Banner image

Forest Service Home

About the Forest Service
News
Jobs
Maps
Help
Contact Us

Search
Browse by Subject

Research Programs
Themes
Units
Lands
Facilities
Special Programs
Publications & Data
Tools & Applications
Locations
Scientists & Staff
About NRS
Partnerships
NRS News

Contact Information

Northern Research Station

11 Campus Blvd., Suite 200
Newtown Square, PA 19073
(610) 557-4017
(610) 557-4132 TTY/TDD
You are here: NRS Home / Research Programs / Forest Disturbance Processes / Air,
Water, and Soils Pollution
Forest Disturbance Processes
Air, Water, and Soils Pollution

Air pollution has been a serious problem for the forests of the Northeast
(especially those at high altitudes), which are downwind of the industrial
heartland. The chief agent of environmental damage is acid deposition, or acid rain
as it is commonly known. This phenomenon occurs when emissions of sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and
oxidants to form various acidic compounds. These compounds then fall to the earth
in either dry form (such as gas and particles) or wet form (such as rain, snow, and
fog). Thus, polluted air can damage trees directly in the dry form or indirectly
through its affects on the chemistry of water and soils and by making trees more
vulnerable to other biological and environmental stressors. More specifically, acid
rain weaken trees by damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to
them, or exposing them to toxic substances slowly released from the soil. Acid rain
that flows into streams, lakes, and marshes also has serious ecological effects. In
watersheds where soils do not have a buffering capacity, acid rain releases
aluminum, which is highly toxic to many species of aquatic organisms, from soils
into lakes and streams. NRS scientists are study the problems of pollution at many
levels, from cellular biochemistry to landscape-level ecology.
Selected Research Studies
[photo:] Two-year-old poplar root system following harvesting of a field testing
cycle during phyto-recurrent selection.Phyto-Recurrent Selection: A Method for
Selecting Genotypes for Phytotechnologies
The success of certain phytotechnologies has prompted the use of wastewaters as a
combination of irrigation and fertilization for woody crops such Populus species
and their hybrids (i.e., poplars). A common protocol for such efforts has been to
utilize a limited number of readily-available genotypes with decades of deployment
in other applications, such as fiber or windbreaks. However, it is possible to
increase phytoremediation success with proper genotypic screening and selection,
followed by the field establishment of clones that exhibited favorable potential
for clean-up of specific contaminants. While such efforts are limited for
environmental remediation, centuries of plant selection success in agronomy,
horticulture, and forestry validate the need for similar approaches in
phytotechnologies.

Development of Improved Mycorrhizal Fungi for Use in Reforestation and Reclamation

of Mined Lands
We are testing several known mycorrhizal fungi for their ability and efficacy to
support survival and growth of seedlings planted in reclaimed sites. Every year we
have been generating Virginia pine seedlings inoculated with various fungi and
planting them in reclaimed abandoned mine site locations in Ohio. Qualitative and
quantitative measurements are being made to assess fungi that aid survival and
growth of seedlings.

[photo:] [photo] Kimble creek water affected by acid mine drainage has low pH and
high concentrations of iron, aluminum and manganese.Development of Improved
Bacterial Based Water Treatment Systems to Remove Heavy Metal and Other Hazardous
Contents, and Increase the pH of the Water
Abandoned coal mine sites have often been responsible for the acid mine drainage
(AMD), a serious polluter of ground water supplies. The materials released by AMD
include heavy metals (such as iron, aluminum, and manganese), other hazardous
substances, and acidity that is harmful to aquatic life. Improved economical
methods are needed to remove these substances from water to prevent detrimental
effects on forest health.

[photo:] Watershed 3, Fernow Experimental Forest. Treated watershed for the Fernow
Watershed Acidification Study, started in 1989, one of only 2 whole-water
acidification studies in the U.S. Air Pollution and Sustainable Forest Ecosystems
In our research, we monitor acidic deposition falling in the central Appalachians
and study its effects as its moves through the forest, from tree canopy to the soil
and soil solution to streams. We are studying the effects on nutrient cycling, and
tree growth and productivity, and on a number of other ecosystem components.

