J Radioanal Nucl Chem (2013) 295:143–150
DOI 10.1007/s10967-012-1876-x
Toxic element composition of multani mitti clay
for nutritional safety
S. Waheed • Y. Faiz • S. Rahman • N. Siddique
Received: 16 February 2012 / Published online: 12 June 2012
Ó Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2012
Abstract Geophagy of multani mitti (MM) clay is very
common in central Pakistan especially amongst women. It
was therefore mandatory to establish baseline levels of
toxic elements in this clay for its safe dietary consumption
by consumers of different genders, age groups and physical
states. Instrumental neutron activation analysis and atomic
absorption spectrometry techniques were used to determine
the nutritional safety of MM clay for oral intake. All
quantified toxic elements were detected at trace levels with
composition in the descending order; Pb [ Br [ As [
Sb [ Hg [ Cd. Comparison of these elements in MM clay
with other clays shows that As, Cd, and Pb, are lowest in
MM clay while its Br and Hg contents are high. Highest
weekly dietary intakes of As, Br, Cd, Hg, and Sb were
found to be 18, 0.05, 1.6, 9.2 and 1.1 % of the respective
recommended provisional tolerable weekly intakes. The
findings of this study show that As, Br, Cd, Hg and Sb in
MM clay are well below the tolerance levels. However its
Pb concentration is very high and may pose health con-
cerns. The data presented in this study can be used as
national base level guideline for geophagy of MM clay by
men, women (normal, pregnant and lactating) and children.
Keywords Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS)

Clay
Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA)

