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Chapter 4
SFRA Testing
4.1 Introduction
SFRA is able to detect a number of fault conditions, both mechanical and electrical.
The main application of SFRA is to detect mechanical faults, for which some are
detectable by SFRA only and some are useful to analyze both with SFRA and other
methods for correlation. Electrical faults are often easy to detect using SFRA, but are
also easily detectable by other methods.
Examples of fault conditions that can be detected by SFRA:
Mechanical faults:
• Winding deformations (including hoop buckling).
• Winding movement.
• Partial collapse of winding
• Core displacements
• Broken or loosened winding or clamping structure
Electrical faults:
• Shorted turns or open circuit winding
• Bad ground connection of the transformer tank.
SFRA is often the only method that can detect axial movements of a winding. SFRA
does also detect radial movements, which can be detected by leakage reactance tests
(short-circuit impedance test) as well. It is useful to correlate the two methods to
increase the precision of the result. This is also true for other, especially mechanical,
faults. [16]
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The DETC position should not be moved for an SFRA test until all options are
exhausted. For new transformers in the factory, use the nominal DETC position,
unless otherwise specified by the end-user.
Notes
Leads. Table - 4.1 gives the recommended tests with position of the red lead and
black lead clearly identified. Reversing these test leads may provide small variation in
higher frequency response. Therefore, care should be taken for attaching test leads
appropriately.
Grounding. Good grounds are key to good high frequency responses. Make sure that
grounds are not hampered by loose connections, paint, dirt or grease.
LTC Position. Changing LTC will change SFRA response; LTC position should be
recorded.
DETC Position. Transformers in service occasionally have problems due to DETC
movement. DETC position should not be altered for an SFRA test. The exception is in
factory test on a new transformer, where it can be assumed that the DETC is in
operating condition and tests can be performed on nominal tap. [46]
¾ Two-Winding Transformers
Table 4.1 Two Winding Transformers – 9 Tests [46]
3Ø 3Ø 3Ø 3Ø
Test Type Test Delta- Wye - Delta- Wye - 1Ø
# Wye Delta Delta Wye
HV open Circuit (OC) Test 1 H1-H3 H1-H0 H1-H3 H1-H0
All Other Terminals Test 2 H2-H1 H2-H0 H2-H1 H2-H0 H1-H2(H0)
Floating Test 3 H3-H2 H3-H0 H3-H2 H3-H0
LV open Circuit (OC) Test 4 X1-X0 X1-X2 X1-X3 X1-X0
All Other Terminals Test 5 X2-X0 X2-X3 X2-X1 X2-X0 X1-X2(X0)
Floating Test 6 X3-X0 X3-X1 X3-X2 X3-X0
Short Circuit (SC) Test 7 H1-H3 H1-H0 H1-H3 H1-H0 H1-H2(H0)
High (H) to Low (L) Test 8 H2-H1 H2-H0 H2-H1 H2-H0 Short
Short [X1-X2-X3]* Test 9 H3-H2 H3-H0 H3-H2 H3-H0 X1-X2(X0) *
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*Indicates short-circuit tests where the terminals are shorted together with three sets
of jumpers, to provide symmetry (X1-X2, X2-X3, X3-X1) OR (Y1-Y2, Y2-Y3, Y3-
Y1). The neutral is not included for 3Ø wye connections but may be included for 1Ø
test connections.
¾ Auto Transformers
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¾ Three-Winding Transformers
Table 4.3 Three- Winding Transformers, Part 1 – 18 Tests [46]
3Ø 3Ø 3Ø 3Ø
Test # Delta- Delta - Delta- Delta-
Test Type 1Ø
Delta- Delta- Wye- Wye -
Delta Wye Delta Wye
Test 1 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H3
HV open Circuit (OC) H1-H2
Test 2 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1
All Other Terminals Floating (H1-H0)
Test 3 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2
Test 4 X1-X3 X1-X3 X1-X0 X1-X0
LV open Circuit (OC) X1-X2
Test 5 X2-X1 X2-X1 X2-X0 X2-X0
All Other Terminals Floating (X1-X0)
Test 6 X3-X2 X3-X2 X3-X0 X3-X0
Tert open Circuit (OC) Test 7 Y1-Y3 Y1-Y0 Y1-Y3 Y1-Y0
Y1-Y2
All Other Terminals Floating Test 8 Y2-Y1 Y2-Y0 Y2-Y1 Y2-Y0
(Y1-Y0)
Test 9 Y3-Y2 Y3-Y0 Y3-Y2 Y3-Y0
Short Circuit (SC) Test 10 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H0
High (H) to Low (L) Test 11 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 Short
Short [X1-X2-X3]* Test 12 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2 [X1-X2]*
Short Circuit (SC) Test 13 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H0
High (H) to Tertiary (T) Test 14 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 Short
Short [Y1-Y2-Y3]* Test 15 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2 [Y1-Y2]*
Short Circuit (SC) Test 16 X1-X3 X1-X3 X1-X0 X1-X0 X1-X0
Low (L) to Tertiary (T) Test 17 X2-X1 X2-X1 X2-X0 X2-X0 Short
Short [Y1-Y2-Y3]* Test 18 X3-X2 X3-X2 X3-X0 X3-X0 [Y1-Y2]*
*Indicates short-circuit tests where the terminals are shorted together with three sets
of jumpers, to provide symmetry (X1-X2, X2-X3, X3-X1) OR (Y1-Y2, Y2-Y3, Y3-
Y1). The neutral is not included for 3Ø wye connections but may be included for 1Ø
test connections.
