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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
(Unit 1)
INTRODUCTION
Analytic Geometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with the properties,
behaviours and solutions of points, lines, curves, angles, surfaces, and solids by means of
algebraic methods in relation to a coordinate system.

Apparently, Analytic Geometry is a mathematical discipline that focuses initially on the

study of figures on a plane, otherwise known as Plane Analytic Geometry. Secondly, it deals on
the study of solid figures in space, referred to as Solid Analytic Geometry.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650), a philosopher and mathematician, was the man behind
the conception of Analytic Geometry. He discovered the coordinate systems and their
applications to problems of geometry (1637). The utmost contribution of Descartes in the area
of mathematics, paved the way of unifying algebra and geometry, and named it as Analytic
Geometry. This course will only concentrate on Plane Analytic Geometry.

DIRECTED LINE SEGMENT

A directed line is defined as the line, which has a definite sense of direction (indicated
by arrowhead), usually taken as positive and the opposite direction as negative.

A directed line segment is a portion of the line consisting of any two points and the part
between.

Consider the directed line segment in Fig. 1.1

M . .N
Fig. 1.1 Directed Line Segment

Let the end points of a line segment be denoted by M & N. It follows that:

 distance from M to N denoted by MN measured with the sense of direction is

positive.
 distance from N to M denoted by NM measured in the opposite sense of
direction is negative.
 MN & NM are called as directed distances.
If MN = 5, & NM = -5, then MN = -NM

THE REAL NUMBER LINE

A real number line is a directed line with its points corresponding to real numbers.
Recall that the real numbers consist of the positive numbers, the negative numbers and zero.
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Consider real number line in Fig. 1.2. As shown, the direction to the right is taken
positive. A point 0, called the origin is selected and it’s represented by the number (0). The
positive numbers correspond to points in the chosen positive direction from the origin 0 and
the negative numbers correspond to points in the opposite or negative direction from the
origin. Notice that every real number corresponds to one point on the line and conversely,
every point on the line correspond to one real number. This relation of the set of real numbers
& the set of points on a directed line is called one to one correspondence. The number
corresponding to a point on the line is called the coordinate of a point.

∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
-5 -4 -3 - 2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 1.2

THE CARTESIAN COORNATE SYSTEM

The Cartesian Coordinate System, named after the its inventor, Rene Descartes, consists
of two real number lines intersecting at right angles with each other at its points of origin.

The horizontal real number line is called X-axis and the vertical real number line is Y-axis.
Taken together the X & Y-axes are called Cartesian Coordinate Axes and the plane determined
by the coordinate axes is called the Cartesian Coordinate Plane. The plane is divided into 4
quadrants marked I, II, III, IV.

A point P on the Cartesian coordinate system is located by means of ordered pairs of

real numbers (x,y). Taken together, numbers x & y are called coordinates of point P.

An ordered pair of (x,y) is a set of real numbers in which the order of occurrence of the
numbers is significant. Specifically, x is called the abscissa, and y is called the ordinate. For
every ordered pair of real numbers there corresponds only one point in the plane. Conversely,
each point of the coordinate plane corresponds to one definite pair of coordinates.

Fig. 1.3
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DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

The distance between any two points or the length of the line segment connecting the
two points can be determined from the coordinates of the points.

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS WITH EQUAL ORDINATES

Consider the two given points M1 (x1,y1) and M2 (x2,Y2) having the same ordinates, hence
located on the same horizontal line. Let A be a point on the y-axis collinear with M1 & M2.
Assume its location as shown in the Fig. 1.4.
y

d AM1 + M1M2 = AM2

∙ ∙ ∙
M1 M2 x M1M2 = AM2 – AM1
0 d = x2 – x1

Fig. 1.4
Rule:
The length of the horizontal line segment between two points with equal ordinates is
the abscissa of the point at the right side minus the abscissa at the left side.

Example 1: Find the distance between the points P1(-1, 2) and P2(5, 2).

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS WITH EQUAL ABSCISSAS

Now, consider the two given points N1(x1, y1) and N2(x2, y2). It is having the same
abscissas, hence lying on the same vertical line. Let B be a point on the x-axis collinear with N1
& N 2.
y

N2 BN1 + N1N2 = BN2

d
N1 N1N2 = BN2 – BN1
B

0 x d = y2 – y1

Fig. 1.6

Rule:
The length of the vertical line segment between two points with equal abscissas is the
ordinate of the upper point minus the ordinate of lower point.
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Example: 1. Find the distance between the points P1(2, -1) and P2(2, 4).