Multani mitti (MM)
Provisional tolerable weekly
intake (PTWI)
Toxic elements
S. Waheed (&)
Y. Faiz
S. Rahman
N. Siddique
Chemistry Division, Directorate of Science, Pakistan Institute
of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH),
P.O. Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan
e-mail: swaheed@pinstech.org.pk
Introduction
Human beings have been aware of the beneficial health
effects of clays since prehistoric times. Many ancient
civilizations ingested and used natural clays in small
amounts for nutritional and therapeutic purposes [1, 2].
Clays are unique in their mineral composition and help
strengthen the body and enhance our natural immune
system. Clays are also used in pharmaceutical formula-
tions. The habit of eating earth components including clay
is commonly termed as geophagy and can counteract the
inadequacy of minerals supply from food. Nature has laid
down a balanced ratio of different essential trace minerals
in clays depending on their type and geophysical feature.
Clay minerals can adsorb and retain harmful and toxic
substances in human beings. Since ancient times
throughout the world, the beneficial health effects of
geophagy were known especially in the remediation of
gastrointestinal disorders [1]. Ingestion of clay by preg-
nant women has often been recommended to overcome
deficiencies of some essential elements (especially Ca,
Mg, Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Se) [3]. Depending upon the
geological appearance and composition of a particular
clay it may also contain toxic and heavy metals such as
As, Cd, Hg, Pb and Sb. Human exposure to toxic elements
has exponentially increased over the last few decades due
to combustion of fossil fuels, industrial emissions and
waste discharge, use of agricultural fertilizers, insecticides
and pesticides, and domestic processes etc. Therefore the
potential for long-term adverse health effects is obvious
and well documented [4]. These toxic and heavy metals
enter our body directly through ingestion and inhalation
and can directly influence behavior causing impairment of
mental and neurological functions and altering metabolic
processes in the body [5].
123
144
In Pakistan geophagy of multani mitti (MM) clay is very
common especially amongst the women folk and children.
People generally use raw MM clay for oral ingestion, as
medication, in aesthetic medicine and as body and hair
wash. Although therapeutic properties of clays have gained
especial attention, it is its toxic contaminants that require
scrutiny. It is believed that people who are habitual con-
sumers of unprocessed clay may be at risk for several
significant health problems due to intake of toxic elements
over long period of time [6]. Moreover any material to be
consumed orally or as medication as in pharmaceuticals
must not be toxic or have severe side effects. The presence
of these elements even in minute concentrations can be a
potential threat to the consumer or patient [4]. It is there-
fore necessary to asses its quality through accurate and
precise characterization of the toxic element contents to
identify varieties of clays which are suitable for direct
consumption.
Characterization of toxic elements in MM is imperative
to establish baseline of these elements for nutritional
safety. In this study toxic elements have been quantified in
MM clay using instrumental neutron activation analysis
(INAA) together with atomic absorption spectrometry
(AAS). As children and pregnant women are at greater risk
of exposure to toxic elements due to ingestion of MM clay,
this work takes into consideration the intake of MM clay in
these subjects along with men, women and lactating
women.
Experimental
Sampling and sample preparation
MM clay reserves are located 45 km North West of Dera
Ghazi Khan District in Pakistan. The samples were collected
in clean plastic bags from this site and brought to the Paki-
stan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINS-
TECH) in Islamabad where sample preparation and analyses
were performed. Sample processing and preparation was
done in a laminar flow fume hood. The samples were cru-
shed and sieved to obtain homogenized powder with particle
size of \0.125 mm. The processed samples were stored in
pre-cleaned polyethylene bottles. The homogeneity of the
prepared MM material was checked through analysis of Mn
contents in 100 mg samples. The measurement variation
was found to be \6 % around the mean values confirming
the homogeneity of the preparation.
INAA methodology
Two IAEA reference materials (RMs) (IAEA soil S-7 and
IAEA Marine sediment SD-M-2/TM) were used to ensure
123
S. Waheed et al.
traceability of the results. The same RMs were also used as
multi-elemental standards for quantification of toxic ele-
ments in the sample using INAA. Approximately 100 mg
of MM samples in triplicate along with IAEA RMs were
packed and sealed in polyethylene capsules. Taking into
consideration the elements to be quantified different suites
of samples were prepared and packed in reactor rabbits. All
irradiations of these targets were performed adjacent to the
reactor core of the 27 kW tank-in-pool type miniature
neutron source reactor. The thermal neutron flux density at
this site was 1 9 1012 cm-2 s-1. All samples after desired
cooling were transferred to pre-cleaned and pre-weighed
polyethylene counting capsules for analysis.
High purity germanium detector (Canberra Model AL-
30) coupled to a PC-based Intertechnique Pro-286e Mul-
tichannel Analyzer (MCA) was used for quantification of
MM samples in accordance with the optimized radio-assay
scheme. The system resolution was 1.9 keV at 1332.5 keV
peak of 60Co with peak to Compton ratio of 40:1. ‘‘Inter-
gamma, version 5.03’’ software was used for obtaining all
spectra. An indigenous computer program was used for the
calculations and statistical data treatments [7].
AAS methodology
Approximately 1 g of MM clay sample was taken in
100 ml digestion flask with air condenser (30 cm long)
attached to it and 10 ml of aqua regia was added to it. For
analysis of soil and clay samples instead of total digestion
usually pseudo total digestion is performed with boiling
aqua regia under reflux. The contents were heated on a hot
plate at 85 °C for leaching for 2h. After cooling, drop wise
1.5 ml of H2O2 was added at 60 °C until completion of
reaction [8]. The leachate was filtered and solution was
made up to 10 ml in a volumetric flask with de-ionized
water. The digested samples were analyzed in triplicate.
The applied procedure was validated by simultaneous
processing and analysis of IAEA S-7 and IAEA SD-M-2/
TM RMs for Cd and Pb. Quantification of Cd, and Pb, was
carried out using a Hitachi model Z-2000 Polarized Zee-
man Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) coupled with
software based data handling facility.
Results and discussion
MM clay has been studied for its toxic elemental content
using INAA and AAS techniques. For the quantification of
As, Br, Hg and Sb by INAA, two radio-assay protocols
presented in Table 1 were employed. In the first scheme the
targets were irradiated for 1h and after subsequent cooling
for 1–2 days 76As, 82Br and 122Sb were determined. The
second scheme quantified 203Hg where the sample was
Toxic element composition of multani mitti clay 145

Table 1 Nuclear data and

Isotope used Half life c-ray used (keV) Irradiation Cooling time Counting time
irradiation conditions
time (h)
76
As 21.3 h 559.1 1 1–2 day 30 min
82
Br 35.3 h 554.3 1 1–2 day 30 min
122
Sb 2.70 day 564.1 1 1–2 day 30 min
203
Hg 46.6 day 279.2 1 2–3 weeks 2h
Corte et al. (1986) [40]

Table 2 Quality assurance data for IAEA matrix RMs (values expressed in lg g-1 unless otherwise specified)
Element IAEA S-7 IAEA SD-M-2/TM
Certified value 95 % CI Our value ± Unc. Certified value 95 % CI Our value ± Unc.