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*Indicates short-circuit tests where the terminals are shorted together with three sets
of jumpers, to provide symmetry (X1-X2, X2-X3, X3-X1) OR (Y1-Y2, Y2-Y3, Y3-
Y1). The neutral is not included for 3Ø wye connections but may be included for 1Ø
test connections.
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As the frequency of the input signal increases, the capacitive effects begin to
dominate and the phase angle quickly becomes close to +90 degrees in the region
above 1 KHz. Now, the attenuation and phase shift of the high frequency sinusoidal
signals passing through the windings are determined by inductive and capacitive
nature of the network. However in the high frequency region, the inductive
characteristics are determined by the leakage flux coupling, and capacitive
characteristics are determined by the various capacitance elements associated with
individual turns. The propagation characteristic of the winding becomes complex as a
result of the many resonance frequencies found in the high frequency range. However,
since the winding resonances become less dependent on the magnetic circuit of the
core, the traces of the three phases converge and become quite similar.
As the frequency increases even further over 100 KHz, the sinusoidal signals travel
mostly outside the winding and reflect the other elements found in the transformer –
e.g. leads, support insulation etc. The magnitude and the phase of the transfer function
in that frequency region are influenced by the inductive-capacitive-resistive nature of
these elements.
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Although most of the low frequency magnitude responses exhibit a typical shape,
there are no typical form responses in the high frequency region. These vary greatly
with the design of the unit.
The impedance of the winding is small, while the impedance of the core to ground is
extremely high. This means that for any input signal, the response is dominated by the
core. By adding a short to the LV side, the effect of the core is removed and the
response is dominated by the windings, which are predominantly inductors at low
frequency with an inductive roll off as frequency rises (Fig.4.2)
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All three phase of a transformer have similar winding inductances, which means their
responses should be similar. [46]
• The input and reference coaxial cables are tapped together near the top of the
bushing. A ground extension is run along the body of the bushing, down to the flange,
to connect the cables shields to the tank. The same principle applies for the response
cable.
An alternative technique, referred to the ‘reverse’ method given below can also be
used.
• The input and reference coaxial cables are tapped together near the flange of the
bushing. The cables shields are connected to the tank using a short lead. A lead
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extension is run along the body of the bushing to connect the signal to the bushing
terminal. The same principle applies for the response cable. [15]
The following sections 4.3.1 to 4.3.4 describe the main FRA test types.
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Example:
3-phase transformer (Y-Δ)
End-to-end (6 tests)
• 3 tests on HV side
• 3 tests on LV side
End-to-end short-circuit (3 tests)
• 3 tests on HV side (with corresponding LV shorted)
Capacitive inter-winding (3 tests)
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• 3 tests from HV to LV
Inductive inter-winding (3 tests)
• 3 tests from HV to LV
If the FRA is performed to evaluate the windings before and after laboratory short-
circuits tests, again the number of tests might be an issue in order to minimize the test
time. In this case, it is suggested to make the end-to-end short-circuit measurements
on the HV windings to include the leakage reactance in the low-frequency
measurements, and to perform the end-to-end open test on the LV side. In the
example shown, it would represent six tests.
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4.6 Conclusion
SFRA has been a key tool in the decision to scrap or reenergize a transformer. To get
value from an SFRA test it is necessary to make sure that the measurements are
credible, which requires good test technique and simple procedures; proper training is
thus essential to control the measurement process. However special care must be
taken both in application of the test to acceptable standards and in interpretation of the
tests results to gain value from the tests themselves.
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