Mo Dule 1 7A - 02 Propeller: Propellerconstruction

AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 17A - Propeller
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 02 – Propeller construction

Level  1  2  3
Mo dule 1 7A - 02
Propeller
PropellerConstruction
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Level  1  2  3
Table of contents
I. BLADE STATION, BLADE FACE, BLADE SHANK AND HUB ASSEMBLY.......................................................................................................................... 4

1. TERMINOLOGY:................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1. Hub assembly:................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
1.2. Three blade, constant speed propeller hub assembly:................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3. Hub assembly example:................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.1. Attach mounting hub half:........................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
1.2.2. Insert blades in hub mounting half:.......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.3. Alternative method:.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.2.4. Repitching:............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.5. Continued airworthiness requirements:................................................................................................................................................................. 10
II. CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND MATERIALS USED IN WOODEN, COMPOSITE AND METAL PROPELLER........................................................... 11
1. WOODEN PROPELLERS:................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
1.1. Wooden fixed pitch propellers:..................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2. Construction of traditional wood propeller:................................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.3. Composite wood propellers:......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
2. COMPOSITE PROPELLERS:............................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
2.1. Types of composite propellers:..................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2. Properties of composite propellers:.............................................................................................................................................................................. 17
2.1.1. High performance:................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
2.1.2. Propeller life:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.3. Vibrations:.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
2.1.4. Weather:................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
3. METAL PROPELLERS:...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
3.1. General characteristics:............................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
3.2. Identification:................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
4. DESIGN AND PRODUCTION:............................................................................................................................................................................................ 20
4.1. Identification:................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 20
4.2. The number of blades:................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
4.3. The velocity:................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
4.4. The diameter:............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
4.5. Lift and drag distributions............................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
4.4. The fluid density:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
III. FIXED PITCH, CONTROLABLE PITCH, CONSTANT SPEEDING PROPELLER.............................................................................................................. 25
1. FIXED PITCH PROPELLER:.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
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2. GROUND ADJUSTABLE PROPELLER: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
3. CONSTANT SPEED OR AUTOMATIC PROPELLER: ........................................................................................................................................................ 28
3.2. Cuffs of feet of blades: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
4. OTHER CHARACTERISTICS: ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
4.1. Reversible propeller: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
4.2. Variable pitch propeller with flag capability: .................................................................................................................................................................... 33
IV. PROPELLER/SPINNER INSTALLATION ............................................................................................................................................................................ 34
1. SPINNER PRECAUTIONS: ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
2. SPINNER INSTALLATION: ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
2.1. Preparation of installation: .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
2.2. Assembly:........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
2.3. Spinner installation: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
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I. BLADE STATION, BLADE FACE, BLADE SHANK AND HUB ASSEMBLY
1. TERMINOLOGY:
Parts of propeller blades
The typical propeller blade can be described as a twisted airfoil of irregular planform. For purposes of analysis, a blade can be divided into
segments, which are located by station numbers in inches from the centre of the blade hub.
 The blade shank is the thick, rounded portion of the propeller blade near the hub, which is designed to give strength to the blade.
 The blade butt, also called the blade base or root, is the end of the blade which fits in the propeller hub.
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 The blade tip is that part of the propeller blade farthest from the hub, generally defined as the last 6 inches of the blade. This section or blade
element is an airfoil comparable to a cross section of an aircraft wing.
 The blade back (or cambered side) is the cambered or curved side of the blade, similar to the upper surface of an aircraft wing.
 The blade face (or flat side) is the flat side of the propeller blade.
 The chord line is an imaginary line drawn through the blade from the leading edge to the trailing, edge.
 The leading edge is the thick edge of the blade that meets the air as the propeller rotates. The trailing edge is opposite.
Blade angle, usually measured in degrees, is the angle between the chord of the blade and the plane of rotation.
The chord of the propeller blade is determined in about the same manner as the chord of an airfoil. In fact, a propeller blade can be considered as
being made up of an infinite number of thin blade elements, each of which is a miniature airfoil section whose chord is the width of the propeller
blade at that section.
Because most propellers have a flat blade face, the chord line is often drawn along the face of the propeller blade.
Note:
Pitch is not the same as blade angle, but, because pitch is largely determined by blade angle, the two terms are often used interchangeably.
An increase or decrease in one is usually associated with an increase
1.1. Hub assembly:

The propeller assembly process proceeds with static balance of the individual propeller blades as a set.
Each blade is balanced to determine the heaviest blade in the set. Weight in the form of lead wool is then added (compressed in place, inside
blade balance tube), in the lighter blade(s) making up the set, to bring the set of blades into balance.
Negligible unbalance or blade twist variation is measured as a result of the precise blade moulding process.
The build proceeds with the blades assembled in the constant speed hub together with the detail hub parts (e.g. links, bearings, cylinder, piston).
Blade low pitch and high pitch stop angles are measured at each blade's reference station and adjusted, as required, where all critical assembly
data/dimensions is recorded.
The propeller pitch change mechanism is then activated pneumatically on the assembly stand to confirm proper pitch change actuation. The
propeller is then statically balanced as an assembly with fasteners safety-wired in place.
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The propeller assembly is then given a final inspection, paper work is checked for completeness and compliance with customer/propeller build
requirements, and the propeller is then packaged in a specially fabricated and sturdy wooden shipping container in preparation for shipment to
the customer.
1.2. Three blade, constant speed propeller hub assembly:

The full illustration shows an example of the hub assembly, the spinner (the domed cover over the hub), the attaching parts of the spinner to the prop,
and the attaching parts of the prop to the front flange of the engine.
The blades take up most of the diameter and have been shortened in the image above since they are of little interest.
Below, the hub has been enlarged and the spinner has been removed to show the details of the blade roots, hub body and counterweights.
The propeller is held to the engine with 6 large bolts (not shown) which are wire-locked into place.
The 3 blades of the propeller can rotate about each one's own axis so that a coarser or finer pitch can be set; the coarser the pitch, the more thrust
generated by the propeller and also the slower the engine runs.
The pitch of the propeller is set by a hand lever in the cockpit.
This type of propeller is a 'constant-speed propeller'.
In this illustration, the hub was generated by intersecting 3 cylinders at 120° to each other. The covers at the front of the hub are simple cylinders
stacked with a bit of a chamfered detail or conic section.
The end-stop locknuts were added to complete the front part.
The backplate is a conical section at the outer rim with a short cylinder at the centre. This combination gives the effect of the backplate appearing as if
it's a circular disc where the edge has been rolled down into a flange. Captive nuts are then riveted onto the inside rim of the flange for screwing the
spinner on.
The frontplate is a cylindrical pipe section at the outer 1/4" rim.
Inside this is a narrower cylindrical section with 8 circular holes drilled through it to form the web of the frontplate. And the central section is another
cylindrical pipe section.
A circular tube is drawn around the circumference of the outer section to represent the rubber ring against which the spinner presses.
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1.3. Hub assembly example:

1.2.1. Attach mounting hub half:
 Place rear spinner plate (if used) and the hub mount half, as shown in Figure (a), on the engine or reduction unit mounting flange. (Vertical
orientation of the hub is recommended.) Insert drive bushings through the back face of the engine flange and into the hub mount half.
 Check for proper bushing and pilot stub fit into the hub mount half. The hub must sit flush on the mounting flange.
 Place lock washers on bolts and insert into the 6 mounting holes inside the hub mount half.
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 Place lock washers and lock nuts on the bolt threads and torque the 6 bolts using a star pattern.
Note:
The hub must sit flush against the mounting flange. Some installations may require a hub spacer kit or trimming of the drive bushings for
proper fit on the engine flange.
Bolt breakage will occur if not flush.
Hub assembly example

1.2.2. Insert blades in hub mounting half:
 3. Insert the pitch cylinder into the hub mount half, aligning the blade pin slots with the hub barrels. Each blade has a round side and a flat side,
with the round side facing forward into the wind. The next operation will require two people to accomplish. Insert one blade at a time into the hub
mounting half, taking care to insert the blade pitch pin into the blade pin slot, then rotating the blade shank fully into the hub.
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 Place the hub cover half over the blades. Place lock washers on clamp bolts and insert into the hub cover half.
 Hand tightens the clamp bolts into the threaded clamp bushings, taking care to maintain an even gap between hub halves on all sides. Grasp
each blade shank and firmly pull outwards to seat each blade in the hub.
 Set blade pitch by grasping each blade shank and twisting the blades in opposite directions. Align the index mark on the pitch cylinder with
the appropriate pitch setting on the hub.
1.2.3. Alternative method:

A propeller protractor may be used to set blade pitch. Since some blades have high performance round airfoils, the protractor ca not be placed at
the blade tip. Mark a straight line from leading edge to trailing edge approximately 3” in from each tip and use protractor to set individual blade
angles. Set each blade within ¼ degree to each other.
 Using a torque wrench and rotating from bolt to bolt, tighten the bolts evenly to the proper torque given. This may take several passes
around the bolts.
 Check the blade pitch setting for rotation away from your desired pitch setting. Once properly torqued, a small gap may remain between hub
halves. Check the propeller blades for track. The blades should track within 1/8” of each other at the tip. Setting the pitch accurately is more
important than track from blade to blade.
 Run your propeller for approximately 5 minutes at 50% of the desired RPM. Check the clamping bolts to see if they have lost torque. If they
have, it is because the blades have firmly seated themselves. Tighten again to the proper torque.
Note:
This torque value should be checked after the first 5 hours of operation and every 25 hours thereafter.
 Run up the propeller to check your pitch for desired maximum RPM. Remember, the propeller will pick up RPM at full throttle/level flight. If
your RPM’s are too low, adjust the blades to a lower pitch setting. If the RPM’s are too high, adjust the blades to a higher pitch setting.
1.2.4. Repitching:
If repitching is needed, loosen the clamp bolts, twist blade shanks to new pitch setting, then re-tighten clamp bolts according to desired value.
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1.2.5. Continued airworthiness requirements:
The following will help you to operate your propeller safely, keep it looking good and help it to last longer.
 Do not spin your propeller above the propeller RPM Limits given.
 Check hub clamping bolts every 25 hours of operation. Always check in a tightening direction.
 Before each flight, carefully examine the propeller blades and hub for looseness, any signs of damage, excessive wear or any other
condition that would make the propeller unsafe to operate.
 When the propeller is not in use, place the propeller in a horizontal position (or upside-down “Y” for 3 blades) and if it is exposed to weather,
cover it with a waterproof cover.
 Do not use the propeller as a tow-bar to move the aircraft.
 Finish loss off the leading edge is a normal wear item, and is dependent on the amount of operation in rain and grit.
 Assume that your propeller is un-airworthy after any kind of impact until it has been inspected by qualified personnel.
 Check bolt torque whenever there is evidence of roughness on operation. For new installations, rotating the propeller 180 degrees and
reinstalling will often help.
 If your propeller begins to show any of the following damage, it must be repaired (if possible) or retired from service:
o Cracks in the metal hub or bolts,
o Loose metal leading edge,
o A crack across the blade,
o A long or deep crack along the blade length,
o Any portion of composite material missing,
o Obvious damage or wear beyond economical repair.
Note:
There is no specified overhaul time. The propeller is removed from service when it does not meet the continued airworthiness requirements.
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II. CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND MATERIALS USED IN WOODEN, COMPOSITE AND METAL PROPELLER
1. WOODEN PROPELLERS:
Wooden propellers are the lightest and present the smallest load to an engine assuming all else is equal (diameter, pitch and shape). They are
capable of turning higher RPM than a heavier propeller.
Wooden propellers are also the most easily broken. Generally, wood propellers are the most efficient and best performing in the air.
Wooden propeller
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Wooden propellers were used almost exclusively on personal and business aircraft.
A wood propeller is not cut from a solid block but is built up of a number of separate layers of carefully selected .any types of wood have been used in
making propellers, but the most satisfactory are yellow birch, sugar mable, black cherry, and black walnut.
The use of lamination of wood will reduce the tendency for propeller to warp.
For standard one-piece wood propellers, from five to nine separate wood laminations about 3/4 in. thick is used.
1.1. Wooden fixed pitch propellers:

The propellers out of wooden with fixed pitch must be built so that their pitch does not have to be changed after their exit of the factory. The
determination of their pitch is stopped according to the normal use of the propeller on an aircraft flying horizontally to the maximum mode of its engine.
Impossibility of modifying the angle of blade pitch of the propellers with pitch fixes limiting their application to the small aircraft been driven by not very
powerful engines for which the best performance of the engine whatever the flying conditions does not have the same importance that sweats the
larger aircraft.
The propeller out of wooden with fixed pitch, thanks to its lightness, for its rigidity, its low manufacturing cost, the simplicity of its construction, and its
facility of its replacement, is appropriate very well for these light aircraft.
A propeller out of wooden is not built in only one block, but it is consisted a certain number of distinct layers cut out in wood hard carefully selected and
perfectly dried.
One then lets dry this outline of propeller during one week approximately to allow the moisture contained in the various layers to be distributed in a
homogeneous way.
This period of additional desiccation eliminates the risks from deformation and fissure which could occur if the outline of propeller were immediately
worked.
This run out time, the propeller is made carefully.
One uses the shapes of bench to work, in all his points, according to the profile and the selected angle of attack.
Once that the blades of the propeller are finished, one sticks a coating in fabric on the last 12 to 15 inches (30 to 40 centimetres) of each blades, and
one also fixes over almost all the length of the leading edge a metal edge having for role to protect the propeller against the solid particles being able
to fly in the air at the time of the landing, of takeoff or when the aircraft runs on the ground.
The metal of coating can be terneplate, Monel metal, or brass. The stainless steel was used to a certain extent.
The metal coating is fixed at the edge of attack of the blade using screw or rivets at wood at embedded head.
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Fixed pitch wooden propeller
The heads of the screws or rivets are then welded with the metal of coating to prevent which they do not loosen, after which one files at the place of
the welding to obtain a perfectly smooth surface.
Because of the risks of condensation of moisture on the level of the leading edge between metal and wood, the coating is bored small holes near the
leading edge to make it possible water to run out or to escape under the effect of the centrifugal force.
It is significant to make so that these holes of exit of water are constantly released.
Owing to the fact that wood is prone to swelling, the contraction, and the roll due to the variations of its moisture content, the propeller finished once is
covered with a coating of protection intended to avoid the abrupt variations of this water content.
The finishing coat most usually used is a varnish clearly damp-proof applied in several layers. When all these operations are completed, one mounts
the propeller on an axis and one carries out on it a very meticulous balancing.
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There are various types of hub being used to mount the propellers drink some on the crankshaft of the engines. The propeller can be fitted with a
forged steel hub adapting in grooves of the crankshaft. It can still be forged by bolts on a flange punt out of steel hammered at the end of the
crankshaft. But in all the cases, it is necessary to envisage various fasteners to firmly mount the propeller on its shaft.
To suitably adapt a propeller to a fluted shaft, one can use a nose cone and a tail cone.
The tail cone is a bronze cone of only one part which adapts around the shaft and against the nut of obstinate (or braces) and encases itself in the
seat of tail cone of the hub.
The nose cone is a steel cone in two parts, split, provided a throat around its circumference interior for being able to adapt on a flange of the fastening
bolt of the propeller.
When the fastening bolt is screwed in its housing, the nose cone is encased in the seat of nose cone hub. A ring of reserve is adjusted in the throat of
the hub in front of the nose cone, so that, when the fastening bolt is unscrewed propeller shaft, the nose cone acts against the ring of reserve and
makes leave the propeller out of the shaft.
There is a type of hub on which the nose cone is replaced by a bronze bush. When a hub of this type is used, it can be necessary to have recourse to
an extractor to separate the propeller from its shaft.
A spacer of tail cone accompanies sometimes the assembly by propeller for fluted shaft so as to prevent the propeller from coming to touch the
bonnet. A broad flange on the rear face of certain types of hubs makes useless the use of a spacer of tail cone.
A type of hub which is used for the propellers out of wooden with fixed pitch is that which consists in a device of steel, inserted in the propeller itself,
and which one installs directly on the shaft.
It is a formed device of two main parts, the flange plate and flask. The flange flask is a steel flange comprising a grooved internal boring where comes
to encase the propeller shaft.
The end of the flange flask contrary to the disc of the flange is fitted with an external groove on which the plate comes to adapt. The hole of boring of
the plate is fitted with grooves corresponding to these external grooves.
The plate and the flask comprise each one a series of holes which correspond bored on the surface of the discs and centered on the centre of the hub.
The boring of the flange flask is finished by a cone with 30° at its rear end, and by a cone with 15° at its front end to allow the precise centering of the
hub on the propeller shaft.
1.2. Construction of traditional wood propeller:

 Wood selection:
This process is not the choice of wood species but rather the careful selection of individual boards of wood to be joined in a way to achieve
maximum strength as well as balance.
Since wood is not uniform in density, simple mass gluing of boards is likely to result in uneven distributions of weight within the propeller.
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In addition, wood grain (annual ring orientation) was carefully matched to produce equal stiffness, or resistance to torsional deflection, in
each blade.
Following the matching of wood by weight and grain, the rough outline of the individual piece, based on its position within the propeller was
cut out for gluing.
 Gluing:
A relatively straightforward process, pre-selected boards were heated, warm glue applied to opposing surfaces, and multiple special clamps
applied at short intervals along the entire length of the blade, beginning at the hub.
Clamps were left in place for 24 hours or more, and then the rough form allowed curing for several days before milling.
 Shaping:
As production demand increased, a variety of machines were created to accurately obtain the final shape, some producing multiple
propellers in one process.
As part of the shaping process, the centre of the propeller was placed on a knife edge balancing device, and small amounts of wood were
removed to obtain precise balance.
At the completion of the final shaping, after inspection of the product, the final drill holes were created in the hub, and specification numbers
stamped into the wood.
 Finishing:
Finishing the surface was smoothed with furniture scrapers or sanding materials, then in some cases, the tips were covered with fabric and
/or metal sheathing before multiple coats of varnish were applied.
 Many times the final balancing of the blades was actually accomplished by the uneven application of varnish.
1.3. Composite wood propellers:

Composite wood propellers are cut in blocks made of beech layers glued and pressed according to an industrial process. Generally, composite wood
propellers associate the natural resistance of wood fibbers and the characteristics of the modern resins.
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The propeller structure is strengthened by fibber glass layers or carbon fibber layers. The resins and varnishes offer additional protection against
sun, rain and stones.
The natural capacity of wood to soften vibrations avoids propeller flutter.
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2. COMPOSITE PROPELLERS:
2.1. Types of composite propellers:
 Fibreglass-filled nylon propellers are the heaviest propellers and also the most durable. These are a good choice for beginners because they
hold up better than other types to propeller strikes. They are less efficient than wood or carbon fibre propellers, however.
 Carbon Fibre Propellers are light, but extremely expensive. I have seen carbon fibre propellers only for large engines. They may be available
in smaller sizes in the future.
 All of the above propeller materials maintain their shape well under load. Wood and carbon fibre are best.
 Fibreglass-filled nylon propellers are the most flexible of propellers that I recommend, but not enough to cause significant problems.
 Nylon propellers are so flexible that they twist in use which means they are constantly changing pitch. This flexing also creates a lot of
vibration. Nylon propellers are just bad. Don't use them.
2.2. Properties of composite propellers:

2.1.1. High performance:
Lightweight, composite material allows blades to be built with a special cross-section dimension, which increases take-off and climb
performance.
The capability of constructing multi-blade propellers with a smaller diameter eliminates high-speed drag and increases cruise speed. Wood and
metal propeller blades built to these dimensions would be too heavy.
The reduction in diameter also reduces noise while increasing ground clearance.
A lightweight propeller increases the useful load of the aircraft and also reduces the stress on the engine and crankshaft.
2.1.2. Propeller life:

Natural composite propeller blades will not fatigue over time whereas metal propeller blades are life-limited by fatigue and dimension.
Natural composite propellers are unique in that each overhaul returns the blades to their original dimension by adding composite material to the
damaged section of the blade.
.
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Example of leading edge stainless protections