As 13.4 12.5–14.2 12.8 ± 1.01 18.3 17.4–19.3 18.9 ± 1.22

Br (7.0) 3–10 7.80 ± 0.62 65.7 57.8–78.0 64.7 ± 3.59
Cda (1.3) 1.1–2.7 1.40 ± 0.17 0.113 0.108–0.149 0.130 ± 0.02
Hg (0.04) 0.003–0.07 0.047 ± 0.006 0.054 0.046–0.064 0.061 ± 0.01
Pba 60.0 55–71 58.0 ± 3.61 22.8 20.1–12.6 23.5 ± 1.51
Sb 1.7 1.4–1.8 1.65 ± 0.14 0.99 0.92–1.25 1.04 ± 0.10
CI confidence interval, () information values
a
Determined by AAS

Table 3 Global comparison of MM clay with other reported clays (values expressed in lg g-1 unless other wise specified)
Clays As Br Cd Hg Pb Sb

MM Clay 2.46 ± 0.16 2.93 ± 0.25 0.101 ± 0.015 0.137 ± 0.017 8.30 ± 0.30 0.423 ± 0.050
WC38 0.6–4.1 1.5–3.0 – – – 0.32–1.90
38
GC 4.1–8.9 0.5–3.3 – 0.031–0.048 – 0.48–1.06
SW-y-2 (SC)39 – – – – 20.63 ± 3.14 0.436 ± 0.076
RC40 14.6 ± 0.6 – – – – 1.39 ± 0.19
NIST-SRM 679 (BC)40 9.7 ± 0.4 – – – – 1.0 ± 0.1
MC41 11.8–26.7 – 0.110–0.250 0.012–0.021 19.2–32.9 52.0–97.1
15
Sikor (BC) 3.8–13.1 – 0.09–0.40 – 21–26.7 –

irradiated for 5 h followed by 2–3 weeks of cooling time.
The observed elemental interferences were handled as
mentioned in our earlier works [9, 10]. Cd and Pb in MM
samples were determined using AAS.
The quality assurance of the elemental analysis was
ascertained by comparison of the results of two control
material, IAEA S-7 and IAEA SD-M-2/TM obtained using
INAA and AAS with the certified data. The accuracy of
results helps to ensure the trueness and bias of the adopted
methodology in accordance with ISO-5725 standards [11].
Table 2 shows good agreement between the IAEA certified
values and results obtained in the current study using
INAA and AAS. The overall precision for the measurement
of all elements when analyzed through paired difference
test at 95 % confidence level was found to be acceptable
and in range of these RMs [12, 13]. Relatively high error
was observed for Cd measured by AAS which may be due
to the fact that Cd in IAEA S-7 is not certified while in
IAEA SD-M-2/TM the certified concentration of this ele-
ment is low with large reported error. Hg quantified by
INAA also shows lower precision as in IAEA S-7 only
information value is reported for this element. Moreover
high variation coefficient (mc) of Hg in both standards
could be due to its low concentration and low count rate for
both standards.
Toxic elements quantified in MM clay using INAA and
AAS are presented in Table 3. The concentrations of all
elements (As, Br, Cd, Hg, Pb and Sb) are reported on dry
weight basis and are the averages of several determina-
tions. INAA of MM clay shows good precision for As and
Br with mc \ 10 % around the mean values. However for
Hg and Sb relatively high mc [ 10 % is observed. Con-
centration of Pb determined by AAS shows very good
precision with mc \ 5 % while for Cd mc is high (14.8 %).