[photo:] Natural Gas well on the Fernow Experimental Forest, summer 2009,
immediately after restoration of the site. Understanding Effects of Oil and Natural
Gas Development on Appalachian Forests
Rapidly increasing fuel prices have resulted in an economic climate that favors
domestic energy development. This is especially true in the mid- and northern-
Appalachian region where the Marcellus shale formation is found in the bedrock.

[photo:] Fall foliage in the mountains of Stowe, Vermont. Photo by Paula

MurakamiRed Leaf Color as an Indicator of Environmental Stress
Vistas of colorful fall foliage hold tremendous public and media interest, and
associated tourism to the Northern Forest is estimated to add billions of dollars
to the regional economy each year. This natural spectacle of diverse leaf
coloration is based on the physiology of leaf pigments. In addition to its
aesthetic value, the biology of one pigment (anthocyanin) may provide insights to
how some trees survive environmental stress.

[photo:] Poplar planted in soils heavily contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons.

Acid Rain and Calcium Depletion
Acid rain and other anthropogenic factors can leach calcium (Ca) from forest
ecosystems and mobilize potentially toxic aluminum (Al) in soils. Considering the
unique role Ca plays in the physiological response of cells to environmental
stress, we propose that depletion of biological Ca would impair basic stress
recognition and response systems, and predispose trees to exaggerated injury
following exposure to other environmental stresses.

[photo:] Poplar planted in soils heavily contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons.

Salt Tolerance and Salinity Thresholds of Woody Energy Crops Irrigated with High-
salinity Waste Waters
There is a need for environmental practices that merge intensive forestry with
waste management. Producing short rotation woody crops for energy, fiber, and
environmental benefits requires adequate irrigation and fertilization, which can be
supplied via waste waters including landfill leachate. Yet, leachate often contains
elevated levels of salts such as chloride and sodium that cause leaf chlorosis and
necrosis, decreased biomass accumulation, and increased mortality. Therefore, there
is a pressing need to learn about the response of poplar energy crops when salts
are taken up into root, leaf, and woody (stem + branch) tissues, as well as
identifying thresholds of salt concentrations and salinity that can be recommended
for these crops in both field testing and production plantations.

[photo:] Poplar planted in soils heavily contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons.

Using Short Rotation Woody Crops to Remediate Soils Heavily Contaminated with
Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Organic contaminants such as petroleum hydrocarbons are a major pollution source of
surface water, groundwater, soil, and sediments throughout North America and the
rest of the world. The rhizosphere is the zone of soil surrounding plant roots.
Utilization of plants and their rhizospheric microorganisms to destroy, remove, and
stabilize contaminated soils is currently gaining global attention because such
systems are efficient and effective from biological and economic standpoints.

[photo:] Poplar energy crops grown for biomass and used for waste water reuse and
recycling. Sustainable Production of Woody Energy Crops with Associated
Environmental Benefits
Increasing human population levels at regional, national, and global scales have
heightened the need for proper management of residential and industrial waste.
Contaminants from this waste stream have polluted water, air, and soil much faster
than traditional technologies could remediate the problem. Therefore, we are
combining intensive forestry and waste management methods to increase the potential
for producing woody crops for energy and fiber, along with decreasing the
environmental degradation associated with waste disposal and subsequent waste water
production.

[photo:] This research examines whether nitrogen deposition effects on mycorrhizal

fungi might be contributing to sugar maple decline. Nitrogen deposition effects on
symbiotic fungi in northern hardwood forests
Atmospheric nitrogen deposition from fuel combustion and agriculture is falling
from the air onto natural ecosystems, leading to changes in nutrient availability
and acidification of soils and waters. Symbiotic fungi, called mycorrhizal fungi,
are essential to tree nutrient uptake, and in some ecosystem types have been found
to decline in abundances and diversity in response to nitrogen deposition, with
possible negative effects on plant uptake of soil resources. We wanted to
understand the impact of nitrogen deposition on the mycorrhizal fungi associated
with sugar maple dominated northern hardwood forests in Michigan. Sugar maple
decline has become a serious problem in our region. Understanding whether nitrogen
deposition effects on mycorrhizal fungi might be contributing to this decline is
critical to our ability to protect these forests.

