University of Wisconsin-Madison

College of Letters and Science

Department of Communicative Disorders

A Poor Man's Tour of Basic Electricity and Electronics

Michael R. Chial, Ph.D.
© 1998

INTRODUCTION

Many of the devices we use in clinical and laboratory work are extremely simple: switches, lamps,
connecting cables, and counters. Creating such systems requires very little knowledge, certainly not an engineering
degree. What is required is an understanding a few basic terms and concepts and skill in the use of simple hand tools.
These concepts and tools make it possible to create systems that work by design, rather than by luck or by trial and
error. (Throwing pigment at a canvas may produce a pleasing pattern, but not a landscape.) Creation by design
requires an understanding of basic laws--in the case of landscapes, the rules of perspective and light. And in the case
of simple electronic devices, Ohm’s law and basic electronic circuits. This Tour deals with these concepts.

ENTRY LEVEL SKILLS

Prior to using this Tour, you should be able to do each of the following:

(1) Correctly distinguish between quantities and units of measurement.

(2) Correctly use SI system prefixes to convert quantities expressed by one scale to another
(e.g., from milliseconds to seconds).

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

When you finish this material, you should be able to do each of the following correctly and without help.

(1) Distinguish between DC and AC signals.

(2) Distinguish between conductors and insulators.
(3) Distinguish electron flow from conventional current flow.
(4) State the units and symbols for electric charge, currrent, voltage, resistance, and power.
(5) State and explain Ohm's law for DC signal systems.
(6) Describe simple series circuits and parallel circuits in terms of current and the effects of shorts and
opens.
(7) State the differences between primary and secondary batteries.
(8) Identify male and female connectors of the following types: GR, phone, BNC, Canon, alligator and
RCA (phono).
(9) Draw schematic diagrams illustrating the following switch functions: SPST, SPDT, DPST, DPDT.
(10) Describe the type of solder used in electronics.
(11) List and explain six steps in soldering wires to wires or wires to terminals.
(12) Describe the difference between a short and an open in the context of connecting cables.

ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY

Electricity (more precisely, electromagnetism) is a fundamental force of nature, like gravity and the force
that binds atomic nuclei. The study of electricity is the study of the forces that cause electrons to move, whether in
non-living or living matter. Electronics is the application of knowledge about such forces for practical tasks. Both
have vast implications for society, culture and economics, as well as for the scientific, engineering and clinical
disciplines that use them.

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CHARGE, CURRENT, AND VOLTAGE

Understanding electricity requires knowledge of a few physical laws and a simplified model of atomic
structure. Atoms and molecules contain electrons and protons. Electrons carry charges labeled negative and protons
carry an opposite charge (labeled positive). In normal (non-ionized) matter, these charges balance each other:
positive and negative charges are equal. If forces are applied to matter which cause an excess number of electrons or
protons, that matter has a static (unmoving) electrical charge. Electrical charge is a basic physical quantity, along
with time, mass and length. The symbol for the physical quantity of electrical charge is Q. The amount of the
charge is determined by the number of electrons, and is indexed by the unit coulomb (C), named in honor of Charles-
Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806). One coulomb equals the charge associated with 6.25 x 10 +18 electrons (a lot--
the superscript means “move the decimal 18 places to the right”); the charge of one electron equals 0.16 x 10 -18
coulombs.

Coulomb (the guy) was the first to show by measurement that electrical charges of the same sign (e.g.,
negative and negative) repel each other and that charges of unlike signs (e.g., negative and positive) attract each
other. This pattern of attraction and repulsion creates the potential for movement of electrical charges, i.e., charges
can move from one place to another. A moving (dynamic) charge is called current. The symbol for the physical
quantity of electric current is I or i. The unit for electric current is the ampere (A), named in honor of Andre-Marie
Ampere (1775-1836), who discovered that flowing current creates lines of force. One ampere equals 1 coulomb of
charge moving past a point in 1 second.

Separating electrons and protons to create a charge requires physical work, that is, a force acting through a
distance (force is mass times acceleration). A battery creates a charge (does work) chemically by depositing electrons
on one pole of the battery and depleting them from the other pole. Thus, a difference in electric charge exists
between the two poles of a battery. We also can create electric charge mechanically. Hans Christian Oersted (1777-
1851) discovered that when current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is generated in the region of the wire. Michael
Faraday (1791-1867) discovered that the reverse is also true: when a wire passes through the field created by a
magnet, current flows through the wire. Such a current is induced by motion through a magnetic field. Because the
amount and direction of induced current depend upon motion, this kind of charge is dynamic (moving). These ideas
underpin electric motors and the generation of electricity for use in homes and industry.

Because unlike charges attract and like charges repel, differing charges have different potentials for doing
work, or more precisely for undoing the work that created the difference in charge. This potential energy (or
potential work) is called electromotive force (emf), electric potential, potential difference, orvoltage. Symbols for
this quantity include emf, E, e, and V. The unit for potential difference is thevolt (V), named after Alessandro Volta
(1745-1827). One volt equals the work or enegy required to move 1 coulomb of charge between two points. One
volt also equals 1 joule of energy (1 joule equals 1 newton-meter). Electric potential is required to produce current.

The idea of energy is somewhat elusive. The word “energy” comes from the Greek, meaning “the work
within”. It was first used in 1807 by the British physicist Thomas Young (1773-1829) in an effort to identify a
characteristic of nature that made work possible (“work” is a force acting through a distance). Another Britton,
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) studied energy in the forms of heat and motion. Joule (a brewer by trade) observed
in 1847 that if the heat generated by motion is taken into account, energy remains constant. In other words, energy
is conserved: although energy can be changed from one form to another (e.g., from motion to heat or vice versa), it
cannot be created or destroyed, at least not by ordinary means. This concept later became known as the first law of
thermodynamics: the total amount of energy in a closed system is constant. The second law of thermodynamics
(generalized by Rudolf J. E. Clausius in 1850) states that enegy in a closed system always migrates toward heat--in
other words, entropy (disorder) always increases. In 1905 Albert Einstein (1879-1955) stated his special theory of
relativity which established that energy and matter are intimately connected.

