Eddie Braking System without Contact

Abstract
A non-contact method, using magnetic drag force principle, was proposed
to design the braking systems to improve the shortcomings of the conventional
braking systems. The extensive literature detailing all aspects of the magnetic
braking is briefly reviewed, however little of this refers specifically to upright
magnetic braking system, which is useful for industries. One of the major issues to
design upright magnetic system is to find out the magnetic flux. The changing
magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the conductor. These currents dissipate
energy in the conductor and generate drag force to slow down the motion. Therefore,
a finite element model is developed to analyze the phenomena of magnetic flux
density when air gap and materials of track are varied. The verification shows the
predicted magnetic flux is within acceptable range with the measured value. The
results will facilitate the design of magnetic braking systems.

Theory and Main Concept

The idea of using an electromagnet as a brake has been mainly used in
large vehicles and machines. There are several main types, most of which rely on
using magnetism to move a mechanical part or parts. The mechanical part can then
be used to produce friction with a moving part, thereby reducing speed. However,
this process is rather inefficient. Electromagnets can also be used to make
frictionless brakes which is what we are interested in. Further, we are interested in
reducing the rotation of a bicycle wheel and hence, angular velocity. Thus, the
desired brake involves dissipating rotational energy. In theory, if a magnetic field is
induced in a rotating disc, it will produce eddy currents within the disc. These
currents will then oppose the rotation of the disc by dissipating kinetic energy in the
form of heat (causing the temperature of the disc to increase).
To me, this concept did not seem intuitive, so I decided to test it. The magnetic field
is usually generated by an electromagnet. Hence, I was interested in knowing if an
electromagnet could really affect the rotation of the wheel. Also, I wanted to
determine whether increasing the voltage running through the electromagnet would
cause a larger retarding force. The latter test may seem obvious, but I felt it was
necessary to validate the concept experimentally before making any conclusions.
1. Introduction

Equipment in addition to the regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles. We

outline the general principles of regular brakes and several alternative retardation
techniques in this section. The working principle and characteristics of
electromagnetic brakes are then highlighted. In this project we are trying to make a
braking system. Which can be applicable in two wheeler at Electromagnetic brakes
have been used as supplementary retardation high speed and low maintenance cost.
Here we are using an electromagnetic coil and a plunger. There is an electromagnetic
effect which moves the plunger in the braking direction.
When electricity is applied to the field, it creates an internal magnetic
flux. That flux is then transferred into a hysteresis disk passing through the field.
The hysteresis disk is attached to the brake shaft. A magnetic drag on the hysteresis
disk allows for a constant drag, or eventual stoppage of the output shaft.

Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM

brakes) slow or stop motion using electromagnetic force to apply mechanical
resistance (friction). The original name was "electro-mechanical brakes" but over
the years the name changed to "electromagnetic brakes", referring to their actuation
method. Since becoming popular in the mid-20th century especially in trains and
trolleys, the variety of applications and brake designs has increased dramatically, but
the basic operation remains the same. Both electromagnetic brakes and eddy current
brakes use electromagnetic force but electromagnetic brakes ultimately depend on
friction and eddy current brakes use magnetic force directly.
Design of Eddie Braking System in solidworks

Isometric view
Top view
Materials
 36 Gauge Magnet wire ,
 AC Motor ,
 Sprint ,
 Iron Stand,
 Wheel
Description:

The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of
a wheel. A brake disc usually made of cast iron or ceramic composites is
connected to the wheel and the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in
the form of brake pads is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically
or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc
and attached wheel to slow or stop. But in our project hydraulic energy is
used as the source of power, due to high applied force and torque
2. General Principle of Brake System

The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of kinetic

energy into thermal energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver
commands a stopping force several times as powerful as the force that puts
the car in motion and dissipates the associated kinetic energy as heat. Brakes
must be able to arrest the speed of a vehicle in a short periods of time
regardless how fast the speed is. As a result, the brakes are required to have
the ability to generating high torque and absorbing energy at extremely high
rates for short periods of time. Brakes may be applied for a prolonged periods
of time in some applications such as a heavy vehicle descending a long
gradient at high speed. Brakes have to have the mechanism to keep the heat
absorption capability for prolonged periods of time.
3. Conventional Friction Brake