In the event of a ground strike, the blades are often reparable, the hub is re-usable and the risk of an internal damage to the engine is significantly
reduced.
Generally, the blades are also protected by a replaceable stainless steel leading edge to prevent blade erosion. Stainless steel is more durable
than aluminum and makes these blades especially compatible for flying in rain or icing conditions
This leading edge is particularly useful in seaplane applications where water erosion is a concern.
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2.1.3. Vibrations:
Natural composite propellers drastically reduce vibration due to the light weight, low polar moment of inertia and high harmonic
dampening characteristics. In turn, this helps lengthening equipment life and makes flight more comfortable.
2.1.4. Weather:
The stainless steel leading edge and a multiple coating of fibreglass, Kevlar or carbon fibre protects the blade core against water damage and
erosion.
3. METAL PROPELLERS:
3.1. General characteristics:
Aluminium propellers have exceptional performances and a long-life propeller. Industrial production is easy and, generally the costs are cheap. They
can be 2, 3 bladed or more, fixed-pitch, ground adjustable pitch or controllable pitch.
Many metal propellers of the oldest models were machined in only one forged Duralumin part.
Compared with the propellers out of wooden, they were lighter owing to the fact that they did not comprise a chucking device of the blades.
Their maintenance was more economic owing to the fact that they were made of only one part.
They ensured a more effective cooling because of their useful pitch more brought closer to the hub; and, because there was no gasket between the
blades and the hub, it was possible to modify the pitch in some limit by a light torsion of the blades.
The metal propellers with fixed pitch generally resemble the propellers out of wooden, with this close which they generally have a meaner section.
These propellers are very much used on many light models of aircraft.
3.2. Identification:
Example:
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The propellers of this type are now manufactured of only one anodic aluminium part.
One identifies them by:
 the serial number,
 the number of the models,
 the number of the certificate of the authority,
 the number of the certificate of production, and
 quantifies it indicating the number of times where the propeller was renovated, these indications being printed by stamping on the hub.
The complete number of the model of the propeller is a combination of the basic number of the model and mixed codes corresponding to the diameter
and the pitch of the propeller considered.
4. DESIGN AND PRODUCTION:

4.1. Identification:
There are some modern software to design a propeller, It is very interesting if you want to design special propeller like ultra-high performance racing
propellers with supersonic tips or others, but a classical wood propeller don't need computational models,
All propeller have the same (approximate) structure and all propellers have good performance about 95%.
The design of a propeller usually starts with the definition of the desired or required characteristics.
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These can be a certain range of lift coefficients, Reynolds - or Mach numbers -, where the airfoil should perform best, stall characteristics, moment
coefficient, thickness, low drag, high lift, insensitivity with regard to dust and dirt, easy to build (flat bottom) or any combination of such requirements.
Design and production
When these requirements have been written down, the next step would be to look around, what's available. If there is an airfoil available, which
perfectly fits the desired conditions, why create a new one.
Often there is no existing airfoil, which fulfils all requirements, or the designer believes, that he can design something new with improved performance.
Starting from this point, each designer has his own way and his preferred tools to proceed.
Some like to use an inverse design code (example: Eppler code) to prescribe flow parameters and get the resulting geometry (airfoil) from the code.
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Others like to use a starting airfoil and use analysis codes (or a wind tunnel) to continue in a trial and error style (albeit with a lot of experience) to
find a better airfoil shape.
Another method is often used in combination with a numerical optimization code: a computer tries hundreds or even thousands of different airfoil
shape modifications until it cannot find further improvements.
A drawback of the numerical trial and error optimization process is that it can take a long time, and that the optimization programs tend to move into a
corner of the requirements.
The resulting airfoil might indeed have a low drag and high lift, but maybe only in a very small operating range and it may have catastrophic
stall characteristics.
It is very difficult to tell a computer, what the desired stall characteristics should look like, or what you expect from different flap settings.
Currently a good designer is still necessary to get good results, but he can use the computer and numerical optimization as a tool to perform
time consuming polishing work or to get hints on possible improvements.
The selection of an airfoil for a model aircraft depends mainly on the lift and drag characteristics of the airfoil. If no experimental data are
available, theoretical methods can be used to get an approximation of these data.
Whereas the lift can be calculated reasonable well from the frictionless pressure- respectively velocity distribution on the airfoil surface, the friction
drag can be determined by an analysis of the boundary layer with a lesser degree of accuracy.
There are several methods for the design and analysis of airfoils available. This section briefly presents two of the most popular computer
codes suitable for low Reynolds number airfoils.
Based on the theory of the optimum propeller (as developed by Betz, Prandtl, Glauert), only a small number of design parameters must be specified.
These are:
the number of blades,
the axial velocity of the flow (flight speed or boat speed),
the diameter of the propeller,
the selected distribution of airfoil lift and drag coefficients along the radius,
the desired thrust or the available shaft power,
the density of the medium (air: 1.22 kg/m³).
The design procedure creates the blade geometry in terms of the chord distribution along the radius as well as the distribution of the blade angle.
17A - 02- 22
Level  1  2  3
4.2. The number of blades:

The number of blades has a small effect on the efficiency only.
Usually a propeller with more blades will perform slightly better, as it distributes its power and thrust more evenly in its wake.
But for a given power or thrust, more blades also mean more narrow blades with reduced chord length, so practical limits have to be considered here.
The chord length can be increased while decreasing the diameter to keep the power consumption constant, but a diameter reduction is usually a
bad idea in terms of efficiency, as long as the tip Mach number or tip cavitation is not an issue.
4.3. The velocity:

The velocity of the incoming fluid together with the velocity of rotation (RPM) determines the pitch distribution of the propeller.
Large pitch propellers may have a good efficiency in their design point, but may run into trouble when the have to operate at axial velocity.
In this case, the blades tend to stall. Usually the best overall propellers will have a pitch to diameter ratio in the order of 1.
4.4. The diameter:

The propeller diameter has a big impact on performance.
Usually a larger propeller will have a higher efficiency, as it catches more incoming fluid and distributes its power and thrust on a larger fluid volume.
4.5. Lift and drag distributions