123
146
The composition of toxic elements in MM is quantified in
the descending order; Pb [ Br [ As [ Sb [ Hg [ Cd
where all measured toxic elements are present in trace
amounts.
Comparison of our results for toxic elements in MM
clay has been made with other clays. Table 3 presents
results on these elements from Brazilian white and green
clays (GC) used for pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, SW-y-
2 Na rich bentonite from Wyoming, Ohio red clay (RC),
NIST-SRM 679-brick clay, Muddy clay (MC) from eastern
Gulf of Finland and Sikor-backed clay from Bangladesh
[14–17]. Assessment of this data shows that As
(2.46 lg g-1), Cd (0.101 lg g-1), and Pb (8.30 lg g-1),
are lowest in MM while its Br (2.93 lg g-1), and Hg
(0.137 lg g-1) content are high. However As in MM clay
falls in the range cited for white clays (WC). RC and MC
contain very high levels of As with respective concentra-
tions of 14.6 and 11.8 lg g-1. Cd levels in MC are com-
parable to MM Clay and Sikor (BC) has relatively high
concentration of this element. Pb content in SW-y-2 (SC),
MC, and BC (20.6, 19.2, and 23.2 lg g-1 respectively) are
comparable and almost twice the levels of MM clay. Br
levels in some of the GC are the lowest with a range of
0.5–3.3 lg g-1 and therefore Br levels in MM clay and
WC fall in this range. Hg with range of 0.12–0.021 lg g-1
and Sb with range of 0.20–0.57 in MC are the lowest.
Concentration of Sb in MM (0.423 lg g-1), GC
0.48 lg g-1) and SC (0.436 lg g-1) are comparable while
its value in RC (1.38 lg g-1) and BC (1.0 lg g-1) is high.
On the whole the composition of MM clay is close to
Bangladeshi sikor (BC). The variation in elemental con-
centrations in different clays may be attributed to differ-
ences in mineralogy, depth of the sample site, geographic
location and its age. Comparison of clays shows that MM
clay contains low levels of As, Cd, Pb and Sb while it’s Br
and Hg levels are higher.
As toxic elements are reported to accumulate in the
body, the relevance of these elements in MM clay through
dietary intake has also been evaluated and compared with
the provisional tolerable weekly intakes (PTWI) set by the
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on food additives
(JECFA) [18]. It was important to compare our values with
PTWI as in this way regular ingestion of MM clay can be
scrutinized for its consumption over a long period of time
without appreciable health risk. Geophagy of MM is more
popular in children and women, especially in pregnant and
lactating women. It is reported that most of the toxic ele-
ments in pregnant and lactating women can transfer from
the mother to the fetus and through milk to newborn
placing the health of the unborns and newly born baby at
risk [19]. Considering this fact, PTWI values have been
used to estimate its values for men (MMM), women
(MMW), pregnant women (MMP), lactating women
123
S. Waheed et al.
(MML) and children of ages 4–8 (MMC1) and 9–13
(MMC2) with respective estimated body weights of 70, 55,
65, 60, 20 and 40 kg. Weekly contribution to PTWI value,
in which the percentage numbers are showed as the ratio of
the intakes by geophagy of the MM clay to the PTWI
values for each subject groups are presented in Table 4.
The weekly intakes of characterized elements have been
calculated on the basis of domestic survey with fixed
amount of MM clay ingested by each category.
Arsenic (As)
As is ubiquitous in our environment and is a poison in large
amounts. It is the third most prevalent element in the
earth’s crust. As has been declared as a human carcinogen
by the International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) since 1980 [20]. Excessive exposure to this ele-
ment poses health problems such as various types of can-
cer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and neurological
disorders as well as dermal effects [20]. According to the
National Research Council excessive As intake may pose
greater risk for both cancer and non-cancer effects in
infants and children. Numerous other disorders are linked
to this element including respiratory problems, nervous
system effects, low IQ and reproductive effects. Pregnancy
complications have also been related to As intake such as
fetus abnormalities, abortions, stillbirths, premature deliv-
eries and reduced birth weight of babies. Even low level
As-exposures have been reported to affect human health
especially in malnourished people [21]. Trace amounts of
As were quantified in MM clay with concentration of
2.46 lg g-1. The calculated intake values for As in MMM,
MMW, MMP, MML, MMC1 and MMC2 presented in
Table 4 are 36.9, 73.8, 172, 123, 12.3 and 24.6 lg
respectively. Figure 1 shows that intake of As by each
category of MM consumer contributes to about 3.6, 9.1, 18,
13.9, 4.2 and 4.2 % of the recommended PTWI values
which is equivalent to 14.7 lg kg-1 body weight per week
[18, 22]. The estimated dietary exposures of As through
intake of MM clay for all the population groups studied are
well below the PTWI and are unlikely to constitute a risk to
health. However pregnant and lactating women should be
careful in consuming large amounts of MM clay.
Bromine (Br)
Bromine is naturally present at very low levels in food
articles. Elemental bromine is toxic Once ingested it is very
slowly excreted from the body causing conditions of
intoxication called bromism with adverse health effects.
This state is characterized by neurological, psychiatric,
dermatological, delirium, psychomotor retardation schizo-
phrenia and possibly endocrine effects [23]. Consuming
Toxic element composition of multani mitti clay 147