The conventional friction brake system is composed of the following basic

components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood is directly
connected to the brake pedal, and converts the drivers’ foot pressure into
hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the
“slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work
in extreme temperature conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” or “pads” are
pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” or “rotors,” thus causing
drag, which slows the car. Two major kinds of friction brakes are disc brakes
and drum brakes. Disc brakes use a clamping action to produce friction
between the “rotor” and the “pads” mount in the “caliper” attached to the
suspension members Disc brakes work using the same basic principle as the
brakes on a bicycle: as the caliper pinches the wheel with pads on both sides,
it slows the vehicle.
Drum brakes consist of a heavy flat-topped cylinder, which is
sandwiched between the wheel rim and the wheel hub . The inside surface of
the drum is acted upon by the linings of the brake shoes. When the brakes
are applied, the brake shoes are forced into contact with the inside surface of
the brake drum to slow the rotation of the wheels.
Air brakes use standard hydraulic brake system components such
as braking lines, wheel cylinders and a slave cylinder similar to a master
cylinder to transmit the air-pressure-produced braking energy to the wheel
brakes. Air brakes are used frequently when greater braking capacity is
required.
4-How ordinary (friction) brakes work

Moving things have kinetic energy and, if you want to stop them, you have to
get rid of that energy somehow. If you're on a bicycle going fairly slowly, you
can simply put your feet down so they drag on the ground. The soles of your
feet act as brakes. Friction (rubbing) between the rough ground and the grip
on your soles slows you down, converting your kinetic energy into heat energy
(do it long enough and your shoes will get hot). Brakes on vehicles work pretty
much the same way, with "shoes" that press rubber pads (brake blocks)
against discs mounted to the wheels. (Find out more about this in our main
article on brakes.) Even if you make brakes from super-strong, hard-wearing
materials like Kevlar®, they're still going to wear out sooner or later. But there
are other problems with friction brakes. The faster you go, the harder they
have to work to get rid of your kinetic energy, and the quicker they'll wear
out. Use your brakes too often and you may suffer a problem called brake
fade, where heat builds up too much in the brakes or the hydraulic system
that operates them and the brakes can no longer work as effectively. What if
your brakes can't stop you in time?

In Motorcycle brakes , When you pull on the brake handle,

a hydraulic cable applies the brake pads to the brake rotor disc, slowing the
machine down by converting your kinetic energy to heat. The tire doesn't
normally play much part in braking unless you brake really hard: then the
wheel will lock completely and friction between the tire and the road will bring
you to a sudden halt, leaving a rubber skid mark on the road. That's not a
good way to brake: it'll wear out your tires very quickly.
5. “Brake Fading” Effect

The conventional friction brake can absorb and convert enormous energy
values (25h.p. without self-destruction for an 5-axle truck, Reverdin1974),
but only if the temperature rise of the friction contact materials is controlled.
This high energy conversion therefore demands an appropriate rate of heat
dissipation if a reasonable temperature and performance stability are to be
maintained. Unfortunately, design, construction, and location features all
severely limit the heat dissipation function of the friction brake to short and
intermittent periods of application. This could lead to a ‘brake fade’ problem
(reduction of the coefficient of friction, less friction force generated) due to
the high temperature caused by heavy brake demands. The main reasons why
conventional friction brakes fail to dissipate heat rapidly are as follows:
- poor ventilation due to encapsulation in the road wheels,
- diameter restriction due to tire dimensions,
- width restrictions imposed by the vehicle spring designer;
- problems of drum distortion at widely varying temperatures.