When a moving electric charge does not change direction, it is direct current (DC). An example of a DC
system is a battery-operated flashlight. When current changes direction from positive to negative and back again, it
is alternating current (AC). An example of a small amplitude AC signal is that which causes the loudspeaker of a
portable radio to produce sound. Such signals may cover most of the audio range (from about 60-20,000 cycles per
second (Hertz, abbreviated Hz) and typically have amplitudes ranging from millivolts to a few volts. An example of
a large amplitude AC signal is the current available from wall outlets in the home. This signal has a fixed frequency
of 60 Hz and a nominal amplitude of 117 volts. Figure 1 illustrates DC, AC, and combined DC-AC signals.

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 A B

Amp

C D

Amp

Time Time

Figure 1. Waveforms illustrating direct current and alternating current signals. Panel A is an invariant DC
signal. Panel B changes in magnitude, but because it does not change polarity, it is a DC signal. Panel C shows
an AC signal that periodically changes polarity from positive to negative. Panel D illustrates a signal containing
both DC and AC components.

RESISTANCE: CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Neither direct nor alternating current can flow unless a pathway exists to conduct electrons from one place
to another. Some elements and compounds have more free electrons than others. The less motile the electrons, the
fewer will flow for the same applied EMF. Opposition to the flow of free electrons is resistance. The quantity of
resistance is symbolized by R. The unit is the ohm (Ω , the Greek letter omega), named after George Simon Ohm
(1789-1854) who discovered basic relations among current, voltage and resistance. When 1 ampere of current flows
through 1 ohm of resistance, it produces 0.27 calorie of heat (a more formal definition of the ohm is the resistance of
a column of mercury 106.3 centimeters long with a cross-section of 1/100th of a square centimeter at 0 0 Celsius).
Forms of matter with low resistance are called conductors (e.g., silver, copper, gold, tin, lead and water). Conductors
differ in how well they conduct electricity. Resistance to current flow can be expressed relative to copper, the most
common conductor (Mims, 1988).

Silver 0.94
Copper 1.00
Gold 1.40
Aluminum 1.55
Brass 4.82
Iron 5.80
Stainless Steel 52.94

Forms of matter with very high resistance are called insulators (e.g., glass, air, dry wood, mica and most
plastics). Semi-conductors fall between the two (e.g., silicon treated with impurities for use in transistors and
integrated circuits--ICs). Super-conductors are semi-conductors managed by special methods (e.g., extreme cooling)
to make them highly efficient as conductors.

Fuses are specialized conductors intentionally designed to serve as weak links in electronic and electrical
systems. They consist of conductors whose material and form (diameter) are rated by the amount of current in
amperes (A) they will pass. Larger currents destroy the conductor by over-heating. Thus, fuses limit the amount of

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electric current that can pass through other conductors, wires, or systems. If a fuse blows, that is a signal that
something may be wrong; if this happens repeatedly, potential causes should be investigated. Home electrical
systems typically consist of several branch circuits, each fused at 10, 15, or 20 A. Electronic instruments are fused
at .5, 1.5, or 2.0 A, or some other current determined by the purpose and design of the instrument. Circuit breakers
are fuses made with sandwiches of metal that mechanically deform when heated (i.e., by current flow that exceeds a
specified amount). After current is interrupted, the circuit breaker cools and can be reset mechanically.

CURRENT AND ELECTRON FLOW

A closed electrical circuit consists of (1) a source of potential difference (such as a battery), (2) a conductor
(such as copper wire) to convey current from one side of the voltage source to the other, and usually (3) some sort of
resistance (such as a lamp) that generates heat or otherwise limits current in order to do something practical. A
flashlight is a simple example, represented schematically in Figure 2, where S1 designates a switch and L1
designates a lamp.

Electron Flow

Negative
S1

3.0 v
Battery
L1
Positive

Current Flow

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of a simple flashlight. Electrons flow from the negative pole of the battery,
through a closed switch (S1) and an incandescent lamp (L1), back to the positive pole of the battery.
Conventional current is in a direction opposite to that of electron flow (i.e., from positive to negative).

The labels used to describe the direction of current and electron flow differ. The original assignment of
positive and negative polarities to protons and electrons (respectively) was arbitrary. Electron flow is described by
movement of electrons from a place where there are more to a place where there are less. Conventional current is
described by proton movement. Both electron flow and current always seek a path of least resistance. In the
illustration above, the lamp offers some electrical resistance, causing heat and light. All the current (moving charge)
passes through the lamp. If there were an alternate path between the poles of the battery that offered zero resistance,
the current would take that path and the lamp would not light. If the lamp is burned out (i.e., the conductor is
destroyed because of metal fatigue due to heat), no current flows because the circuit is incomplete.

ELECTRICAL POWER

In the simple flashlight illustration above, flowing electrons (current) accomplish work by providing
illumination. The rate at which work is done is power (work divided by time). The unit of power is the watt,
named after James Watt (1738-1819) and symbolized by the letter W. One watt equals the work done in 1 second by
1 volt of potential difference in moving 1 coulomb of charge. Because 1 coulomb per second equals 1 ampere,
power in watts is equal to voltage (in volts) times current flow (in amperes).

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OHM'S LAW

Relations among current, voltage, and resistance in circuits obey a physical law that is both simple and
rich, fortunately so because without it (and the ability to apply it) our lives would be vastly more primitive than
they are. Formulated by George Simon Ohm in 1827, the DC version of the law bearing his name can be stated as:
voltage (V) equals current (I) times resistance (R).

V=I * R (1)

The units for voltage, current, and resistance are defined above. Given the defining relation of equation (1), we can
calculate any one value if we know the other two.
I = V/R (2)

R = V/I (3)

As noted above, power is equal to the product of voltage and current:

W = V*A (4)

The quantities and units of electricity discussed thus far are summarized in Table 1. Note that commonly
used symbols for quantities do not always correspond to the standardized symbols for units of measurement.