contribution
to PTWI
Weekly

0.361

0.252
value

4.18
0.01

2.13
–
10 g week-1
bw = 40
MMC2

24.6
29.3
1.01
1.37
83.0
4.23
contribution
to PTWI
Weekly

0.361

0.252
value

4.18
0.01

2.13
–
5 g week-1
Table 4 Weekly intake of toxic elements through consumption of MM clay in Pakistan (All intakes expressed in lg per week unless specified)

bw = 20
MMC1

12.3
14.7
0.51
0.69
41.5
2.12
Fig. 1 Comparison of weekly As intake through ingestion of MM by
different subjects with respective PTWI values
contribution
to PTWI
Weekly

dietary articles with high Br content can increases its con-

0.035

0.839
value

13.9

1.20
7.09

centration in our body which competes with iodine recep-

–

tors; eventually depleting the iodine of body and introducing

50 g week-1

a deficiency condition of ‘‘brominated thyroid’’ [24]. Apart

bw = 60

from increased risk of thyroid gland iodine deficiency it also

MML

5.05
6.85

21.2
123
147

415

leads to an increased risk of breast, ovary and prostate

cancers. Br can cause headache, fatigue, weight-gain, heart
contribution

and kidney diseases. Trace levels of Br were determined in

to PTWI
Weekly

MM with concentration of 2.93 lg g-1. Weekly dietary

18.02
0.05
1.55
9.16

1.08
value

intakes of 44.0, 87.9, 205, 147, 14.7 and 29.3 lg were cal-
culated for MMM, MMW, MMP, MML, MMC1 and
70 g week-1