It is common for friction-brake drums to exceed 500 °C surface temperatures

when subject to heavy braking demands, and at temperatures of this order, a
reduction in the coefficient of friction (‘brake fade’) suddenly occurs. The
potential hazard of tire deterioration and bursts is perhaps also serious due to
the close proximity of overheated brake drums to the inner diameter of the
tire.
5. Retarders

Retarders are means of of overcoming the above problems by augmenting a

vehicle’s foundation brakes with a device capable of opposing vehicle motion
at relatively low levels of power dissipation for long periods. There are several
retarder technologies currently available. Two major kinds are the
hydrokinetic brake and the exhaust brake. Hydrokinetic brake uses fluid as
the working medium to oppose rotary motion and absorb energy .
Hydrodynamic brakes are often built into hydrodynamic transmissions .
Exhaust brakes use a valve which is fitted into the exhaust pipe between the
exhaust manifold and silencer. When this valve is closed air is compressed
against it through the open exhaust valve by the piston rising on the exhaust
stroke. In that way the engine becomes a low pressure single stage
compressor driven by the vehicle’s momentum, resulting in a retarding effect
being transmitted through the transmission to the driving road wheels. The
power-producing engine is converted into a power absorbing air compressor .
This approach could put a lot of stress on the cylinder and exhaust system.
So it may require extra engineering efforts to implement this system. As a
brake applied to the engine, exhaust brakes can only absorb as much power
as the engine can deliver. But the power absorbed in braking is usually greater
than the power absorbed in driving. Compared with these retarders,
electromagnetic brakes have greater power capability, simplicity of installation
and controllability.
6-construction-

The construction of the electromagnetic braking system is very simple. The

parts needed for the construction are electro magnets, rheostat, sensors and
magnetic insulator. A cylindrical ring shaped electro magnet with winding is
placed parallel to rotating wheel disc/ rotor. The electro magnet is fixed, like
as stator and coils are wounded along the electromagnet. These coils are
connected with electrical circuit containing one rheostat which is connected
with brake pedal. And the rheostat is used to control the electric current
flowing in the coils which are wounded on the electro magnet and a magnetic
insulator is used to focus and control the magnetic flux. And also it is used to
prevent the magnetisation of other parts like axle and it act as a support frame
for the electromagnet. The sensors used to indicate the disconnection in the
whole circuit. If there is any error it gives an alert, so we can avoid
accident. Working principle : At the initial stage the brake pedal and rheostat
are in rest. When we apply the brake through the brake pedal, the rheostat
allows the current to flow through the circuit and this current energise the
electromagnet. The amount of current flow is controlled by the rheostat.
Depending on the current flow different amount of magnetic flux can be
obtained. By this varying magnetic flux, different mode of brakes can be
obtained. For example, if we want to suddenly stop the vehicle then press
the brake pedal fully, then the rheostat allos maximum current which is
enough to stop the vehicle. Similarly we can reduce the speed of the vehicle
by applying the brake gradually.
7. General Principle and Advantage of Electromagnetic
Brakes (retarders)
Installation Location
Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy all the
energy requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the use of
friction. Due to its specific installation location (transmission line of rigid
vehicles), electro magnetic brakes have better heat dissipation capability to
avoid problems that friction brakes face as we mentioned before. Typically,
electromagnetic brakes have been mounted in the transmission line of
vehicles, The propeller shaft is divided and fitted with a sliding universal joint
and is connected to the coupling flange on the brake. The brake is fitted into
the chassis of the vehicle by means of anti-vibration mounting. The practical
location of the retarder within the vehicle prevents the direct impingement of
air on the retarder caused by the motion of the vehicle. Any air flow movement
within the chassis of the vehicle is found to have a relatively insignificant effect
on the air flow around tire areas and hence on the temperature of both front
and rear discs. So the application of the retarder does not affect the
temperature of the regular brakes. In that way, the retarders help to extend
the life span of the regular brakes and keep the regular brakes cool for
emergency situation. Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool
condition and satisfy all
the energy requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the
use
of friction. Due to its specific installation location (transmission line of rigid
vehicles).
There are in existence several types of electromagnetic retarder.
In particular, there are electromagnetic retarders of the axial type and
electromagnetic retarders of the Focal type. An electromagnetic retarder of
the axial type is designed to be placed on a transmission shaft between a rear
axle and a gearbox of the vehicle. In that case, the transmission shaft is in
two parts, for mounting between those of the retarder. An electromagnetic
retarder of the Focal type is designed to be placed directly on a transmission
shaft on the output side of the gearbox or on the axle of the vehicle. The axle
of a vehicle drives at least one road wheel, which road wheel drives at least
one wheel of the same vehicle.
8. Working Principle-