Table 1. Summary of fundamental electrical quantities and units.

Quantity Unit

Name Symbol Definition Name Symbol Definition

physical standard:
Electric charge Q, q (basic quantity) couloumb C charge = 6.25 * 10 +18
electrons
1 C / sec;
Electric current I, i moving charge ampere A
1V/1Ω
the work needed to move
E, e, potential energy or 1 coulomb;
Electric potential emf, V work volt V 1 joule;
1A*1Ω
opposition
Electric resistance R, Ω to electric current ohm Ω 1V/1A
(moving charge)
1 joule / sec;
Electric power P, W work per unit time watt W
1V*1A

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 Ohm's law can be expanded by further substitution for calculations in cases where we know a value for
power, or where we know values for any two of the three terms of Ohm’s law. In the following, the fractional
exponent 0.5 is the same as “take the square root.”

V = W/I I = (W / R) 0.5
V = (W * R) 0.5 I = W/V
R = W / I2 W = I2 * R
R = V2 * W W = V2 / R

As discussed so far, Ohm’s law applies only to DC systems and to AC systems that have a single,
unchanging frequency (e.g., the 60 Hz line current found in homes) . An expanded version of Ohm’s law for AC
signals is similar to that noted above, but mathematically more complex because in AC circuits the total opposition
to current flow is influenced by the frequency with which polarity changes. In AC systems, total opposition to
current flow is called impedance, symbolized by Z and given the unit ohm. Because most AC signals contain more
than one frequency and because they change in frequency (e.g., the pitches of voice or music as sensed by a
microphone or reproduced by a telephone), impedance and other AC quantities are treated either as averages or as
instantaneous values. For reasons related to the mathematics used to describe AC signals, the AC version of Ohm’s
law requires use of trigonometric functions or calculus (strictly speaking, the DC version of Ohm's law is a special
case of the AC version for which the value of frequency is zero). The beauty of Ohm's law is that we can build
mathematical blueprints of electronic devices instead of building the devices themselves. Thus, Ohm's law is the
basis for design. Appendix A gives equations for voltage, current, resistance, and power for both DC and AC
versions of Ohm's law.

SIMPLE CIRCUITS

Ohm's law can be used to explain (i.e., calculate) relations among the four electrical quantities in real
circuits. For the flashlight shown in Figure 2, we can calculate current flow if we know the voltage of the battery
and the resistance of the lamp. If the battery provides 1.5 volts and the lamp has a resistance of 100 ohms, then the
current flowing in the circuit will be 0.015 amperes or 15 milliamperes. The power expended by the flashlight is
equal to 0.0225 watts or 22.5 milliwatts. Such calculations are useful in selecting electronic components (e.g.,
cables, switches, fuses, batteries and lamps) for practical DC circuits.

Electrical circuits are collections of electronic devices connected to do useful things. Circuits behave
differently, depending on their form. The simplest circuits involve serial connections and parallel connections.

Serial connection. In serial circuits, all current flows through each element in the system, regardless of the
resistance or impedance of individual elements. Total voltage is divided among the elements in direct proportion to
the resistance of the individual elements. By Ohm's law, total voltage VT = I * RT, where RT equals the simple
sum of the individual resistances (i.e., RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 +. . .R n). Remove one element and the circuit is
interrupted--no current flows. In homes, fuses or circuit breakers wired in series with power outlets protect against
excessive current. If the fuse blows, current is interrupted. A non-electrical example is a group of children running a
relay race. Each child passes a baton (electron) to the next, proceeding from the first runner to the last. Individuals
may run at different speeds (i.e., have different athletic "potentials"). If one runner drops the baton, the race is
effectively over (i.e., no current flows). Figure 3 illustrates series circuits.

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 S1 S1

1.5 v
Battery
L1
1.5 v
S2 L1
Battery
L2

Figure 3. Simple series circuits. The left-hand schematic illustrates two lamps (L1 and L2) connected in
series with a switch (S1) and a battery. When the switch closes, the same current flows through both lamps.
The total battery voltage is divided among the lamps in direct proportion to their resistance: if they have equal
resistance, they will divide the total voltage equally. If either lamp burns out, no current flows and the
remaining lamp will not shine. The right-hand schematic illustrates a similar circuit, but with two switches
(S1 and S2) and only one lamp (L1). Both switches must be closed for current to flow through the lamp.
Thus, these serial switches amount to a logic equation that says, “if and only if Switch 1 AND Switch 2 are
closed, Lamp 1 will be lighted.”

Parallel connection. In parallel circuits, the source current divides among system elements in inverse proportion
to the resistance (impedance in an AC circuit) of the individual elements. Voltage is the same across each element.
By Ohm's law, total current I T = V / R T, where the reciprocal of RT equals the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual resistances (i.e., 1/RT = 1/R 1 + 1/R 2 + 1/R 3 +. . . 1/R n). If one element is removed, the remaining
circuit remains intact. Power outlets (wallplugs) in homes are wired in parallel: each has the same voltage, but each
can draw different amounts of current (hence power), up to the limit of the fuse. A non-electrical example is the
state lottery. If many individuals (each with varying opposition to wasting resources) participate, the total number
of flowing dollars is inversely related to individual resistances. Figure 4 illustrates parallel circuits.

S1

S2
S1

1.5 v 1.5 v
Battery L1 L2 L1
Battery

Figure 4. Simple parallel circuits. The left-hand schematic illustrates two lamps (L1 and L2) connected in
parallel with each other and in series with a switch (S1). When the switch closes, the same voltage is applied to
each lamp. The amount of current flowing through each lamp is inversely proportional to the resistance of the
lamp: if they have equal resistance, half the total current will flow through one lamp, the other half through the
other lamp. If either lamp is burned out, the other continues to shine. The right-hand schematic shows two
switches (S1 and S2) connected in parallel. If either switch closes, current flows through the lamp, L1. Thus,
these parallel switches amount to a logic equation that says, “if and only if Switch 1 OR Switch 2 is closed,
Lamp 1 will be lighted.”