MMC2 respectively (Table 4). A comparison is made with

bw = 65

PTWI values that conform to 7,000 lg per kg body weight

MMP

7.07
9.59

29.6
172
205

581

per week. The respective intakes MM by each type of

consumer contribute to a very small fraction of 0.009, 0.023,
contribution

0.045, 0.035, 0.010 and 0.010 % of these estimated PTWI

to PTWI
Weekly

value as presented in Fig. 2. The contribution of Br in MM is

0.023
0.787

0.549
value

9.13

4.64

well below the tolerance levels of this element and hence,

–

this clay is safe from nutritional safety point of view for all
30 g week-1

types of consumers.
bw = 55
MMW

73.8
87.9
3.03
4.11

12.7
249

Cadmium (Cd)
contribution

Cadmium is considered a toxic element with no biological

to PTWI
Weekly

0.009
0.309

0.216

function in humans. This element is widely present in the

value

3.59

1.82

environment and causes various health problems in the

–

general and exposed population. Main route of Cd expo-

15 g week-1

sure in humans is through diet. It is transported from the

bw = 70
MMM

gastrointestinal tract by the blood to the liver and finally

36.9
44.0
1.52
2.06

6.35
125

accumulates in the kidneys [25]. Consequently Cd has been

classified as carcinogenic to humans by the IARC [26]. The
lg week-1

major long-term toxic effects of low-level cadmium

PTWI

7,000
14.7

7.00
1.61
25.2
42.0

exposure are renal injury, obstructive pulmonary disease,

osteoporosis, and cardiovascular disease. Cd has been
elements

associated with cancers of the lung, prostate, pancreas, and

Toxic

Hg
Cd
As

Pb
Sb
Br

kidney as it is a strong human carcinogen [27]. High intake

123
148
Fig. 2 Comparison of weekly Br intake through ingestion of MM by
different subjects with respective PTWI values
Fig. 3 Comparison of weekly Cd intake through ingestion of MM by
different subjects with respective PTWI values
to Cd causes acute gastrointestinal effects with increased
salivation, choking, vomiting, abdominal cramps and
diarrhoea leading to kidney damage [23]. High exposure of
Cd is considered responsible for a clinical disease termed
as Itai-itai disease in Japan. The characteristic symptoms of
this disease are multiple fractures of bones and damaged
kidneys. Cd in MM clay was quantified as a trace element
with concentration of 0.101 lg g-1 by AAS technique.
Table 4 shows the calculated dietary intakes of this ele-
ment are 1.52, 3.02, 7.07, 5.05, 0.51 and 1.01 lg for
MMM, MMW, MMP, MML, MMC1 and MMC2 respec-
tively. Figure 3 shows that these Cd intakes through
ingestion of MM clay by the studied subjects contribute to
a minor fraction of about 0.31, 0.79, 1.55, 1.20, 0.36 and
0.36 % respectively to the estimated PTWI values for each
type of subject. These PTWI values have been calculated
considering its recommended value of 7.0 lg kg-1 body
weight per week. The calculated intake values for MM clay
are far below the weekly tolerance level, therefore the
123
S. Waheed et al.
Fig. 4 Comparison of weekly Hg intake through ingestion of MM by
different subjects with respective PTWI values
estimated intake of Cd through ingestion of MM clay can
be considered fairly undisruptive for its dietary safety by
all consumer categories.
Mercury (Hg)
Mercury, a heavy metal, is widespread and persistent in the
environment. All forms of Hg whether metallic, inorganic or
organic forms are perilous for human health However, Hg
released into the air or water becomes methylated which is
its highly toxic state [23, 28]. Hg is considered cytotoxic,
immunotoxic, neurotoxic, reproductive and developmental
toxin and causes cardiovascular damage and disease.
Excessive Hg levels can cause permanent neurologic and
kidney impairment [28]. Diverse cognitive, personality,
sensory, and motor disturbances have been reported for this
element. Prominent symptoms due to excessive Hg intake
include muscle tremors, emotional disturbances, insomnia,
memory loss, neuro-muscular changes, swelling of salivary
glands, excessive flow of saliva, loosening of teeth, head-
aches, and performance deficits in tests of cognitive function
[29, 30]. This element is also related to immunological
effects causing nephrotic syndrome. Hg can cause hyper-
tension as it affects the hormone metabolism, vasocon-
striction and renal tubular function [31]. In MM clay Hg is
present as a trace element (0.137 lg g-1). Table 4 shows
that the estimated weekly intakes for MMM, MMW, MMP,
MML, MMC1 and MMC2 are 2.06, 4.11, 9.59, 6.85, 0.69
and 1.37 lg respectively. These very low amounts of Hg in
the studied groups were compared to estimated PTWI of
1.61 lg kg-1 body weight per week. Figure 4 shows that
our intake values for Hg contribute to about 1.8, 4.6, 9.1, 7.1,
5.3 and 5.7 % respectively to the weekly PTWI. The per-
centage intake of Hg through consuming MM clay by all