The working principle of the electric retarder is based on the creation of eddy
currents within a metal disc rotating between two electromagnets, which sets
up a force opposing the rotation of the disc . If the electromagnet is not
energized, the rotation of the disc is free and accelerates uniformly under the
action of the weight to which its shaft is connected. When the electromagnet
is energized, the rotation of the disc is retarded and the energy absorbed
appears as heating of the disc. If the current exciting the electromagnet is
varied by a rheostat, the braking torque varies in direct proportion to the value
of the current. It was the Frenchman Raoul Sarazin who made the first vehicle
application of eddy current brakes. The development of this invention began
when the French company Telma, associated with Raoul
Sarazin, developed and marketed several generations of electric brakes based
on the functioning principles described above . A typical retarder consists of
stator and rotor. The stator holds 16 induction coils, energized separately in
groups of four. The coils are made up of varnished aluminum wire mounded
in epoxy resin. . The rotor is made up of two discs, which provide the braking
force. when subject to the electromagnetic influence when the coils are
excited. Careful design of the fins, which are integral to the disc, permit
independent cooling of the arrangement.
9. Electric Control System

The energization of the retarder is operated by a hand control mounted on

the steering column of the vehicle. This control has five positions: the first is
‘off’, and the four remaining positions increase the braking power in sequence.
This hand-control system can be replaced by an automatic type that can
operate mechanically through the brake pedal. In this case, the contacts are
switched on successively over the slack movement of the brake pedal. The
use of an automatic control must be coupled with a cut-off system operating
at very low vehicle speed in order to prevent energization of the retarder while
the vehicle is stationary with the driver maintaining pressure on the brake
pedal. Both the manual control and the automatic control activate four
solenoid contractors in the relay box, which in turn close the four groups of
coil circuits within the electric brake at either 24 volts or 12 volts, as
appropriate (Reverdin 1974 and Omega Technologies).
10-TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKE

(1)-Single Disc Electromagnetic Brakes-

Features:-

 Brake is used to Brake and maintain the rotating body

 Designed for dry-operation
 Slim Brakes with good performance and can quickly stop loads
 Lightweight and easy to mount in any machinery
 We manufacture Single Disc Electromagnetic Brakes - Equivalents to
world leading manufacturers like:Intorq, Lenze, KEB, PSP, Miki-Pulley
and more

Technical Features:

 These can quickly stop loads

 Technical Features Torque: 3NM to 500NM

 Single Plate Dry Type
  High Operating Reliability / frequency
 Simple Construction
 Unique pre-stressed spring
 Raw material to DIN standards
 Special friction material
 Can be used in mounting positions
 Different armature designs are available for different applications
 Different voltages options are also available on request.

(2)-Multi-Disc Electromagnetic Brakes -Brake with magnet body front

face fastened to housing For oil operation.

Equivalents to ZF Brakes - EK 1B, EK 2DB, EK 5DB, EK 10EB, EK 20DB, EK 20EB, EK

40DB, EK 40EB, EK 60DB, EK 80B, EK 120EB, EK 160B, EK 320B.
Technical Features:

 Coil Voltage: 24 V
 Torque: 3 N-m to 3600 N-m
 Compact design
 Electromagnetic brakes are provided
 With or without outer carrier, jaw and driver
 With inner & outer multiple discs.

(3)Single face brake

Main article: Friction-plate electromagnetic couplings

A friction-plate brake uses a single plate friction surface to engage the

input and output members of the clutch. Single face electromagnetic
brakes make up approximately 80% of all of the power applied brake
applications.

(4)Power off brake

Electormagnetic Power Off Brake Spring Set

Power off brakes stop or hold a load when electrical power is either
accidentally lost or intentionally disconnected. In the past, some
companies have referred to these as "fail safe" brakes. These brakes are
typically used on or near an electric motor. Typical applications include
robotics, holding brakes for Z axis ball screws and servo motor brakes.
Brakes are available in multiple voltages and can have either standard
backlash or zero backlash hubs. Multiple disks can also be used to
increase brake torque, without increasing brake diameter. There are 2
main types of holding brakes. The first is spring applied brakes. The
second is permanent magnet brakes.