[photo:] A class of symbiotic fungi associated with roots, called mycorrhizal

fungi, provide trees with nutrients and water in exchange for sugars.Effects of CO2
and O3 on the communities of symbiotic fungi associated with aspen and birch roots
Elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) and ozone (O3) affect tree photosynthesis and growth
in largely opposing ways, with CO2 increasing growth and O3 decreasing growth.
These changes in growth can affect the amount of carbon going to roots. Associated
with roots are a class of symbiotic fungi that provide nutrients and water in
exchange for sugars.

[image:] Burned area determined from multiple infrared heat release images taken
from an aircraft during a prescribed fire in the Ohio Hills.Fuels and Fire Behavior
in Eastern Hardwoods
An ability to predict fuel loads and fire behavior are needed to improve
prescriptions for prescribed fire and answer questions about smoke emissions and
transport and fire effects on flora and fauna. Our fuels and fire behavior research
seeks to develop process-based (mechanistic) approaches to predicting fuel
characteristics and fire behavior, with particular focus on hardwoods in
Appalachian topography.

[image:] Status of weather anomalies around the U.S. in early 2002, compiled by the
National Weather Service. Adapting Forests to Climate Change
Climate models have projected significant increases in temperature over the next
century for the Northeast and Midwest. Climate change will also affect rainfall
patterns, but scientists cannot yet predict how regional rainfall patterns will
change. Growing seasons will lengthen further in both spring and fall. According
to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, there is very high confidence
that the vulnerability of North America depends on the effectiveness and timing of
adaptation and the distribution of coping capacity, which vary spatially and among
sectors. Climate change will constrain North America�s over-allocated water
resources, increasing competition among agricultural, municipal, industrial and
ecological uses (very high confidence).

[photo:] An example of the effect of a freezing rain disturbance event on forest

vegetation.Atmospheric Disturbance Climatology System
Understanding the spatial and temporal patterns of these and other climate
variables throughout the region is important in developing effective land
management strategies that can sustain our natural resources.

[image:] Total number of thaw-freeze occurrences over the north central and
northeastern U.S. from 1950 to 1998, with a thaw-freeze event defined as maximum
daily near-surface air temperatures exceeding or equaling 1 C for at least one day
followed by daily minimum near-surface air temperatures equalling or falling below
-10 C for at least one day in the succeeding ten days since the last day of
thaw.Climatic Indicators of Forest Health
Managers often need frequent, updated assessments of current and developing
conditions on which to base management decisions and respond to public concerns. No
methodology has been developed to indicate when a forest population is at risk to
specific local and regional climate and air pollution stressors.

[image:] Aspen FACE Facility Free-air CO₂ and O₃ Enrichment

Project Global Climate Change Research at Harshaw Research Farm, Harshaw WIFoliar
biochemical indicators of environmental change and their relationship with site
productivity
Methods are needed to assess the positive or negative impact of environmental
pollution on forest productivity in an asymptomatic forest stand. A goal of several
research groups in the Northern Research Station (NRS) is to develop a set of
physiological and biochemical markers that can assess the early onset of stress in
forests due to environmental factors, before injury is visible.

[photo:] Aerial view of the Forest-Atmosphere Carbon Transfer and Storage (FACTS-
II) study site near Rhinelander, WI, where the impacts of elevated carbon dioxide
and ozone concentrations on forest microclimates are being studied along with may
other climate-change related studies.Greenhouse Gas Impacts on Forest Microclimates
Our ability to predict the future impacts of increasing greenhouse gas
concentrations and associated changes in the climate system on forest ecosystems
requires an understanding of how vegetation responses to increased greenhouse gas
concentrations can further alter the local atmospheric environment within forest
ecosystems. It is this local atmospheric environment that governs many of the
basic physical and biological processes within forest ecosystems.