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS WITH UNEQUAL ORDINATES & ABSCISSAS

We next consider the two given points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2). Let it be located on the
coordinate plane.
y
P2
d y2 – y1

P1 x2 – x1 Q

0 x

Fig. 1.7

Draw auxiliary lines P1Q & P2Q. Notice that a right triangle is formed with the two legs
denoted by (y2 – y1) & (x2 – x1).

Recall the Pythagorean Theorem. The sum of the squares of the perpendicular sides
(two legs) of a right triangle is equal to the square of the hypotenuse. Hence, if d is the distance
between P1 and P2, then,

d2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 or d2 = (x1 – x2)2 + (y1 – y2)2

d = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐 or d = √(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐

This is called the Distance Formula

Example: Find the distance between the points P1(1, 2) and P2(5, 4).

DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT

Line Segment may be divided internally when the point of division is on the line itself,
or externally when the point of division is on the extension

Consider two given points P1 (x1, y1), and P2 (x2, y2) and let the third point P (x, y),
which divides the line segment joining the given points into two parts in a certain ratio. See
Figure 1.10 and Figure 1.11 for Internal & External Division of a line segment respectively.
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Figure 1. Internal Division of Line Segment

Figure 2. External Division of Line Segment

Draw auxiliary lines P1R, PR, P2S, and P1S through R in Fig. 1 and PR,P2S, P1R
through S in Fig. 2, and right triangles are formed. Consider the line segment P1P as
directed starting P1 and terminating at P, and the line segment P1P2 which starts at P1 and
terminates at P2.
𝑃1𝑃
Let the ratio = 𝑘. This ratio will always be positive for both external and internal
𝑃1𝑃2
division of line segment since P1P and P1P2 are measured in the same sense of direction.
Now the coordinates of P can be found by similarity of triangles with consideration of
both Figures 1 & 2. Specifically, in finding the x - coordinate of P:

𝑃1𝑃 𝑥−𝑥1 𝑃 𝑃 𝑥 − 𝑥1
𝑃1𝑃2
=𝑥 , but P 1P = 𝑘 ; 𝑘 =
2 − 𝑥1 1 2 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Solving for x: 𝑥 − 𝑥1 = 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒌(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )

𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒌(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )

MIDPOINT OF A LINE SEGMENT

𝑃1 𝑃 1
When the point of division lies exactly at the middle of the line segment 𝑃1 𝑃2
= 𝑘 = 2 . Let the
point of division P(x,y) be 𝑃𝑚 (𝑥𝑚 , 𝑦𝑚 ).

Now considering the formula:

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x = x1 + k(x2 − x1 )
1
Then, xm = x1 + 2 (x2 − x1 )
1 1
xm = x1 + 2 x2 − 2 x1 )
1 1
xm = x1 + x2 )
2 2
𝟏
𝒙𝒎 = 𝟐
(𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) ***

Similarly, from the formula:

y= y1 + k(y2 − y1 )
1
𝑦𝑚 = y1 + (y2 − y1 )
2
1
𝑦𝑚 = y1 + 2 (y2 − y1 )
1 1
𝑦𝑚 = y1 + 2 y2 − 2 y1 )
1 1
𝑦𝑚 = y
2 1
+ 2 y2 )
𝟏
𝒚𝒎 = 𝟐
(𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 ) ***

EXAMPLE:

1. The line segment joining P1(2, -6) and P2(8, 3) is divided into three equal parts. Find
the point of division nearest to P1.

2. The line segment from P1(-2, -2) to P2(3, 2) is extended twice its own length. Find the
terminal point.

3. Find the midpoint of the line segment joining the points P1(-2, 1) and P2(4, 5).

4. The vertices of a triangle are at P1(1,7), P2(6,-1) and P3(0,3).Find the coordinates of
the midpoints of the sides.

5. The segment from P1 (-1,4) to P2(2,-2) is extended three times its own length. Find
the terminal point.

6. The circle with its center at P(4,-2) has one end of the diameter at (7,2). Find the
coordinates of the other end of this diameter.
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ANGLE OF INCLINATION

Y y

l
I
𝛼
∝
0 x 0 x

Obviously 0° ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 180°

SLOPE OF A LINE

The slope of the line depends on the degree of its steepness In layman's term, it
is defined as "the rise over the run", as shown in Fig. The slope of the line may also
be defined as the tangent of the angle of inclination of the line. Thus, if we denote the
slope of the line as m, then m = tan a.
The slope of a line parallel to the X-axis is zero, 𝛼 = 0° or 𝛼 = 180°. If 0 < 𝛼 < 90°,
the slope is positive; when 90° < 𝛼 < 180° the slope is negative e. When 𝛼 = 90°, tan 𝛼
= ∞, and the idea of slope becomes meaningless.