(a) Spring type - When no electricity is applied to the brake, a spring

pushes against a pressure plate, squeezing the friction disk between the
inner pressure plate and the outer cover plate. This frictional clamping
force is transferred to the hub, which is mounted to a shaft.

(b)Permanent magnet type – A permanent magnet holding brake looks

very similar to a standard power applied electromagnetic brake. Instead
of squeezing a friction disk, via springs, it uses permanent magnets to
attract a single face armature. When the brake is engaged, the permanent
magnets create magnetic lines of flux, which can turn attract the armature
to the brake housing. To disengage the brake, power is applied to the coil
which sets up an alternate magnetic field that cancels out the magnetic
flux of the permanent magnets.

Both power off brakes are considered to be engaged when no power is

applied to them. They are typically required to hold or to stop alone in the
event of a loss of power or when power is not available in a machine
circuit. Permanent magnet brakes have a very high torque for their size,
but also require a constant current control to offset the permanent
magnetic field. Spring applied brakes do not require a constant current
control, they can use a simple rectifier, but are larger in diameter or would
need stacked friction disks to increase the torque.

(5)Particle brake

Magnetic Particle Brake

Magnetic particle brakes are unique in their design from other electro-
mechanical brakes because of the wide operating torque range available.
Like an electro-mechanical brake, torque to voltage is almost linear;
however, in a magnetic particle brake, torque can be controlled very
accurately (within the operating RPM range of the unit). This makes these
units ideally suited for tension control applications, such as wire winding,
foil, film, and tape tension control. Because of their fast response, they
can also be used in high cycle applications, such as magnetic card readers,
sorting machines and labeling equipment.

Magnetic particles (very similar to iron filings) are located in the powder
cavity. When electricity is applied to the coil, the resulting magnetic flux
tries to bind the particles together, almost like a magnetic particle slush.
As the electric current is increased, the binding of the particles becomes
stronger. The brake rotor passes through these bound particles. The output
of the housing is rigidly attached to some portion of the machine. As the
particles start to bind together, a resistant force is created on the rotor,
slowing, and eventually stopping the output shaft.

When electricity is removed from the brake, the input is free to turn with
the shaft. Since magnetic particle powder is in the cavity, all magnetic
particle units have some type of minimum drag associated with them.

(6)Hysteresis power brake

Electomagnetic Hysteresis Power Brake

Electrical hysteresis units have an extremely wide torque range. Since
these units can be controlled remotely, they are ideal for test stand
applications where varying torque is required. Since drag torque is
minimal, these units offer the widest available torque range of any of the
hysteresis products. Most applications involving powered hysteresis units
are in test stand requirements.

When electricity is applied to the field, it creates an internal magnetic flux.

That flux is then transferred into a hysteresis disk passing through the
field. The hysteresis disk is attached to the brake shaft. A magnetic drag
on the hysteresis disk allows for a constant drag, or eventual stoppage of
the output shaft.

When electricity is removed from the brake, the hysteresis disk is free to
turn, and no relative force is transmitted between either member.
Therefore, the only torque seen between the input and the output is
bearing drag.
(7)Multiple disk brake

Electromagnetic Multiple Disk Brake

Multiple disk brakes are used to deliver extremely high torque within a
small space. These brakes can be used either wet or dry, which makes
them ideal to run in multi-speed gear box applications, machine tool
applications, or in off road equipment.

Electro-mechanical disk brakes operate via electrical actuation, but

transmit torque mechanically. When electricity is applied to the coil of an
electromagnet, the magnetic flux attracts the armature to the face of the
brake. As it does so, it squeezes the inner and outer friction disks together.
The hub is normally mounted on the shaft that is rotating. The brake
housing is mounted solidly to the machine frame. As the disks are
squeezed, torque is transmitted from the hub into the machine frame,
stopping and holding the shaft.

When electricity is removed from the brake, the armature is free to turn
with the shaft. Springs keep the friction disk and armature away from each
other. There is no contact between braking surfaces and minimal drag.