[Image] Graph of N and S deposition. X-Axis: N Deposition, Y-Axis: S Deposition.

flat line and then a 45 degree angle downCritical Loads Resources for Federal Land
Managers
The critical load is scientifically determined based on expected ecosystem response
to a given deposition level. The target load is set by policy makers, land
managers, or air regulators to protect sensitive ecosystem components. The target
load may be higher or lower than the critical load, and is based on the economic
cost of emissions reductions, timeframe, and other considerations.

This website contains documents and information useful to Federal Land Managers and
others for understanding calculations of critical loads for nitrogen and sulfur
deposition to forest ecosystems in theory and practice.

image: Weir in Hubbard Brook Experimental ForestHubbard Brook Experimental Forest

Environmental concerns about pollution in New England forests and streams include
nitrogen saturation, cation depletion (that is, the effects of acid rain), and salt
loads (from winter road sanding) in spring run-off. NRS scientist are engaged in
short- and long-term research on pollution effects on ecological processes at the
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (HBEF) Research Watershed. Scientific research
began at the HBEF in 1960 with the small-watershed model, which measures
precipitation and many other water characteristics to study nutrient cycling. A
joint research program with Dartmouth College was established in 1963 and funded by
the National Science Foundation (NSF). Then, in 1988 the HBEF was designated as a
Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) site by the National Science Foundation. On-
going cooperative efforts among diverse educational institutions, private
institutions, government agencies, foundations and corporations have resulted in
one of the most extensive and longest continuous data bases on the hydrology,
biology, geology, and chemistry of natural ecosystems. The occurrence of acid rain
was first measured here. Now, almost 40 years later, these measurements are still
being taken and old samples are being studied by new methods.

PhotoEastern Area Modeling Consortium

The Eastern Area Modeling Consortium (EAMC) is a multi-agency coalition of
researchers, fire managers, air-quality managers, and natural resource managers at
the federal, state, and local levels. As part of this group, NRS researchers are
working to (1) increase understanding of fire behavior and smoke dispersion; (2)
expand knowledge of the physics of fire�atmosphere interactions; (3) enhance
prediction and response to the dangers of prescribed fires and wildfires; and (4)
develop products and transfer new technologies related to national and regional
fire-weather and air-quality dynamics. In addition, the EAMC provides two types of
weather products for fire managers: maps showing current and future weather
patterns over various regions of the United States and time series products
indicating likely weather changes in at a given location over a 48-hour period.

[photo:] Tower used in fire research at Silas Little Experimental ForestFire and
Fuels Research at the Silas Little Experimental Forest
The Silas Little Experimental Forest was reinstated using National Fire Plan
funding in 2003 to conduct multi-disciplinary fire and atmospheric science research
to provide fire and forest managers with better tools for predicting fire danger,
fire risk, air quality, and ecosystem functioning under changing environmental
conditions.

[image:] Map of predicted losses of nitrogen from forested lands of the Chesapeake
Bay watershed under no nitrogen deposition, current nitrogen deposition, and
doubled nitrogen deposition (Pan et al. 2004).Mid-Atlantic Forests and the
Chesapeake Bay Watershed
Forest landscapes are changing as a consequence of climate and environmental
change. These changes affect people and the forest ecosystems they depend on for
clean water, clean air and forest products, and recreation. How can we best manage
our forest resources to sustain this array of ecosystem services under increasing
environmental stress and a changing climate?