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 Practical electronic devices typically contain combinations of series and parallel circuits engineered to
accomplish well-defined tasks. Circuits that use AC signals (e.g., radio, television, audio systems) arrange parts to
perform equally complex operations, essentially calculations on signals.

SIMPLE ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

POWER SOURCES

Batteries are the most common power source for small electronic devices. Batteries consist of one or more
cells, each of which is a chemical engine containing two different metals separated by an electrolyte in the form of a
paste or fluid. Electrolytes concentrate free electrons on one of the metal surfaces of the battery. Each metal surface
is attached to a terminal or pole, one labeled positive, the other negative. The schematic symbols for batteries
consist of two parallel lines (see Figure 5). The short line designates the negative pole; the longer line indicates the
positive pole. The number of pairs of lines denotes the number of cells in the battery.

Negative Two-Cell
Pole 3.0 v
One-Cell Battery
1.5 v
Battery Four-Cell
Positive 6.0 v
Pole Battery

Figure 5. Schematic symbols for batteries. Each pair of parallel lines is one cell. The negative pole or
terminal of the battery is shown by the shorter line.

Supermarket displays make it obvious that batteries come in a range of sizes and voltages. So-called
"transistor" batteries (rated at 9 volts) are designed for applications that require relatively small currents. Standard 1.5
volt sizes are designated by letter, from relatively large D cells, to smaller C cells, to smaller AA cells, to even
smaller AAA cells, and the tiny N cell. Even smaller are the batteries designed for watches and hearing aids.
Physically larger batteries supply more current for longer periods. Batteries differ in other ways, too.

Primary batteries are the most common, in part because they are designed to be used, then discarded (e.g., in
flashlights, toys, tape recorders, cameras, watches, calculators, hearing aids, etc.). Primary batteries are not
rechargeable. Most commercially available primary batteries consist of single cells and provide 1.5 volts per cell.
These can be combined in series (to produce a total voltage equal the the sum of the individual batteries), or in
parallel (to produce a total current capability equal to the sum of the individual batteries). Different materials produce
different characteristics. For example, carbon-zinc units (1.5 volts per cell) are inexpensive; alkaline units (1.5 volts
per cell) provide greater currents (e.g., for devices containing motors and incandescent lamps); mercury batteries (1.4
volts per cell) give uniform voltage during use; and lithium batteries (3.0 volts per cell) offer a very long storage life
and relatively high voltage in a small package.

Secondary (storage) batteries can be recharged many times. Lead-acid batteries (2.0 volts per cell) provide
very high current and operate well at low temperatures. Thus, they are used in cars, boats, and other vehicles.
Nickel-cadmium batteries (1.2 volts per cell) have long storage life when discharged, but present “memory” problems
when recharged without being fully discharged. Nickel-hydride batteries are similar to nickel-cadmium, but lack the
“memory” problems of older technology devices.

Some safety issues should be mentioned about batteries. Batteries should not be heated or burned. This
includes soldering to battery terminals (soldering requires high heat--see below). Nor should the terminals of a battery
be directly connected to each other (i.e., shorted). Primary batteries should not be charged, but they should be
removed from equipment that is not being used--they may leak and damage their containers. Because batteries
contain toxic materials, they should be stored (or discarded) so they cannot be eaten or inhaled by children.

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 Battery eliminators are devices powered by household current. Internal components transform relatively
large voltage (117 volts) alternating current into one or more smaller DC voltages that simulate particular battery
configurations. Examples include 12 volts (the same as eight carbon-zinc cells), 9 volts (the same as six carbon-zinc
cells), 6 volts (the same as four carbon-zinc cells), and so forth. Battery eliminators have the advantage of long use-
life, but they are less portable than batteries. Indeed, they require a power outlet. Because these devices require
household current, and because they usually lack protective fuses, they present potential risk if used with
inappropriately or carelessly. In most cases, the risk is not great, but in others (e.g., a child who twists or chews a
power cord) the results can be serious.

Most electronic devices designed for connection to power outlets contain circuits that convert AC line
voltage into the DC signals required to operate other circuits internal to the devices. These specialized circuits, called
power supplies, typically consist of transformers (which convert 117 v line current into other voltages), rectifiers
(which change 60 Hz AC voltage into a changing DC voltage), filters (which smooth most of the remaining
variations in voltage), and regulators (which stabilize voltage output). Power supplies are can supply more power
than batteries and differ greatly in complexity, size, and cost.

CONNECTING DEVICES

Cables are conductors designed to carry electrical signals from one device to another. Such signals may be
AC or DC; they may serve functions of control or communication, or they may carry the information of primary
interest in measurement. Connectors are the mechanical means by which cables are attached to devices or other
cables. When cables and connectors interconnect points, those points are electrically identical, even though they
may be physically separated. Adapters are specialized connectors that allow changing from one type of connector to
another.

Cables, connectors, and adapters have one, two or more electrical conductors. Multiple conductors are
electrically isolated from each other by insulating material. Most commonly, connectors have two conductors of
different polarity: a signal positive or "high" conductor, and a signal ground, negative or "low" conductor. In audio
work, it is common to use three conductors, where the third is a neutral shield, sometimes called a system or
instrument ground with the purpose of isolating the cable from stray electromagnetic radiation produced by
instruments, transducers, motors, lighting fixtures, etc. Another common three-conductor cable system is used for
stereo applications (two signal lines, right and left, share a sole signal ground). Co-axial cable is so called because it
contains two or more conductors that share a common "axis," i.e., the conductors are physically joined and parallel
to each other.

