum.
Further, if an adequate level of protection in tanks is to
be ensured, clean seawater ballast must be present for
significant proportions of the operating time and for
periods long enough for polarisation, or the required 300
m V potential shift, to be achieved. Short periods in
ballast will require the cathodic protection system to be
augmented while use of fresh or brackish water will
seriously impair the performance of the cathodic
protection system to the point where it might not work at
all.
Cathodic protection monitoring
Reference cells are frequently used to measure the
electrical potential of submerged steel such as a ships
bottom plating. Knowledge of this potential will give an
indication of the strength of corrosion activity or,
alternatively, the level of cathodic protection being
provided. Reference cells are in fact used to control the
output of impressed current systems and hence the level
of cathodic protection provided.
Reference cells in common use by the corrosion may
be high purity zinc, Ag/Ag CI (silver/silver chloride) or
Cu/Cu SO4 (copper/copper sulphate). Each of these
have their own merits in different types of environment.
The effectiveness of a cathodic protection system in
operation can be checked by means of a portable
reference cell, usually in practice, of the Ag/Ag CI type in
conjunction with a high resistance millivolt meter. A
meter having an internal resistance higher than 100
Kohm per volt is recommended for accuracy and
proprietary portable corrosion monitoring meters are
available.
The negative terminal of the meter is well grounded to
the ship's steel while the reference cell, connected to the
positive terminal of the motor is lowered into the
seawater electrolyte adjacent to the area requiring
measurement. If the reading is more negative than -800
m V, indications are that an adequate level of cathodic
protection is being provided. A reading numerically less
will indicate corrosion activity. A number of readings, to
check the potentials over the whole surface being
measured, should be taken and any anomalous readings
should be carefully re-checked as these could provide
an indication of "stray currents", a potential source of
local pitting.
Impressed current systems usually have permanent
reference cells hard wired into them to provide for
5
control of the transformer/rectifier output. These re-
ference cells are normally located only forward and aft
so that additional measurements along the vessel with a
portable unit are to be recommended.
A recent development in corrosion monitoring,
particularly useful for pipelines and offshore platforms
in deep water locations, enables the wiring between
reference cell and meter to be dispensed with and
utilises acoustic telemetry for intercommunication in-
stead. The operator on the surface can call up a specific,
permanently installed underwater reference unit which
will respond with the appropriate potential measurement
for evaluation of the local corrosion situation. This
system in fact incorporates two reference cells. One of
zinc and one Ag/Ag CI. This provides a double check on
the accuracy of individual readings.
Effective cathodic protection systems create alkaline
conditions at the steel cathode so effectiveness can be
checked by pH measurement of the steel immediately
after de-ballasting or docking. A high pH results in the
plating out of calcareous deposits on steel surfaces.
When a tank is dry these become visible as a white
coating resembling cement-wash.
Application of corrosion protection by cathodic
protection
So far we have briefly discussed the use of cathodic
protection for protection of tanks and hulls of ships.The
technique is also widely used for cooling water systems
involving the use of Platinised titanium or silicon iron
anodes, powered by low voltage DC from a transformer/-
rectifier, and installed on the inlet and outlet sides of
condenser boxes to protect covers and tube sheets.
Where such systems have been fitted, it has been
observed that the incidence of fouling has also been
significantly reduced.
As an extension of this technique a system has now
been developed primarily for the prevention of fouling
but also providing a measure of cathodic protection on
the inlet side of seawater cooling systems. Specially
alloyed copper and aluminium anodes are fitted in each
of the seachests and, again, these are provided with DC
power derived from mains supply. In corroding both
anode types provide a measure of cathodic protection to
the internals of the seachest and pipework but in
corroding the aluminium liberates a gel while the copper
produces fine particles of copper. These combine and
flow throughout the length of the cooling water system,
adhering to the internal surfaces and preventing the
growth of crustacea and other forms of marine fouling.
Many steel offshore platforms, which are expected to
remain in place for up to 40 years and therefore cannot
have coatings repaired or replaced, rely exclusively on
cathodic protection for corrosion control. Both impressed
6 ANTI-CORROSION
current systems and sacrificial anodes are in use and
choice of system will depend on weight constraints,
availability of electrical power, and maintenance possi-
bilities as well as the design life and configuration of the
platform.
Larger steel platforms in deep water such as those
located in the North Sea may typically require up to 600
aluminium alloy anodes each weighing up to 500 kgs.
Aluminium would normally be used in preference to zinc
which would require three times more weight to achieve
the same electrical capacity for the system.
Impressed current systems may consist of a com-
paratively large number of relatively small platinised
titanium cantilever anodes or alternatively may employ a
small number of large remote anodes placed on the
seabed at some considerable distance from the platform.
Either choice will be powered from an automatically
controlled transformer rectifier.
Lengthy offshore pipelines, of typically 1.0m diameter,
are normally bitumen coated or wrapped with plastic
tape prior to a concrete weight coating being applied.
This may be up to 75mm thick. As these coatings provide
a high degree of corrosion protection the current
required from the cathodic protection is extremely low.