Instead of the lift and drag coefficients, it usually convenient to specify an airfoil with a prescribed polar and the design angle of attack at each radius.
In definition sections are spread along the radius where airfoil and the design angle of attack can be prescribed.
For maximum performance, the airfoils must operate at maximum ratio L/D. But if the propeller should also work reasonable well under off-
design conditions, it is usually necessary to use a lower angle of attack for the design.
4.4. The fluid density:

The density of the fluid has no influence on the efficiency of a propeller, but strongly affects its size and shape. As the forces and the power are
directly proportional to the fluid density, a hydro-propeller will have much smaller dimensions than a propeller working in air.
17A - 02- 23
Level  1  2  3
The tip sections of propellers operating at Mach numbers above 0.7 should be designed to operate at small lift coefficients below 0.5 too. The analysis
module uses the fluid density to calculate thrust and power during the multipoint analysis.
Thus a propeller engine combination will find different operating points depending on the fluid density. This makes a difference for aircraft propellers,
where the performance of propeller and engine depends on the altitude.
17A - 02- 24
Level  1  2  3
III. FIXED PITCH, CONTROLABLE PITCH, CONSTANT SPEEDING PROPELLER
There are several types of propellers, of which simplest are the propellers with fixed pitch, and the ground adjustable propellers. From these very simple
forms to the complex automatic systems with adjustable pitch, the propellers become increasingly intricate.
In the paragraphs, which will follow, we will review the various characteristics of several types of propellers, but without claiming to examine them all.
1. FIXED PITCH PROPELLER:

As its name indicates it, a fixed pitch propeller has a pitch, or angle of attack, given once during manufacture.
Once the completed propeller, one cannot modify his angle of attack any more. This type of propeller is generally out of wood or alloy of aluminium
and carried out of only one part.
Fixed pitch propeller
17A - 02- 25
Level  1  2  3
Two-blade fixed-pitch propeller
As the name implies, a fixed pitch propeller has the blade pitch (blade angle) built into the propeller. For that reason the pitch angle cannot be
changed by the pilot, as it can on controllable pitch propellers.
Generally, this type of propeller is constructed of wood or aluminum alloy.
The propellers with fixed pitch are built to have an ideal efficiency corresponding at a rotational speed and a given rate of advance.
They are built to adapt to a whole of inherent conditions at the same time at the speed of the engine and that of the aircraft, so that any variation of
these conditions a fall of the output as well engine involves as propeller.
The fixed pitch propellers are used on low power, low speed, and low range aircrafts.
17A - 02- 26
Level  1  2  3
2. GROUND ADJUSTABLE PROPELLER:
In automatically controllable pitch propeller systems, a control device adjusts the blade angle to maintain a specific preset engine RPM
without constant attention by the pilot.
Two-blade-ground-adjustable propeller
17A - 02- 27
Level  1  2  3
For example, if engine RPM increases as the result of a decreased load on the engine, the system automatically increase the propeller's blade angle
(increasing the air load) until the RPM has returned to the preset speed.
Three-blade-ground-adjustable propeller
3. CONSTANT SPEED OR AUTOMATIC PROPELLER:

In an automatic system, the pitch regulates, without pilot control, to maintain the rotation of the engine at a desired given speed. For example, if the
speed of the engine has suddenly increased, the control device automatically increases the angle of attack until desired speed is restored.
17A - 02- 28
Level  1  2  3
Adjustable speed propeller
17A - 02- 29
Level  1  2  3
Aircraft 610 Lycoming adjustable propeller system

A good automatic control device will have to answer small variations rotational speed such as, in the cases, which can arise in practice, a rotational
speed constant is maintained. The propellers with automatic control are called "constant speed propellers".
17A - 02- 30
Level  1  2  3
Additional improvements, such as reverse and flag setting, are fitted into the propellers in order to improve their operational characteristics.
These types of propellers can be of a model which cannot be put in flag, or they can be at the same time with setting in flag and not reversible. Their
steel hub consists of a central brace which supports aluminium blades by means of a tube passing inside the feet of blades.
Mounting flanges of blades connect the ends of the feet of blades to the bearings of reserve of the blades. A hydraulic cylinder, installed on the axis of
rotation connected to the mounting flanges of the blades orders the changes of pitch.
There are also propellers at constant speed fitted with counterweights fixed at the mounting flanges of the blades which use the centrifugal force
being exerted on these counterweights to increase the blade pitch.
The centrifugal force due to the rotation of the propeller tends to move the counterweights in the plan of rotation, which has as a result to increase
the blade pitch.
Mechanism of change of pitch of a counterweight propeller
To regulate the blade pitch, one uses a device with cylinder and piston which is installed on the brace of the hub. The piston is connected to the blade,
on the propellers without device of setting in flag by a system with sliding tube and fork, and by a system of control linkage on the propellers
comprising a device of setting in flag. The piston is thorough ahead by the oil pressure of the regulator when the aforementioned overrides the
opposite forces create by the counterweights.
17A - 02- 31
Level  1  2  3
A propeller being able to put itself in flag functions in the same way as a propeller not being able to put itself in flag, with this close which it comprises
a spring of setting in flag which is installed to assist the action of the counterweight in order to increase the blade pitch.
One puts the propeller in flag while ceasing making act the oil pressure, which allows oil imprisoned in the piston to turn over propeller in the engine, the
counterweights and the spring of setting in flag then making the blades of the propeller until the angle corresponding to the position in flag.
To prevent the spring of setting in flag from putting the propeller in flag when the aircraft is on the ground and that its engine is turned off, it is
envisaged stops of limitation great pitch. These stops are fixed at the stationary hub by bolts placed under the load of a spring which engages
the plates of limitation great pitches fixed on the mobile mounting flanges of the blades.
When the engine is turned off or when it turns at a speed lower than 500 t/mn, the stops prevent the pitch from increasing. As soon as the propeller
turns at a speed superior to 500t/mn, the centrifugal force causes the unlocking of the plates of stop. That makes it possible, if it is wished, to increase
the pitch of the propeller until its position in flag.
In the case of the propellers with reversible pitch, there is a second mechanism with oil circuit which ensures the rotation of the blades starting
from the full small pitch until the negative pitch.
Circuit is independent of the regulator, and its control is done by a manually actuated valve. When one removes the oil pressure of this secondary circuit
which is exerted on the propeller, the voltage within the competence of setting in flag brings back the blades towards the full small pitch
3.2. Cuffs of feet of blades:

A cuff of foot of blade is a plastic or wood, metal fairing, which is envisaged to be fixed on the foot of blade and whose form modifies the camber of the
foot of blade in airfoil.
The cuff of foot of blade with for role essential to increase the air flow arriving on the nacelle to cool the engine.
The cuffs of the feet of blades are fixed at the blades by attachment devices mechanical or an adhesive matter which are generally an
adhesive containing rubber or of epoxy.
The organic binders present risks of corrosion coming from the accumulator of moisture between the internal surface of the sleeve of foot of blade and
the external surface of the foot of blade.
4. OTHER CHARACTERISTICS:
4.1. Reversible propeller:
A propeller with reversible pitch is a propeller with adjustable pitch, in which one can, while rotating, give a negative value to the angle of attack. This
system is intended to produce a strong negative thrust. Although one can use the negative pitch, in flight, for the abrupt dives, one makes use of it
mainly as speed brake to roll over a less ground distance, during the landing run.
17A - 02- 32
Level  1  2  3
4.2. Variable pitch propeller with flag capability:
A propeller with flag capability is a variable pitch propeller equipped with a mechanism of change of pitch until an angle such as the advance of the
aircraft reduces the propeller drag to a minimum, when the engine is stopped.
The setting in flag of the propellers is used on multi-engines aircraft, when one of the engines breaks down, in order to reduce the propeller drag of the
dead engine.
17A - 02- 33
Level  1  2  3
IV. PROPELLER/SPINNER INSTALLATION
The propeller engine has a provision in the crankcase, ahead of the number one cylinder, for a hydraulic propeller installation. Also, the chrome moly-
crankshaft on some models is fitted with a pair of small propeller flange bushings which allow this shaft to accommodate a controllable-pitch
(constant-speed) propeller.
But crankshafts intended for constant speed propellers may not be substituted for shafts in fixed pitch installations unless the plug, in the rear of the hollow
front section of the shaft, is installed.
The plug would be removed when switching back from fixed-pitch to controllable pitch.
 Cylinders:
A propeller engine in the used market may or may not have chromed cylinder barrels. Never put chromed piston rings into a chromed cylinder barrel
because something has to give and chrome against chrome makes this impossible.
 Lubrication:
The mains, connecting rods, camshaft bearings, tappets, and pushrods are pressure lubricated. Oil collectors and spray lubricate the piston
pins, cylinder walls, and gears.
 Governor:
Generally, a propeller governor drive furnished with the propeller allows installation of a constant speed governor and a single - acting controllable
pitch propeller.
High pressure oil is carried from the governor, which is mounted on the accessory housing, to the front of the crankcase by way of an external oil
line.
The oil then flows into the hollow front section of the crankshaft through indexing holes in the crankcase, front main bearing, and crankshaft.
Example: Lycoming chromes the cylinder barrels of its higher power engines in manufacture, while Continental prefers to use chrome rings.
17A - 02- 34
Level  1  2  3
Lycoming system
17A - 02- 35
Level  1  2  3
1. SPINNER PRECAUTIONS:
Following these instructions will ensure that you spinner will last for many flight hours.
 Paint the spinner desired colour.
 Fit the spinner on the aircraft. Use the shims provided to adjust height so the holes line up with the bulkhead (if required).
 CAUTION: Ensure spinner is installed on the correct side (on 2 propeller A/C with counter-rotating props) to prevent damage to the spinner.
 Tighten check nut on the propeller dome and safety wire (if required).
 Install screws securing the spinner to the bulkhead. Use fiber/nylon washers and do not over torque.
 Check charge in the propeller dome and service (if required).
 Install spinner cap if (required).
2. SPINNER INSTALLATION:
2.1. Preparation of installation:
Before beginning assembly of the propeller/spinner, review the performance charts in the maintenance manual to be certain you have selected the
correct materials and pitch block degree for your aircraft.
 Carefully clamp the blade to a workbench and hacksaw the tip off. Make your cut slightly outboard of the mark so you can file up to the line.
No balancing is necessary if this is done properly.
 You may desire to paint your propeller and spinner a color other than the molded color. The paint is an alkyd epoxy and comes in a wide
choice of colours. The blades and spinner should be lightly sanded to give the surface best paint adhesion.
 Prime and paint the parts per the instructions on the cans. Be careful to paint all the blades exactly the same, with the same number of coats
to retain prop balance. The blades will be dry in a few hours, but full hardness is not reached for about two days. For repainting, the old paint
can be removed with a lacquer thinner.
2.2. Assembly:
 Now rotate the hub half of each remaining blade opening and repeat the correct positioning and seating of the pitch blocks.
 Slip the prop blades over the bolt pairs so that the flat side of each blade is face up, and slide the remaining pitch blocks down over the bolts
until each seats firmly against the blade under it.
17A - 02- 36
Level  1  2  3
 Press the other hub half over the bolts. Wiggle the blades up and down to align holes. At the most, only a slight rap with your palm should be
required to push the bolts through the hub half.
 Finish the assembly with one washer under each nut as shown in next.
 Move around the bolt circle several times and draw up lightly each time.
 Add the decals and prop tip striping tape to suit your taste. (These are enclosed in the owner’s data packet.) They increase the visibility of a
spinning prop.
 Remove the paper backing from the tape and wrap tape around, overlapping the ends at the trailing edge. Then peel the transparent carrier
film from the surface of the tape.
Important:
Torque value is in INCH POUNDS not in foot pounds. Check your torque wrench to avoid overtorquing. We strongly recommend NOT using a
Foot Pound wrench.
Warning:
The spinner should not be used on tractor installations. If it comes off, blade damage could affect performance during a critical phase of flight.
 Begin the prop assembly by pushing all the blade bolts through the flat, outer face of one hub with one washer under each bolt
head.
 Lay this hub half flat on your work area with the bolt heads down. Then rotate it so that any one of the blade openings and pair of
bolts are facing toward you.
 Hold a pitch block in the right position and slip it down over the pair of bolts until it seats firmly in the blade opening of the hub.
2.3. Spinner installation:

The correct operational position of the propeller is with the flat side of the blades toward the rear of the plane. In this attitude, the leading edges
of the blades are tilted forward in the hub.
The Ultra-Prop hub has been designed to fit as many engines as possible. A one-inch diameter pilot hole is provided and your airplane’s shaft or
the boss on your prop mounting flange must fit snugly into this hole.
17A - 02- 37
Level  1  2  3
Spinner assembly
For non-standard pilot holes, contact the factory for information concerning modification limits. Sanding, reaming or filing the hub is permissible but
must be done carefully to keep the hole concentric or the prop balance could be affected.
17A - 02- 38
Level  1  2  3
Spinner assembly
17A - 02- 39
Level  1  2  3
The twelve radial slotted holes in the hub will fit most flanges with appropriate bolt circles. We strongly recommend that if your propeller was attached
with correct bolts that you modify your mounting flange for a structurally superior installation.
Most wooden props use a backup plate when mounting the prop. This plate distributes mounting bolt loads and prevents crushing of the soft hub.
The propeller does not need this plate if heavy, large diameter A/N 970 type washers are substituted under the bolt heads. However, we recommend
use of the crush plate if possible.
Check this bolt length carefully so thread engagement is adequate. Longer bolts can be obtained from a local hardware store or aircraft supply house.
17A - 02- 40
Level  1  2  3
Assure yourself that the mounting bolts and nuts clear all airframe bearings, bolts, etc. in the vicinity. Also check for adequate structural and ground
clearance at the blade tip.
Align one pair of these tabs with a blade bolt head.
Now the spinner can be snapped on by exactly centering it on the hub and hard slapping or bumping it on the nose.
Do not let one side start in before you push it on, or it will not snap in place. A hard hand slap on the side will remove the spinner after it is mounted on
the airplane.
Caution:
If you install the spinner on a hub half before the prop is assembled, you may have to clamp the hub half in a vise to remove the spinner.
Warning:
The spinner should not be used on tractor installations. If it comes off, blade damage could affect performance during a critical phase of flight.
Spinners have four small tabs on the inside rim.
17A - 02- 41

Mo Dule 1 7A - 02 Propeller: Propellerconstruction

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 17A - Propeller

Category  A  B1  B2  B3 02 – Propeller construction

I. BLADE STATION, BLADE FACE, BLADE SHANK AND HUB ASSEMBLY.......................................................................................................................... 4

I. BLADE STATION, BLADE FACE, BLADE SHANK AND HUB ASSEMBLY

Parts of propeller blades

1.1. Hub assembly:

1.2. Three blade, constant speed propeller hub assembly:

1.3. Hub assembly example:

Hub assembly example

1.2.3. Alternative method:

1.1. Wooden fixed pitch propellers:

Fixed pitch wooden propeller

1.2. Construction of traditional wood propeller:

1.3. Composite wood propellers:

2.2. Properties of composite propellers:

2.1.2. Propeller life:

Example of leading edge stainless protections

4. DESIGN AND PRODUCTION:

Design and production

4.2. The number of blades:

4.3. The velocity:

4.4. The diameter:

4.5. Lift and drag distributions

4.4. The fluid density:

III. FIXED PITCH, CONTROLABLE PITCH, CONSTANT SPEEDING PROPELLER

1. FIXED PITCH PROPELLER:

Fixed pitch propeller

Two-blade fixed-pitch propeller

3. CONSTANT SPEED OR AUTOMATIC PROPELLER:

Adjustable speed propeller

Aircraft 610 Lycoming adjustable propeller system

Mechanism of change of pitch of a counterweight propeller

3.2. Cuffs of feet of blades:

IV. PROPELLER/SPINNER INSTALLATION

2.3. Spinner installation:

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