CABLES

Cables are designed with wires that differ in diameter (measured via the American Wire Gauge-AWG-
standard; larger AWG numbers indicate smaller diameter wire), depending on the amount of current to be carried by
the wire (thicker wires are used for larger currents), and by the amount of resistance acceptable for a particular
application (thicker wires offer less resistance). A two-conductor, coaxial cable commonly used for audio and video
work, designated RG-59/U, is illustrated in Figure 6. Conductor A is a solid copper wire. Conductor B is made thin
copper wire braided into a cylinder that surrounds the inner insulation. Alternatives for audio work include cable
with three conductors: two for the electrical signal and a third (called a shield) which is connected to ground. Such
cable is used for microphones and in other situations where there may be stray electromagnetic fields that might
interfere with transmission.

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 A. Coaxial Audio Cable B. Lamp Cord

Outer Inner
Insulation Insulation Insulation

Conductor A Conductor B
(Signal Positive) (Signal Negative or Ground) Conductors

Figure 6. The left panel illustrates coaxial cable with two conductors. Typically, the inner conductor (A) is
solid wire and the outer conductor (B) is braided wire. The two conductors are separated by insulating material
and the entire cable is encased in an insulating jacket. The right panel illustrates lamp cord or “zip cord” of the
type commonly used for appliances. Each conductor consists of many individual strands of copper.

Another common cable illustrated in Figure 6 is lamp cord (also called "zip-cord") consisting of two
conductors, each made up of a separate bundle of fine wires separated by rubber or plastic insulation. Lamp cord is
available in various AWG diameters and is used with loudspeakers, electric lights, and other devices moved from
place to place (stranded wire is mechanically more robust). Many power extension cords used to bring AC power
from electrical outlets to electronic devices employ three conductors, one of which is connected to earth-ground for
safety reasons. Most (not all) power cords code conductors with colored insulation: white for positive, black for
negative, and green for earth-ground. All three conductors are packaged in a black outer sheath. Another common
cable, hook-up wire (usually a single solid copper conductor in gauges ranging from 22 to 18), is used inside devices
where mechanical stress is unlikely to harm the conductor. Stranded hook-up wire is used whenever motion and
stress might damage solid-core cable.

CONNECTORS

Connectors are attached to the ends of cables, or to the panels of instruments (the latter are called bulkhead
connectors). Connectors are of two forms: male, with protruding contacts; and female, with recessed contacts.
Male connectors also are called plugs; female connectors also are called jacks. In most cases, the connectors on
cables are male, while bulkhead connectors are female. Connectors are attached to cables by stripping off insulation
and soldering, or (for some types of connectors) with crimping tools designed for specific types of connectors. Most
electronic instruments are designed to be connected in parallel with each other, not in series. Some connectors are
mechanically pre-polarized--designed so that correct mechanical connection automatically produces proper signal
connection (i.e., positive-to-positive and negative-to-negative).

Connectors exist in many designs, usually distinguished by abbreviations based upon the names of the
companies that originally developed them (e.g., "GR" connectors developed by the General Radio Corporation).
Some designs are available in different sizes, usually distinguished by diameter. See Figure 7.

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 Phone

BNC

RCA
GR Alligator
(Phono)
Canon

Figure 7. Illustration of selected connectors designed for attachment to cables. All are male plugs.

1. GR (for General Radio Corporation) connectors, also called banana plugs because of appearance. Most
often these are built in pairs (thus, dual-banana), but they also are available as single-conductor
connectors. GR plugs may have labels to designate which contact is signal ground, but they are not
mechanically pre-polarized. Most GR connectors are both male and female. GR connector contacts are
silver in color; the insulated housing may be black or some other color.

2. Phone connectors were developed by the Bell System in the days of manual telephone switchboards.
Today they are used to connect microphones to other equipment, and to connect earphones to amplifiers,
stereo pre-amplifiers, and audiometers. Phone connectors may be two-conductor (one channel) or three-
conductor (two channel or stereo) devices. In the one-channel form, the tip of the plug is one conductor
(signal) and the shaft is the other (signal ground). In the two-channel form, a ring near the tip
accommodates an additional conductor. Two sizes are common (for both mono and stereo plugs): 1/4-
inch diameter and 1/8-inch diameter.

3. BNC (for Berkeley Nucleonics Corporation) connectors are two-conductor devices. The male conductor
has a rotating outer shell containing slots that mechanically latch to pins on the neck of the female
connector. BNC connectors are mechanically pre-polarized and usually silver in color. A thin center pin
is for signal; the outer portion of the connector is signal ground. Most electronic test instruments are
equipped with female BNC connectors. Home television signal distribution systems (TV cable) use
connectors similar to BNC connectors, but with screw threads rather than latch pins.

4. Canon or XLR connectors are three-conductor devices used exclusively with microphones. This
connector uses conductors numbered 1 (signal), 2 (signal ground), and 3 (shield or instrument ground).
XLR connectors are common in professional recording applications to eliminate spurious
electromagnetic noise.

5. Alligator clips are spring-loaded connectors with gripping teeth used for temporary connection between
test equipment (such as voltmeters) and electronic components. One-conductor, non-polarized connectors,
they are available in several sizes.

6. RCA (for Radio Corporation of America) connectors are two-conductor devices, also called phono (for
phonograph) connectors. Because these are commonly used with home-entertainment stereo gear, RCA
cable assemblies often contain two sets of conductors. They also are commonly used with home video
cameras and recorders. RCA connectors are pre-polarized and available in various colors.

Many other connectors exist for specialized applications, most of which also require specialized cables. For
example, contemporary telephone systems employ pre-polarized plastic connectors with either four or six contacts.
These are designed for attachment to light-gauge (low voltage) cable used in residential and commercial telephone
installations, to interconnect computers linked together in local networks, and to connect MODEMs ( modulator-
demodulators, devices which allow widely separated computers to communicate with each other over telephone lines)
to computers and to telephone systems. Telephone connectors (designated RJ-4 and RJ-6 to distinguish numbers of
conductors) are attached to flat telephone cable with a crimping tool designed for that purpose. Still another class of

Page 11
connectors is used to connect computers to printers and other peripheral devices. These differ in numbers of contacts
(typically between three and 36) dictated by the details of the circuits with which they are used. The major reason
why there are so many different specialized connectors is to prevent incompatible devices from being inadvertently
connected to each other.