Mercury
As a result of fossil fuel combustion, mercury pollution occurs across the globe,
even in remote areas. Once mercury is released into the environment it changes into
methylmercury, a highly toxic compound that is easily taken up in living tissue. It
builds up over time and causes serious neurological and reproductive disorders in
humans and wildlife. Since mercury does not break down in the environment, it has
become a significant health threat to humans and wildlife and 40 states have fish
consumption advisories due to mercury contamination. Loons, bald eagles, and fish
from the State of Maine, for example, have some of the highest levels in the nation
and the Maine Department of Health has issued warnings about eating ANY fish caught
in the state. NRS research aims at understanding how mercury gets into surface
waters and if there are watershed management techniques that could reduce these
inputs. Our mercury work is focused on two main efforts, one to characterize the
mercury cycle under increased sulfate deposition and a second to understand the
influence of prescribed fire on mercury cycling.

image: Cross section of vegetation and the soil beneath it.Acid deposition
Recently, this research has focused on understanding how acid deposition (aka acid
rain), nitrogen pollution, and climate change may contribute to the declines of
important tree species such as red spruce, sugar maple, and yellow-cedar. However,
studies also include basic research into the biochemistry and physiology of tree
stress response mechanisms, including evaluations of the possible use of red fall
leaf coloration as an indicator of stress exposure and response. Pollutant
additions of nitrogen (N) can lead to N-saturation (the accumulation of N in excess
of plant and microbial demands), which has been linked with forest decline and is
probably associated with N-induced imbalances in other nutrients (especially Ca,
Al, and Mg). This work on nitrogen showed that the same mechanism of physiological
disruption found for acid rain impairment (significant reductions in mCa, membrane
stability, cold tolerance, and an increased rate of freezing injury) also applies
to chronic N additions. These findings suggest that N additions can contribute to
the same reduction of biological Ca reserves that acid rain depletes. New research
on the broader significance of Ca depletion indicates that the same disruptions
documented for red spruce can occur for other tree species (e.g., eastern hemlock,
balsam fir, and white pine), and that soil-based Ca manipulation can also alter
critical mCa stocks.

Calumet: An Ecological & Economic Rebirth

Although the region is a classic rustbelt, many industries still thrive there. The
remaining natural areas draw recreationists who hope to see the rare bird, catch
the big fish, or just enjoy the outdoors. Calumet is undergoing an exciting
revitalization. Our unit works with many partners to help local and regional
planners and managers decide how to advance the region toward ecological and
economic health.

image: Map showing simulated surface ozone concentrations over the Great Lakes
region on May 30, 1999 at 3:00 pm EDT. The red and pink color-filled contours
indicate regions with ozone concentrations above 80 ppb.Developing atmospheric
models to trace ozone through the midwest
NRS scientists are cooperating with scientists from the U.S. Department of Energy's
Battelle Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in Richland, Washington, to simulate
the dynamics of atmospheric ozone transport and diffusion over the western Great
Lakes Region. These simulations are being conducted using a coupled atmospheric
mesoscale and photochemistry model. The simulations allow us to see where ozone and
ozone precursor chemicals are coming from, and where they are transported to
throughout the northcentral U.S.

image: Sugar Maple in fall colors looking up from ground.Site, Stress, Nutrition,
and Forest Health Interactions
A range of stressors including defoliating insects, pathogens, droughts, inadequate
soil base cations, and changing climate have interacted to affect the health and
regeneration of selected northern and central hardwood forest species.

Last Modified: 04/29/2013

About this Research

Science theme: Forest Disturbance Processes

Participating Units:

Center for Research on Ecosystem Change

Biological and Environmental Influences on Forest Health and Productivity
 Institute for Applied Ecosystem Studies
Sustaining Forests in a Changing Environment
Climate, Fire, and Carbon Cycle Sciences
People and Their Environments: Social Science Supporting Natural Resource
Management and Policy

Disturbance Science Topics

Invasive Species
Research to Support National Fire and Fuels Strategy
Climate Change and Events
Air, Water, Soils Pollution
Fragmentation and Land Use Change
Market-induced change to forests
Monitoring and Assessment of Forest Health
Fish and Wildlife Habitat and Viability

Featured Product

image: Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the United States

Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the United States

Forest Service Home | USDA.gov | recreation.gov

FOIA | Accessibility Statement | Privacy Policy | Non-Discrimination Statement |
Information Quality | USA.gov | White House