As weight in this application is an advantage and a long
life is normally required, zinc which has a high efficiency
and low self-corrosion property is usually selected.
Anodes, in bracelet form, are clamped around pipe joints
at pre-determined intervals along the line with electrical
conductivity being assured by thermite welded bonding.
Docks, piers, sheet piling and indeed all steel
structures in seawater are candidates for corrosion
control by cathodic protection and it is the task of the
design engineer to select the most efficient and cost
effective system design out of numerous alternative
possibilities.
Impressed current for ship hulls
Two principle advantages of impressed current over
sacrificial anodes for external hull protection are the
automatic control and reserve capacity. Automatic
control can compensate for variations in seawater
conditions and draught while the additional power
availability means that substantial coating damage can
be catered for.
DC output from the thyristor controlled transformer/-
rectifier is dictated by the potential difference between
the steel hull and reference cells, usually zinc, which are
hard wired into the control unit.
Anodes may be of the surface mounted lead/silver
type or, at the forward end of the ship, fully recessed
elliptical platinised titanium units. Special heavy duty
platinised titanium anodes, fitted into substantial steel
fabrications have been successfuly utilised in icebreakers
operating in arctic Canadian waters.
Cathodic protection system design
Notes and recommendations
If cathodic protection is used in "ballast-only" tanks or
"dry-cargo/ballast" tanks, these should be full of ballast
for at least 40% of the operating time.
If it is used in "crude oil/ballast" tanks or "fuel-
oil/ballast" tanks, these should be full of ballast for at
least 25% of the total operating time.
Cathodic protection should be concentrated in tanks
designated to carry ballast and ballasting of unprotected
tanks should be avoided where possible.
Use of fresh or brackish water for ballast should be
avoided. If this has to be taken on board, it should be
exchanged for clean seawater having an SG of 1.025,
resistivity 25 ohm/cms, as soon as possible.
If ballast voyages are regularly less than 5 days the
June 1990
cathodic protection system should be upgraded by 20%. For a Flat plate anode, clear of structure, both sides
Surface area calculations of tanks should include the active,
entire superficial area sides + bottom + deckhead plus R=
both sides of all stiffeners, brackets, pipelines, ladders
etc. but only 5% of well coated areas.
The anode material should have a potential against For a flat plate anode, one side in contact with the
Ag/Ag CI of -1.0 V or more negative when in operation. structure,
Tanks without under-deck coatings should be kept R=
"pressed-up" whenever they are ballasted.
Tanks which cannot be stripped completely dry
should have an anode fitted in contact with the inner Example
bottom shell plating in every bay, particularly at the after Take a simple rectangular barge 30m long, 10m wide,
end. 3m draft. Painted, but assuming 10% coating
Magnesium anodes should be only in well ventilated breakdown. Operating at low speeds in warm, saline
tanks used exclusively for ballast. seawater having a resistivity of 25 ohm/cms.
Wetted surface area = 2 x 30 x 3 (sides) = 180 sq.m
Recommended minimum cathode current densities 2 x 10 x 3 (ends) = 60 sq.m
when polarised to -800 mV against Ag/Ag CI reference 30 x 10 (bottom) = 300 sq.m
cell should be:- 540 sq.m
Wetted surface area
Peak and top-wing tanks of bulk and 0B0 carriers- 130 mA/m2 Current required = = 8.1 amps
All ballast-ony tanks and cargo/ballast in
Product carriers- 110 mA/m2
Cargo ballast tanks in crude tankers and Selecting a typical flat plate 10 kg zinc anode, length
Double Bottom tanks- 90 mA/M2 40 cm, width 10 cm.
Well coated areas- 5 mA/m2 Resistance (R) = Where
External underwater hull, Newbuilding 12 mA/m2
External underwater hull, Existing ship 15 mA/m2 R= =0.5 ohms
Anode output in amps is calculated by l= 0.2 = 0.4 amps
0.5
Calculating total weight of zinc required for 2 year life
Where E = Difference between anode working system.
potential and steel at -800 m.v (Ag/Ag CI) Weight = 8.1 (Amps) x 2 (years) x 8760 (hours in a
and R = Resistance of the anode to seawater. year)
Anode potentials against Ag/Ag CI 780 (electrical capacity of zinc in amp/hours
Zinc-1.000 V Protected Steel -.800V, Driving Potential .20V per kg)
A1. -1.050 V " " -.800V, " " .25 V Weight = 182 kgs, or 18 pieces of 10 kg. anodes.
Anode resistance in determined from the following:- Check to confirm sufficient current availability
R = Anode resistance in ohms Number of anodes required = 8.1 amps = 20 anodes.
Ro = Seawater resistivity in ohm/cms. 0.4 (anode output)
r = Effective radius of anode when consumed by 20 wil be chosen since the output of individual anodes
40%. (Rod anode) will decrease as they corrode and reduce in size.
L = Length of anode in cms.
B = breadth of anode in cms. Check on anode spacing.
t = Thickness of anode in cms. Distance between anodes should not exceed about
S = Average of length and breadth of a flat plate 6-8m
anode. Length is 30m. so 7 anodes each side will be spaced
5m apart.
Breadth is 10m. so 3 anodes each end, will be spaced
5m apart.
For a slender rod anode where length > 10 x radius, All parameters will be met by the installation of 20
pieces of 10 kg zinc anodes.
Details: Sales/product enquiries: Mr M Thurman,
Wilson Walton International (UK) Ltd., Tel: 0642
614106.
For a short rod anode where length < 10 x radius.

Letter to the Editor Chemical Co Ltd, distributors of VCI packaging products

Dear Sir
We would refer to an article printed in the Anti Corrosion
Methods and Materials, April 1990 issue, wherein
Protective Packaging Ltd of Manchester claim to be the
first to introduce Volatile Corrosion Inhibition (V.C.I.)
polyethylene film products in a bag format.
We would wish to draw to your attention that Hawks
on behalf of the Cortec Corporation, Minneapolis, have
had a broad range of VCI film products available
including heat sealable and re-sealable bags, in the UK
for almost 2 years.
Yours faithfully
D S KAYE
Hawks Chemical Co. Ltd., 89 Buxton Road, Heaviley,
Stockport SK2 6LR. Tel: 061-477 3101.

ANTI-CORROSION June 1990 7