ADAPTERS

Adapters convert the form or function (or both) of dissimilar connectors to allow complete signal paths.
Like connectors, they are designated by sex, size, and configuration. Another purpose of adapters is to allow
splitting or branching of signals. Some common adapters are (1) female BNC-to-male 1/4-inch phone, (2) female
BNC-to-male RCA, (3) male BNC-to-dual female BNC, or "T," (4) female BNC-to-female BNC, and (5) female
BNC-to-GR.

SWITCHES

Switches route current from one place in a circuit to another. Although they come in a wide variety of
sizes and shapes, most switches perform one of the four basic functions noted in Figure 8. These functions may be
implemented in various ways. Among the most common are mechanical switches activated with toggles, buttons or
rockers. These accomplish switching by physical motion of solid conductors. Other switches (e.g., those used in
home thermostats) use a liquid conductor (mercury). Others are activated by electromagnets (e.g., solenoids and
relays). Switches provide either momentary or non-momentary closure of contacts. Momentary switches employ
springs or other devices so that electrical contact is made only as long as the switch is mechanically activated. Still
other switches function electronically by means of diodes, transistors or integrated circuits. In general, electronic
switches use an electrical signal (typically a voltage) to “gate” current flow. Electronic switches are available which
respond to light, heat, motion, proximity to people or objects, or other physical events. Switches are rated for the
maximum current and voltage allowed by their design and construction.

SPST SPDT

S1 S2

DPST DPDT

S3 S4

Figure 8. Schematic illustrations of four common switch functions. Switch 1 (S1) illustrates a single-pole,
single-throw (SPST) switch such as those found in table lamps and most simple home appliances. Switch 2
(S2) is a single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) switch capable of routing current to one of two paths. Switch 3
(S3) is a double-pole, single-throw (DPST) device capable of simultaneously turning on each of two circuits
(e.g., a tape recorder motor and a lamp that indicates the recorder is turned on). Switch 4 (S4) is a double-pole,
double-throw (DPDT) switch for more complex applications.

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SIGNALING COMPONENTS

Devices activated by mechanical switches include battery-powered lamps, sound makers, small toys, and
entertainment systems (e.g., radios and tape players). More complex remote signaling components switch house
current to operate lamps and appliances. Other remote systems control internal functions of home entertainment
gear. These include remote controls based on visible light, infrared light, or radio-frequency transmission.

Lamps are based upon different principles--hence they have different characteristics and applications.
Incandescent lamps intended for DC operation produce illumination through heating of metal filaments placed in a
vacuum. These are available in voltages ranging from about 1.5 volts to 28 volts. They also come in a variety of
packaging styles, the major feature of which is the size of the glass envelope and the base of the lamp (e.g., screw
thread, bayonet, spring lead, etc.) Neon lamps produce light by electronic excitation of various gases (e.g., argon,
mercury vapor, sodium vapor, neon) and typically require 117 volt alternating current (AC). Light emitting diodes
(LEDs) are designed for low-voltage, low-current applications and produce light in colors determined by their
construction materials. Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) use substances that change from transparent to opaque when
subjected to current. Like LEDs, they require small voltages and use little current. Lamp holders are available
(some with colored lenses) to accept these and other lamps.

Sound makers for battery operation also can be used as signaling or alerting devices. These use various
principles of operation and various voltages (e.g., from 3 to 28 volts). Examples include buzzers, bells, chimes,
tone generators, and noise generators.

Counters operated by switch closure to different voltages (6, 12 or 28 volts) can be used to tally events.
Electromechanical counters contain numbered tumblers that advance when internal electromagnets are activated by
current (Oerstead's discovery--see above). The counter is reset with a mechanical pushbutton. Integrated circuit
counters use lower voltages (e.g., 3, 5, or 9 volts) and are based on digital techniques. These usually drive LED or
LCD indicators. The two classes of counters cannot be interchanged.

A host of other electronic components are used to construct circuits. These include passive devices such as
resistors, capacitors, and inductors (coils), as well as active devices such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.
Passive electronic components act on signals directly without the need for additional controlling voltage; active
components use external electric power to modify signals (e.g., to amplify, attenuate, filter, modulate, or perform
some other operation).

Most signaling components have screw lugs (for mechanical attachment of wires) or hook-up wires that can
be manually soldered to switches and other components. Other electronic components have wire leads designed to be
placed in sockets, or to be connected to other devices by hand soldering or automated soldering.

Switches and cables often are used to turn things on and off--things like lamps, buzzers, small motors,
radios, tape recorders, toys, telephones, counters, kitchen appliances, and computers. Common applications include
signal routing (e.g., from a tape recorder to one of two channels of an audiometer), and simple communication (e.g.,
between an examiner and client or subject). Similarly, such systems can be combined with signaling devices for use
persons with physical disabilities to help them (1) attract the attention of others when assistance is needed, (2) assert
themselves in social situations, (3) use Morse code communication, (4) exchange opinions, ideas, and feelings, (5)
practice specific motor training, and (6) control environmental devices that enhance independence.

SOLDERING

PURPOSE

Soldering is the process of bonding metal parts together by heating the parts, melting an alloy of tin and
metal (called solder) onto those parts, and then allowing the melted alloy to harden. Soldering serves two purposes:
(1) to provide a low-resistance electrical connection among the leads of electronic parts such as switches, cables and
connectors; and (2) to provide a firm mechanical connection among the components. Good soldering technique
requires attention to the tools and materials used to for these purposes.