11-Characteristic of Electromagnetic Brakes-

It was found that electromagnetic brakes can develop a negative

power which represents nearly twice the maximum power output of a typical
engine, and at least three times the braking power of an exhaust brake . These
performance of electromagnetic brakes make them much more competitive
candidate for alternative retardation equipment compared with other
retarders. By using the electro-magnetic brake as supplementary10
retardation equipment, the friction brakes can be used less frequently, and
therefore practically never reach high temperatures. The brake linings would
last considerably longer before requiring maintenance, and the potentially
“brake fade” problem could be avoided. In research conducted by a truck
manufacturer, it was proved that the electromagnetic brake assumed 80
percent of the duty which would otherwise have been demanded of the regular
service brake . Furthermore, the electromagnetic brake prevents the dangers
that can arise from the prolonged use of brakes beyond their capability to
dissipate heat. This is most likely to occur while a vehicle descending a long
gradient at high speed. In a study with a vehicle with 5 axles and weighing 40
tons powered by an engine of 310 b.h.p traveling down a gradient of 6 percent
at a steady speed between 35 and 40 m.p.h, it can be calculated that the
braking power necessary to maintain this speed is the order of 450 h.p. The
braking effect of the engine even with a fitted exhaust brake is approximately
150 h.p. The brakes, therefore, would have to absorb 300 h.p,
meaning that each brake in the 5 axles must absorb 30 h.p, which is beyond
the limit of 25 h.p. that a friction brake can normally absorb without self
destruction. The electromagnetic brake is well suited to such conditions since
it will independently absorb more than 300 h.p . It therefore can exceed the
requirements of continuous uninterrupted braking, leaving the friction brakes
cool and ready for emergency braking in total safety. The installation of an
electromagnetic brake is not very difficult if there is enough space between
the gearbox and the rear axle. It does not need a subsidiary cooling system.
It does not rely on the efficiency of engine components for its use, as do
exhaust and hydrokinetic brakes. The electromagnetic brake also has better
controllability. The exhaust brake is an on/off device and hydrokinetic brakes
have very complex control system. The electro- magnetic brake control
system is an electric switching system which gives it superior controllability.
11 From the foregoing, it is apparent that the electro-magnetic brake is an
attractive complement to the safe braking of heavy vehicles.

12-Thermal Dynamics-

Thermal stability of the electromagnetic brakes is achieved by means of the

convection and radiation of the heat energy at high temperature. The major
part of the heat energy is imparted to the ventilation air which is circulating
vigorously through the fan of the heated disc. The value of the energy
dissipated by the fan can be calculated by the following expression:
 Q MCp (2.1)

where:
M = Mass of air circulated;
Cp = Calorific value of air;
= Difference in temperature between the air entering and the air leaving
the fan;
The electromagnetic brakes has excellent heat dissipation efficiency owing to
the high temperature of the surface of the disc which is being cooled and also
because the flow of air through the centrifugal fan is very rapid. Therefore,
the curie temperature of the disc material could never been reached .The
practical location of the electromagnetic brakes prevents the direct
impingement of air on the brakes caused by the motion of the vehicle. Any air
flow movement within the chassis of the vehicle is found to have a relatively
12 insignificant effect on the air flow and hence temperature of both front and
rear discs. Due to its special mounting location and heat dissipation
mechanism, electromagnetic brakes have better thermal dynamic
performance than regular friction brakes.

13-MERITS-
 Quick operation
 Accuracy is more.
 It reduces the manual effort.
 In electromagnetic braking system maintenance is very less.
 electromagnetic braking system work is done very fast, because of
electronic component. And flowing of current is very fast.
 Very less effort is required to apply the brake.‡
 It is reasonable as compare with other brakes.
14-DERMIRTS-

 Cylinder stroke length is constant

 Need a separate compressor
 Maintenance of the equipment components such as hoses,
valves has to done periodically.
15-APPLICATION -

 Used in crane control system

 Used in winch controlling
 Used in lift controlling Used in automobile purpose
 In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an
electromagnetic braking component.
 Trams and trains use electromagnetic track brakes where the braking
element is pressed by magnetic force to the rail. They are
distinguished from mechanical track brakes, where the braking
element is mechanically pressed on the rail.
 Electric motors in industrial and robotic applications also employ
electromagnetic brakes.
16- Summary

With all the advantages of electromagnetic brakes over friction brakes, they
have been widely used on heavy vehicles where the ‘brake fading’ problem is
serious. The same concept is being developed for application on lighter
vehicles.