Fig. Rise and Run of a Sloping Line

SLOPE OF PARALLEL LINES

Lines that lie on the same plane but do not intersect however far they may be
extended are known as parallel lines. Consider two parallel lines l 1 & l2, whose angle of
inclinations is 𝛼1 & 𝛼2 respectively. Also, let m1r be the slope of l1 and m2 be the slope
of l2. See Fig. 11.
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Fig.l1 ll l2

As shown in Fig., the parallel lines l1 & l2 are cut by transversal (the X- axis), and
as such the corresponding equal angles at 𝛼1 & 𝛼2 are formed,
Thus, 𝛼1 = 𝛼 2
Taking tangent to both sides, tan 𝛼1 = tan 𝛼 2
But tan𝛼1 = m1 & tan𝛼2 = m2
Hence,m1 = m2

Therefore, we say that two lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.

SLOPE OF PERPENDICULAR LINES

Two lines are perpendicular ( ) if they intersect at right angles with each other.
Consider two perpendicular lines l1 & l2 with its angle of inclinations of 𝛼1 & 𝛼2 respectively.
Also, let m1 be the slope of l1 & m2 be the slope of l2. See figure.

Obviously, 𝛼2 = 𝛼1 + 90°

Taking tangent in both sides:

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 = tan(𝛼1 + 90°)
From trigonometry tan(𝛼1 + 90°) = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼1
Thus, tan𝛼2 = -cot𝛼1
𝟏 𝟏
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶𝟐 = − 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶 or 𝒎𝟐 = − 𝒎
𝟏 𝟏

Therefore two lines are perpendicular to each other if and only if their slopes are negative
reciprocal.

SLOPE IN TERMS OF COORDINATES

Consider the line joining two distinct points, P1(xt, y1) and P2(x2,y2).
Draw auxiliary lines P1N and P2N, thus forming a right triangle. (See Fig)
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Fig.

𝒎 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶

𝒚 𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒎=
𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

ANGLE FORMED BY TWO LINES

Two intersecting lines form four angles (two pairs actually), in this discussion,
however, we will focus on the angle from one line to another line as the angle through
which the first line is to be rotated in a counter-clockwise direction to make it coincide
with the second. We denote this angle as 𝜃 See figure 14a & Fig. 14b.

Fig. A Fig. B

Recall that in plane geometry, the measure of the external angle of a triangle is
equal to the sum of the measures of the two-adjacent interior angles. So, considering Fig
A, clearly

𝜃 + 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 ; 𝜃 = 𝛼2 − 𝛼1

Taking tangent to both sides

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = tan(𝛼2 − 𝛼1 )
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1
2 𝑚 −𝑚1
2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 1+𝑚
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 2 𝑚1
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EXAMPLE:
1. Show that the points A(4,1), B(2,4), C(-4,0) and D(-2,-3) are vertices of a rectangle.
2. Show that the points A(2,0),B(-1,4) and C(-2,-3) are the vertices of a right triangle.
3. Find angle C of triangle ABC in problem number 2.

AREA OF TRIANGLE BY COORDINATES

Consider a triangle in a coordinate plane with vertices at P1(x1,y1), P2(x2,y2) and

P3(x3,y3). See figure.

P3

P1

P2

0 R S T x

Draw auxiliary lines P1R, P2S and P3T. Obviously, the area of the triangle with
vertices P1P2P3 may be obtained by subtracting from the area of trapezoid P1RSTP3 the
areas of trapezoids P1RSP2 and P2STP3 or

AP1P2P3 = ½ (x3 – x1)(y1 + y3) – ½ (x2 – x1) – ½(x3 – x2)(y2 + y3)

Simplifying the right member:

AP1P2P3 = ½ [𝒙𝟏 (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟑 ) + 𝒙𝟐 (𝒚𝟑 − 𝒚𝟏 ) + 𝒙𝟑 (𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 )]

We will find this to be identical with the expansion of the determinant as follows:

𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝟏
AP1P2P3 = ½ 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝟏
𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 𝟏

It is advisable to arrange the vertices in a counter-clockwise order because the

answer will be positive otherwise it is negative.

Example:
1. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are A(4,1), B(1,2), and C(-5,-1).
2. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (-6,-4), (-1,3) and (5,-3).
3.
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