Page 13
TOOLS

The metal alloy used for soldering electronic parts is usually 60% tin and 40% lead. This 60/40
combination melts at a temperature of about 370 degrees Fahrenheit (different proportions of tin and lead have
different melting points), a low enough temperature to minimize potential damage to the parts being soldered. At
cooler temperatures, 60/40 solder becomes plastic (pliable), then solid. At temperatures above the melting point,
solder is liquid. Solder designed for use in electronics looks like silver wire wound around a spool. The wire is
actually a hollow tube, containing liquid flux, a substance that chemically removes any oxide from the metal parts to
be soldered. When the solder melts, the flux is released to clean the metal parts. Acid once was used as flux; more
common today is non-corrosive rosin. Solder intended for other applications (e.g., plumbing and hobbies such as
stained-glass) should never be used for soldering electronic components.

Some additional tools are necessary or useful for soldering: a small vise to hold components during
soldering (and to avoid burned fingers); a combination wire-cutter and wire-stripper; a long-nosed pliers (also called
needle-nosed) for bending wires; steel wool or sandpaper (for cleaning large oxidized surfaces); and a spring-loaded
heat sink to protect delicate components (e.g., transistors) from over-heating.

TECHNIQUE

In manual soldering, heat is applied by means of a soldering iron, an electrical hand tool consisting of a
power cord, a handle, a heating element, and a tip. Most common are those that look like fat pencils. Soldering
irons come in different sizes and different electrical powers. Both physical size and power (in watts) are directly
related to the amount of heat produced by the iron. Most electronic work is done with irons rated between 20 watts
and 40 watts that generate temperatures between about 700-900 degrees Fahrenheit. The tips of soldering irons are
usually in the shape of chisels, cones, or pyramids, depending upon the work to be done. More expensive units have
variable temperature controls or thermal regulators. The tips, made of copper and plated with other metals, must be
tinned (coated with solder) before the iron can be used. During soldering, the tip must be cleaned frequently by
wiping it on a damp sponge or rag. This removes dirt and excess solder. Use stands as resting places for soldering
irons to avoid burning work surfaces (and yourself). Soldering irons must be unplugged when not in use.

Most soldering involves bonding one wire to another wire or to a lug of some sort. This can be done in a
few simple steps as illustrated in Figure 9. First, prepare the wire by cutting and removing about a half-inch of
insulation from the end of the wire. Tin the exposed wire by heating it, then applying a thin film of solder. Next,
bend the exposed length of wire into a hoop or hook and insert it in (or wrap it snugly around) the lug. Periodically
clean the tip of the iron by wiping it on a damp sponge or rag. Touch the tip of the soldering iron to both the wire
and the lug. Do this for 3-5 seconds to heat both surfaces at the same time. Now apply the solder to the side of the
joint opposite the tip of the soldering iron. The heated parts will melt the solder and cause it to flow around the
junction of wire and lug. Hold the tip to the work only long enough for the solder to melt and flow around the
joint, using only enough solder to cover the joint. Finally, remove the tip from the work, keeping the work
immobile for the 5-10 seconds needed for the solder to solidify.

Good solder bonds are shiny and smooth, conforming to the shape of the wire-lug junction. Poor bonds are
lumpy, crystalline or grainy. Too little heat causes a residue of rosin--a brownish stain, sometimes with a lump of
solder on top of the junction. This may result in a cold-solder joint in which the electrical connection is very poor.
Too much heat (and too much solder) can produce another flaw, a solder bridge, in which solder unintentionally
flows to connect other wires, leads or lugs. Too much heat also can melt the electronic components being soldered.
Unsoldering can be done with a special desoldering bulb consisting of a hollow, heat-resistant tube inserted in a
squeezable rubber bulb. The solder is melted and the bulb is used to suck solder away from the connection.
Another method is to use flux-coated desoldering braid, made with very fine wires woven together in a pattern that
absorbs liquid solder. A section of braid is placed on the connection, then heated. The melted solder flows into the
braid by the action of the flux. For larger connections, still another desoldering technique is to use a long-nose
pliers to lift wire away from heated solder. Each method requires several attempts to complete desoldering.

Page 14
 Strip and Tin
1 Cable

1/2-inch

2 Bend Cable

Secure Cable
3 to Lug

Solder Lug
Terminal Strip

Apply Iron to Soldering Iron

4
Work (3-5 Sec)

60/40
Rosin-Core
Solder

Apply Solder
5 to Opposite
Side of Work

Hold in Place
&
6
Allow to Cool
(5-10 sec)

Figure 9. Illustration of solder technique for bonding a solid-core wire to a lug terminal. See text for
explanation of the six steps noted above.

Page 15
 Another very common application of soldering is to attach a connector to the end of a cable. Although the
procedures just described also apply to such work, a few additional pointers are useful. Most coaxial cables employ
two or more conductors, one or both of which may be multi-stranded or braided wire. Before multi-stranded
conductors are soldered, they should be twisted to form a single “wire” which should be heated and tinned with a
soldering iron. Any protective housing should be placed on the cable before soldering the cable to the connector.
Because most cables used with connectors contain two or more conductors, and because attachment usually must be
accomplished in a confined space (i.e., the solder joints will be covered by a protective housing), special care must
be taken to avoid solder bridges. One way to do this is to isolate the two finished solder connections with a small
tab of insulating electrical tape. Another is to use heat-shrink tubing. Heat-shrink tubing (available in different
diameters) can be slipped over wire prior to soldering. After the work is soldered, the tube is slipped over the joint
to be insulated. When the tubing is heated with a match or soldering iron, it shrinks to a tight fit around the joint.

PROBLEMS WITH CABLES, CONNECTORS AND SWITCHES

The two most common problems with these devices are shorts and opens. A short happens when current
flow is present, but should be absent. An open happens when current flow is absent, but should be present. In the
coaxial cable illustrated in Figure 6, current should flow through conductor A and through conductor B; if it does not
flow through one or the other conductor, that conductor is open (interrupted). Similarly, current should not flow
between conductors A and B; if it does, the two conductors are shorted. Such flaws may be intermittent, occurring
only with mechanical displacement. They often happen because of poor soldering technique (cold-solder joints or
solder bridges) or physical abuse (e.g., disconnecting a cable by pulling the cable instead of the connector).
Appendix B gives hints for troubleshooting problems with cables and connectors used for electronic measurement.