consumers is well within the safe weekly dietary limits.
Toxic element composition of multani mitti clay
Lead (Pb)
Lead is a toxic metal and its exposure causes numerous
health problems, affecting nearly every system of the body
and hence is considered a cumulative toxicant. It produces
broad range of physiological, biochemical and behavioral
dysfunctions [32]. Severe health effects occur through its
dietary intake as it accumulates in highest concentrations in
liver, kidney and bone. This element is a well-documented
toxin for neurological, haematological, gastrointestinal,
cardiovascular and renal systems. Chronic exposure to Pb
in adults causes anemia, renal dysfunction, peripheral
neuropathy, hypertension, reproductive dysfunction and
Alzheimer’s disease [33]. Neurotoxic behavior is particu-
larly receptive in childhood Pb exposure that influences the
development of the central nervous system in young chil-
dren [34]. Pb introduces multiple neurobehavioral and
cognitive defects, including behavioral problems and
decreased intelligence quotient [33]. The Pb concentration
in MM clay was found to be 8.3 lg g-1 using AAS tech-
nique. The estimated weekly intakes of Pb through inges-
tion of MM clay by MMM, MMW, MMP, MML, MMC1
and MMC2 are 125, 249, 581, 415, 41.5 and 83 lg
respectively (Table 4). These intakes have not been com-
pared to the Pb PTWI values since JECFA on the basis of
Pb dose response analysis declared that the established
PTWI value for this element (25 lg kg-1 week) is no
longer considered health protective and was withdrawn
[35]. It is however important to note that in comparison to
other toxic elements quantified in MM clay, Pb contributes
to a relatively high intake especially for pregnant and
lactating females. Taking into account the Pb intake from
all other weekly dietary sources, MM clay contributes to a
fairly larger budget for Pb. It is therefore comprehended
thought that further work will be carried out to monitor
blood Pb levels in regular consumers of MM clay.
Antimony (Sb)
Antimony is a potentially toxic trace element with no
known biological role. However Sb along with other toxic
metals can disturb the cellular defense mechanisms of the
human body including reproductive disorders and chro-
mosome damage resulting in mutagenic changes [36].
Specific symptoms of intoxication are generally accompa-
nied by stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, con-
junctivitis, dermatitis, bronchitis, dry throat headache,
coughing, anorexia, insomnia and vertigo [37–39]. Con-
tinuous intake may cause more serious health effects such
as lung diseases, myocardial symptoms, joint or muscle
pain, stomach pain, diarrhea, severe vomiting, stomach
ulcers and death. Sb is present in MM clay as a trace
element (0.423 lg g-1). Calculated weekly Sb intake
149
Fig. 5 Comparison of weekly Sb intake through ingestion of MM by
different subjects with respective PTWI values
through consumption of MM clay by MMM, MMW,
MMP, MML, MMC1 and MMC2 groups as presented in
Table 4 are 6.35, 12.7, 29.6, 21.2, 2.12 and 4.23 lg
respectively. Figure 5 shows a comparison of Sb intake
values from MM clay with estimated PTWI values. The
calculations have been made with respect to 42 lg kg-1
body weight per week. These intakes with respect to the
estimated PTWI values for each type of subject are 0.22,
0.55, 1.08, 0.84, 0.25 and 0.25 % respectively. Our study
shows that weekly intake of MM clay contributes to fairly
safe levels of Sb.
Conclusion
Different toxic elements in MM clay were characterized
and discussed to ascertain its safe ingestion by consumers
of all ages and conditions. INAA technique was used to
characterize As, Br, Hg and Sb while Pb and Cd were
determined by AAS. All measured toxic elements were
detected at trace levels with composition in descending
order as Pb [ Br [ As [ Sb [ Hg [ Cd. Comparison of
our results with other clays shows that As, Cd, and Pb, are
lowest in MM clay while Br and Hg contents are highest.
To check the nutritional safety of MM clay for ingestion
the concentration data for these elements were compared
with recommended PTWI values. Keeping in mind various
consumers it was estimated that weekly contribution of
As, Br, Cd, Hg, and Sb are \18, 0.05, 1.6, 9.2, and 1.1 %
respectively for their PTWI value. It is assessed from these
findings that although As, Br, Cd, Hg and Sb in MM clay
are within the safe and tolerable levels however relatively
high intake of As and Hg can have toxicological signifi-
cance. Moreover Pb concentration in MM clay is also
fairly high which may cause severe health concerns. It is
123
150
therefore recommended that regular monitoring of blood
Pb levels of all MM clay consumers be carried out on a
regular basis to check for their dietary exposures to lead.
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