Shorts and opens usually cannot be found by visual inspection. Instead, a Volt-Ohm-Milliameter (VOM) is
used to check electrical continuity. A VOM is a device that measures potential difference, resistance, and current.
Electrical continuity is checked by measuring the electrical resistance between the various conductors of cables or
connectors without any power applied to the circuit (i.e., with batteries disconnected). Resistance is indexed by the
position of a needle on a meter face, or by a numerical display. If the resistance is low where it should be low and
high where it should be high, then all is well. If resistance is low where it should be high, a short exists; if
resistance is high where it should be low, an open exits. Some VOMs have circuits that produce an audible signal
when resistance is less than some nominally small amount (e.g., 200 ohms).

SUGGESTED REFERENCES

Adams, H. (1974). SI Metric Units: An Introduction, Rev. Ed. Toronto, ON: McGraw-Hill Ryerson,
Limited.
Cleary, A. (1977). Instrumentation for Psychology. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Cudahy, E. (1988). Introduction to Instrumentation in Speech and Hearing. Baltimore, MD: Williams and
Wilkins Co.
Curtis, J., and Schultz, M. (1986). Basic Laboratory Instrumentation for Speech and Hearing. Boston, MA:
Little, Brown and Co.
Grob, B. (1977). Basic Electronics, 4th Ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Mims, F. M. (1986). Engineer's Mini-Notebook: Basic Semiconductor Circuits. Fort Worth, TX: Radio
Shack, Inc.
Mims, F. M. (1985). Engineer's Mini-Notebook: Digital Logic Circuits. Fort Worth, TX: Radio Shack,
Inc.
Mims, F. M. (1988). Engineer's Mini-Notebook: Formulas, Tables and Basic Circuits. Fort Worth, TX:
Radio Shack, Inc.
Mims, F. M. (1985). Engineer's Mini-Notebook: Op Amp IC Circuits. Fort Worth, TX: Radio Shack, Inc.
Mims, F. M. (1986). Engineer's Mini-Notebook: Opto electronic Circuits. Fort Worth, TX: Radio Shack,
Inc.
Mims, F. M. (1990). Engineer's Mini-Notebook: Science Projects. Fort Worth, TX: Radio Shack, Inc.
Mims, F. M. (1984). Engineer's Mini-Notebook: 555 Timer IC Circuits. Fort Worth, TX: Radio Shack,
Inc.
Radio Shack. (1972). Electronics Data Book. Fort Worth, TX: Radio Shack, Inc.

Page 16
 APPENDIX A

Table A-1. Ohm's law equations for direct current (DC) circuits.

Known To Calculate To Calculate To Calculate To Calculate

Values I R V W

I & R I*R I2 * R

I & V V/I V*I

I & W W / I2 W/I

R & V V/R V2 / R

R & W ( W / R )0.5 ( W * R )0.5

V & W W/V V2 / W

NOTE: I = current, R = resistance, V = voltage, W = power.

Table A-2. Ohm's law equations for alternating current (AC) circuits.

Known To Calculate To Calculate To Calculate To Calculate

Values I Z V W

I & Z I*Z I2 * Z * cos θ

I & V V/I V * I * cos θ

I & W W / I2 W / ( I * cos θ )

Z & V V/Z ( V2 * cos θ) / Z

Z & W ( W / (Z *cos θ)) 0.5 ((W * Z) / cos θ ) 0.5

V & W W / (V * cos θ) (V2 cos θ) / W

NOTE: I = current, Z = impedance, V = voltage, W = power, θ (theta) = phase angle.

Page 17
 APPENDIX B

TROUBLE-SHOOTING GUIDE: ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT

SYMPTOMS POTENTIAL CAUSES REMEDIES

1.00 No signal. 1.01 Signal source (SS) is not turned on.
1.02 Measuring device (MD) is not turned on.
1.03 SS controls are set out of range of MD.
1.04 MD controls are set out of range
(too sensitive or insensitive).
1.05 Incorrect connectors are being used.
1.06 Connector polarity is incorrect.
1.07 Cables are not attached to proper points
(ports or terminals).
1.08 Cable, connector, or adapter is "open"
or shorted.
1.09 Other.
Check power plug and power
switches; check fuses.
See 1.01.
Reread instructions; consult
SS manual; vary positions
of SS controls.
Reread instructions, consult
MD manual; vary positions
of MD controls.
Check connector type and "sex"
Verify that contacts are properly
mated (e.g., ground connected
to ground).
Reread instructions; trace routing
of signal: verify that outputs
"feed" inputs, not other outputs.
Gently jiggle cable or connector;
test continuity with ohmmeter;
replace defective units.
Ask for help.

2.00 Intermittent 2.01 SS is unstable. See 1.03.

signal. 2.02 MD is unstable. See 1.04.
2.03 Cable, connectors, or adapter is "open"
or shorted. See 1.08.
2.04 Other. Ask for help.

3.0 Wrong signal. 3.01 SS is improperly adjusted. See 1.03.

3.02 MD is improperly adjusted. See 1.04.
3.03 Cables are not attached to proper See 1.07
points (ports or terminals).
3.04 Other. Ask for help.

4.0 Signal present at 4.01 See 1.0. See 1.0.

some points, but 4.02 Other. Ask for help.
not at others.

5.0 Signal is distorted 5.01 SS output level is set too high. See 1.03.
(visual or auditory). 5.02 SS output signal is incorrect. See 1.03.
5.03 MD input sensitivity is too great. See 1.04.
5.04 SS and MD are improperly matched in function. See 1.03 and 1.04.
5.05 Cables are not connected to proper points See 1.07.
(ports or terminals).
5.06 Other. Ask for help.

Page 18